WORKS  OF  HALBERT  P.  GILLETTE 


EARTHWORK  AND   ITS   COST;    A  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH 
EXCAVATION. 

1350  pages,  illustrated,   flexible  binding,   4%  x  7  in $6.00 

ROCK  EXCAVATION  ;   METHODS  AND  COST. 

840  pages,  184  illustrations,  flexible  binding,  4%  x7  in.  .$6.00 

CLEARING  AND  GRUBBING  ;  METHODS  AND  COST. 

240  pages,   67  illustrations,   4%  x  7  in $2.50 

HANDBOOK  OF  COST  DATA. 

A    reference    book,    giving    methods    of   construction    and 
actual    costs    of    materials    and    labor    on    numerous    civil 
engineering  works. 
Vol.      I,      1878      pages,      illustrated,      flexible      binding, 

4%  x  7   in $6.00 

Vol.  II,  in  preparation,  ready  early  in  1920. 

HANDBOOK  OF  MECHANICAL  AND  ELECTRICAL  COST  DATA. 

By  Halbert  P.  Gillette  and  Richard  T.  Dana. 
1750   pages,  illustrated,  4%  x7   in.,   flexible  binding.  ..  .$6.00 

COST  KEEPING  AND  MANAGEMENT  ENGINEERING. 

By  Halbert  P.  Gillette  and  Richard  T.  Dana. 
A  treatise  for  engineers  and  contractors. 
360   pages,  184  illustrations,  cloth,   6x9   in $4.00 

CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION  ;  METHODS  AND  COST. 

By  Halbert  P    Gillette  and  Charles  S.  Hill 
A  treatise  on  concrete  and  reinforced  concrete  structures 
of  every   kind. 
700  pages,  306  illustrations,  cloth,   6  x  9  in $5.00 

ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  ;   METHODS  AND  COST. 

By  Halberl  P.  Gillette  and  Charles  R.  Thomas 
In  preparation,  over  800  pages,  illustrated,  flexible  bind- 
ing,  4%  x  7  in. 


EAETHWORK  AND  ITS 
COST 

A  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


BY 
H ALBERT  POWERS  GILLETTE 

Editor  of  Engineering  and  Contracting 

Member  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  American 

Institute  of  Mining  Engineers.  American 

Association  of  Engineers,  Western 

Society  of  Engineers. 


THIRD  EDITION 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  INC. 

239  WEST  39xn  ST.,  NEW  YOHK 
LONDON:  HILL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,  LTD. 

6    AND   8    BOUVERIK   ST.,    E.  C. 

1920 


Copyright,  1920 
CLARK  BOOK  COMPANY,  INC. 


tetttov  ii^iJir-Lurn 


PREFACE  AND  INTRODUCTION 

With  respect  to  books  on  "  methods  and  costs,"  three  errors  are 
commonly  made  by  those  who  might  profit  from  such  books. 
First,  that  much  of  the  text  is  out  of  date  when  it  is  ten  or  more 
years  old.  Second,  that  published  unit  costs  are  of  little  or  no 
use,  especially  if  wages  and  prices  have  changed  since  the  pub- 
lication. Third,  that  the  study  of  methods  and  "  tricks  of  the 
trade  "  is  not  a  very  good  mental  training. 

Taking  the  last  of  these  errors  first,  we  find  that  many  profes- 
sors of  civil  engineering  still  have  a  somewhat  exaggerated  ad- 
miration for  "  general  principles,"  coupled  with  an  equally  exag- 
gerated contempt  for  "  practical  details  "  as  mental  food  for  their 
students.  Professors  of  mining  engineering  have  erred  in  this 
manner  with  much  less  frequency,  probably  because  their  primary 
aim  has  been  to  train  men  for  managerial  positions  rather  than 
as  designers.  It  was  my  good  fortune  to  take  a  course  in  mining 
engineering  under  Prof.  Henry  S.  Munroe  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. Part  of  that  course  consisted  of  lectures  on  the  methods  and 
costs  of  excavation,  followed  by  two  summers  spent  in  mining  in 
Michigan  and  Pennsylvania.  Thus  I  formed  the  habit  of  observ- 
ing, analyzing  and  comparing  excavation  methods  and  costs  under 
varying  conditions.  To  the  formation  of  that  valuable  habit, 
and  an  extension  of  it  to  other  kinds  of  construction  work,  I  owe 
in  large  measure  my  subsequent  success  in  the  field  of  civil  engi- 
neering. I  mention  this  to  indicate  the  mental-training  value  of 
collecting  and  analyzing  cost  data. 

If  some  professors  of  civil  engineering  are  making  a  mistake  in 
not  training  students  as  analysts  of  costs  and  observers  of  meth- 
ods, an  equally  serious  mistake  is  made  by  contractors  and  super- 
intendents of  construction.  These  men  are  justly  proud  of  their 
"  practical  knowledge,"  by  which  they  usually  mean  only  the 
knowledge  gained  by  their  own  experience.  They  usually  fail  to 
realize  that  ttie  experiences  of  hundreds  of  other  men,  just  as 
"  practical  "  as  they  are,  have  been  recorded  in  print,  often  in  very 
great  detail.  Surely  it  can  not  be  their  contention  that  printed 
information  as  to  money-saving  methods  and  machines  is  useless 
to  "practical  men";  yet,  were  we  to  judge  merely  by  their  ten- 
dency not  to  read  such  matter,  we  should  conclude  that  among 


PREFACE  AND  INTRODUCTION 

"  practical  men  "  there  is  scant  respect  for  the  printed  page.  I 
prefer  to  think  that  this  seeming  lack  of  respect  is  ascribable 
mainly  to  bad  habits  rather  than  to  illogical  thinking.  "  Prac- 
tical men  "  usually  have  not  formed  the  good  habit  of  systemat- 
ically reading  practical  books  and  articles.  A  few  still  labor 
under  the  delusion  that  there  are  no  such  books  and  articles,  but 
most  of  them  are  habituated  to  field  work,  and  not  at  all  habitu- 
ated to  book  work.  The  trouble  lies  there,  and  the  cure  of  it  — 
if  cure  there  is  to  be  —  is  in  the  medicine  that  such  books  as  this 
contain. 

As  to  the  out-of-dateness  of  old  text,  and  particularly  of  old 
cost  data:  Sixteen  years  ago  the  first  edition  of  this  book  was 
published.  I  have  retained  three-fourths  of  ihat  old  book  in 
this  third  edition,  yet  most  of  the  matter  in  that  first  edition 
was  fully  ten  years  old  when  the  first  edition  was  printed.  As 
one  example,  I  have  used  cost  data  published  by  Elwood  Morris 
in  1841,  because  neither  the  tools  (drag  scrapers)  nor  the  methods 
described  by  him  have  changed  materially.  In  another  instance, 
and  for  a  similar  reason,  I  have  referred  to  cost  data  published 
by  George  J.  Specht  in  1885;  his  data  related  to  fresno  scraper 
work,  and  are  as  useful  today  as  they  were  35  years  ago. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  new  machines  and  improved  methods 
are  constantly  being  introduced,  old  devices  and  methods  fre- 
quently continue  to  be  economic  under  certain  conditions.  The 
Chinese  are  credited  with  the  invention  of  the  wheelbarrow  count- 
less centuries  ago,  yet  it  remains  a  useful  tool  to  this  day.  I 
venture  to  say  that  if  we  were  to  find  ancient  but  complete  Chi- 
nese cost  data  on  shoveling  and  wheeling  earth,  we  could  apply 
those  data  now.  Yet  common  labor  wage  rates  in  China  might 
have  been  only  a  twentieth  or  a  thirtieth  of  what  they  are  in 
America  today.  The  point  that  I  wish  to  make  is  this:  Complete 
and  well-analyzed  cost  data  contain  the  number  of  hours  or  days 
work  per  unit  (such  as  the  cubic  yard)  of  work  done,  together 
with  a  statement  of  conditions.  Hence  any  change  in  wage  rates 
does  not  destroy  the  value  of  such  cost  data,  for  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  substitute  existing  wage  rates  and  calculate  the  present 
cost. 

In  the  preface  of  the  first  edition  I  said: 

"  There  are  few  engineering  works  of  magnitude  that  do  not 
involve  the  excavation  of  earth.  Indeed,  the  cost*  of  earthwork 
forms  one  of  the  greatest  of  cost  items  in  canal,  in  reservoir  and 
in  railway  construction,  nor  is  it  an  inconsiderable  item  in  the 
construction  of  roads,  sewers  or  water  works.  What  will  this 
excavation  cost?  This  is  a  question  that  the  engineer  first  asks 
himself  in  making  his  preliminary  estimates.  Later  the  same 


PREFACE  AND  INTRODUCTION. 

question  confronts  the  contractor.  To  the  engineer  an  erroneous 
answer  may  mean  loss  of  reputation;  to  the  contractor  it  as- 
suredly means  ruin  where  the  work  is  extensive.  A  glance  at  the 
wide  range  in  contract  bids  for  most  earthwork  jobs  will  convince 
any  one  that  few  contractors  do  more  than  guess  at  costs.  While 
the  numberless  engineering  structures  that  have  cost  more  than 
the  preliminary  estimates  prove  quite  as  conclusively  that  engi- 
neers too  often  guess  also. 

"  In  this  the  iirst  published  volume  treating  of  earth  economics 
in  a  comprehensive  way,  I  have  given  all  that  my  own  notes  could 
furnish  and  all  that  I  have  found  in  print  in  American  technical 
literature.  But  I  have  not  confined  the  exposition  to  a  bare  re- 
cital of  facts  and  figures,  since  the  principal  aim  has  been  to 
outline  rational  methods  and  rules  to  be  used  in  cost  calculation." 

Shortly  after  the  first  edition  was  published,  a  non-technical 
friend  remarked :  "  I  am  amazed  at  your  being  able  to  find  enough 
matter  to  fill  200  pages  on  dirt."  Whether  his  amazement  would 
now  be  six-fold  as  great  as  then,  one  can  but  guess.  His  surprise, 
however,  is  typical  of  that  of  almost  every  non-technical  man  on 
first  looking  into  the  literature  of  a  narrowly  technical  subject 
like  earthwork.  I  could  easily  have  doubled  the  size  of  this  book, 
without  going  outside  the  best  articles  that  have  been  published 
during  the  last  thirteen  and  one-half  years  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting  under  my  editorial  direction.  But  the  limited  de- 
mand for  expensive,  large  books  of  this  character  necessitates  a 
restriction  in  size.  However,  quite  a  complete  bibliography  is 
given  at  the  end  of  each  chapter,  by  which  readers  may  be  guided 
to  many  excellent  articles  on  earthwork  not  abstracted  in  this 
book. 

For  assistance  in  abstracting  articles  and  compiling  data  for 
this  book,  I  wish  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  Arthur  P. 
Ackerman  and  H.  C.  Lyons. 

HALBERT  P.  GILLETTE. 

Chicago,  111.,  Feb.  23,  1920. 


425852 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGES 

I     PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH 1-18 

Kinds  of  Earth,  1;  Weight  of  Soils,  4;  Voids  in  Dry  Earth. 
5;  Frost  Penetration,  6;  Angle  of  Repose,  7;  Greatest  Height 
of  Vertical  Bank,  7 ;  Shrinkage,  8 ;  Swelling  of  Newly  Ex- 
cavated Material,  10;  Effect  of  Water  on  Clay  Shrinkage,  13; 
Shrinkage  of  Rolled  Earth  Embankment,  14;  Summary,  17; 
Bibliography,  18. 

II     MEASUREMENT,    CLASSIFICATION    AND    COST   ESTI- 
MATING          19-40 

Earthwork  Definitions,  19 ;  Measurement,  22 ;  Legality  of 
Methods  of  Calculating  Earthwork,  23 ;  Classification  of  Ex- 
cavation, 25 ;  Specifications  for  Classification  of  Excavation, 
26;  A  Classification  According  to  Difficulty  of  Picking,  27; 
Railway  Specifications  for  Classifications,  29 ;  The  Am.  Ry. 
Eng.  and  Manit.  W.  Asso.  Classification,  37;  Factors  Affecting 
Cost  of  Earthwork,  37;  Bibliography,  40. 

III  BORING  AND  SOUNDING 41-84 

Prospecting  or  Testing  Earth,  41 ;  Importance  of  Prospect- 
ing Excavations,  41 ;  Sounding,  42 ;  Devices  for  Sounding 
and  Sampling,  42 ;  Wash  Borings,  46 ;  Rigs  for  Wash  Bor- 
ings, 46 ;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Wash  Borings,  52 ;  Instruc- 
tions for  Inspectors  on  Wash  Boring,  Catskill  Aqueduct,  61 ; 
Boring  with  Augers,  64 ;  Auger  Boring  Devices,  64 ;  Auger 
Boring  Costs,  69 ;  Auger  Boring  with  Empire  Drill,  76 ;  Post- 
Hole  Diggers,  80;  Cable  Drills,  81;  Test  Pitting,  83;  Test 
Trenches,  83 ;  Bibliography,  84. 

IV  CLEARING  AND  GRUBBING 85-93 

Factors  in  Clearing  and  Grubbing  Costs,  85 ;  Types  of 
Roots,  86 ;  Estimating  Costs  of  Clearing  and  Grubbing,  86 ; 
Effects  of  Method  of  Excavation  on  Cost,  of  Grubbing,  88 ; 
Loss  of  Material  Due  to  Grubbing,  89 ;  Clearing  and  Grubbing 
Methods,  91 ;  Amount  of  Dynamite  Used  in  Stump  Blasting, 
91;  Bibliography,  93. 

V    LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH      ....     94-151 

Methods   of  Loosening  the  Soil,    94;    Cost  of  Picking,    94; 
Shoveling,   96;   Table  of  Cost  of  Digging  and  Shoveling,   97; 
Sizes  of  Hand  Shovels,  98 ;  Types  of  Shovels,  104 ;  Cost  Data 
ix 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

on  Hand  Excavation,  106;  Loosening  and  Shoveling  Sticky 
Clay,  107;  Rating  Table  for  Excavation  with  Pick  and  Shovel, 
110;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Hand  Excavation,  115;  Plows  and 
Plowing,  119;  Dynamometer  Test  on  Plows,  123;  Traction 
Plowing,  124;  Loosening  with  Explosives,  126;  Excavating 
Holes  with  Explosives,  128;  Ditching  with  Dynamite,  132; 
Treatment  of  Frozen  Ground,  140;  Bibliography,  151. 

VI     SPREADING,   TRIMMING  AND   ROLLING   EARTH      .    152-164 

Spreading,  152;  Surfacing  and  Dressing  Earthwork,  153; 
Trimming,  154;  Trimming  and  Seeding  Slopes,  156;  Ram- 
ming and  Rolling,  157;  Sprinkling,  157;  Smoothing  and 
Leveling  Farm  Land,  159;  Smoothing  Devices  Used  in  Pre- 
paring Land  for  Irrigation,  160 ;  Bibliography,  164. 

VII     HAULING    IN    BARROWS,    CARTS,    WAGONS,    AND 

TRUCKS    . 165-229 

Lead  and  Haul,  165;  Types  of  Wheelbarrows.  168;  Ca- 
pacity of  Wheelbarrows,  169;  Examples  of  Wheelbarrow 
Work,  170;  Station  Work  on  a  Railway  Embankment.  173; 
Carts,  175;  Cost  with  Carts,  177;  Examples  of  Work  with 
Carts,  178;  Types  of  Wagons,  179;  Dump  Boxes,  182; 
Wagon  Work,  184;  Rule  for  Cost  of  Work  with  Wagons, 
186;  Work  of  Teams,  187;  Use  of  Snatch  Teams,  188;  Mov- 
able Hopper  for  Excavated  Material,  190 ;  Car  Side  Wagon 
Loaders,  192;  Example  of  Wagon  Work.  197;  Traps  for 
Loading  Wagons,  199 ;  Handling  Teams  with  a  Jerk  Line, 
208;  Wagon  Train  Haulage  with  Motor  Trucks,  210;  Types 
of  Tractors,  215;  Analysis  of  Hauling  Costs,  224;  Bibli- 
ography, 229. 

VIII     METHODS  AND  COSTS  WITH  ELEVATING  GRADERS 

AND  WAGON  LOADERS 230-240 

Rule  for  Cost  with  Elevating  Grader,  231;  Widening 
Wheels  of  Graders  for  Work  Over  Soft  Ground,  234;  Method 
of  Using  Elevating  Graders  on  Earth  Roads,  234 ;  Examples 
of  Elevating  Grader  Work.  235;  Tractors  for  Pulling  Grad- 
ers, 243;  Various  Types  of  Wagon  Loaders,  244;  Bibli- 
ography, 249. 

IX     METHODS     AND     COSTS     WITH     SCRAPERS     AND 

GRADERS        250-334 

Buck  Scrapers,  250;  Drag  Scrapers,  254;  Examples  Drag 
Scraper  Work,  256 ;  Pushing  Scrapers,  259 ;  Fresno  Scraper, 
261;  Examples  of  Fresno  Scraper  Work,  264;  Wheel 
Scrapers,  274;  Hints  on  Handling  Wheelers,  277;  Examples 
of  Wheel  Scraper  WTork,  280;  Economic  Handling  of  Earth 
in  Wheel  and  Fresno  Scrapers,  300;  Doubletrees  and  Eveners, 
306,  307;  Bonus  System  on  Scraper  Work,  308;  Keeping 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

Cost  of  Scraper  Work,  310;  Four  Wheel  Scrapers,  312;  Ex- 
amples of  Work  and  Costs  with  Four  Wheel  Scrapers,  317; 
Road  Graders,  320 ;  Smoothing  Machines,  322 ;  Examples  of 
Work  with  Road  Graders,  323;  Tractor  Grading,  327;  Earth 
Moving  Methods  and  Equipment  for  Road  Construction,  331 ; 
Bibliography,  334 


X     METHODS  AND  COSTS  WITH  CABS   .  .  .      .      .      .   335-386 

General  Types  of  Contractor's  Cars,  335;  Track  Throwing 
Car,  339;  Switch  for  Narrow  Gauge  Tracks,  339;  Use  of 
Cars,  341;  Cars  Moved  by  Hand,  344;  Horse  Drawn  Cars, 
345 ;  Rule  for  Cost  of  Work  with  Cars,  346 ;  Comparative 
Cost  with  Wheelers  and  Cars,  347;  Motor  Truck  Hauling  In- 
dustrial Railway  Cars,  348 ;  Hauling  with  Dinkeys,  349 ; 
Types  of  Light  Locomotives,  352 ;  Resistance  to  Rolling  Fric- 
tion, 352;  Water  and  Fuel  Consumption  of  Locomotives,  354; 
Examples  of  Cost  with  Horse  Drawn  Cars,  356;  Examples  of 
Hauling  Costs  with  Dinkeys,  358;  Hauling  with  Gasoline 
Mine  Locomotives,  363;  Mine  Haulage  with  Mules  and  Elec- 
tric Locomotives,  364;  Central-Control  Electric  Car  Haulage, 
366;  Cars  Hauled  by  Cables,  368;  Life  of  Cable  on  Engine 
Incline,  372;  Car  Unloaders,  372;  Method  of  Handling  Un- 
loader  Plow  Cables,  375;  Recommendations  for  Using  Cars 
on  Steam  Shovel  Work,  376;  Lloyd  Unloading  Machine,  378; 
Comparative  Cost  of  Hauling  Earth  in  Flat  and  Dump  Cars, 
381;  Unloading  Cars  to  Bins  in  Small  Space,  382;  Unload- 
ing Cars  by  Sluicing,  384;  Spreaders,  384;  Cost  of  Spread- 
ing with  Jordan  Spreader,  385;  Bibliography,  386. 

XI     METHODS   AND   COSTS   WITH    STEAM   AND   ELEC- 
TRIC  SHOVELS 387-557 

Types  of  Shovels,  387;  How  to  Handle  Steam  Shovel  Plant, 
387;  Widening  Railway  Cuts,  389;  Cutting  Down  Railway 
Grades,  391;  Railway  Construction  Work,  894;  Canal  Ex- 
cavation, 396 ;  Analysis  of  Costs  of  Steam  Shovel  Work,  400, 
403 ;  Repairs  to  Steam  Shovels,  Cars,  and  Locomotives  on  the 
Panama  Canal,  413  ;  Prices  of  Standard  Railway  Shovels,  418  ; 
Steam  Shovel  Dippers  and  Dipper  Trips,  420 ;  Rail  Clamps, 
424;  Specifications  for  Steam  Shovel  Construction,  428;  Rec- 
ommended Practice  in  Steam  Shovel  Operation,  430 ;  Man- 
agement of  Steam  Shovel  Work  434 ;  Brief  Examples 
of  Steam  Shovel  Work,  Time  Study  Costs,  440-466; 
Hints  on  Steam  Shovel  Work,  466;  Moving  Steam  Shovels, 
472 ;  Examples  of  Cost  Work,  with  Standard  Railway  Shovels, 
474;  Non-Revolving  Traction  Shovels,  507;  Examples  of  Cost 
of  Work  with  Non-Revolving  Traction  Shovels,  508 ;  Large 
Revolving  Shovels,  510;  Railroad  Ditchers  and  Locomotive 
Crane  Shovels,  515;  Handling  Material  with  Double  Ditcher 
Train,  515;  Small  Revolving  Shovels,  516;  Examples  of  Cost 
of  Work  with  Small  Revolving  Shovels,  519;  Electrically  Oper- 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

ated  Shovels,  541;  Comparison  of  Steam  and  Electrically  Op- 
erated Shovels,  543  ;  Power  Consumption  of  Electric  Shovels, 
545;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  Electric  Shovels,  547; 
Excavating  Machines  of  the  Steam  Shovel  Type,  554;  Bibli- 
ography, 557. 

XII     METHODS  AND  COSTS  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND 

DUMP   BUCKETS 558-574 

Classification  of  Buckets,  558 ;  Skips,  558 ;  Foundation  Ex- 
cavation with  Derricks  and  Car  Bodies,  559;  Trunion  Buck- 
ets Loading  Wagons  through  a  Hopper,  560;  Bottom  Dump 
Buckets,  565 ;  Three  Types  of  Buckets  on  Sewer  Work,  565 ; 
Orange-Peel  Buckets,  567;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with 
Orange-Peel  Buckets,  568;  Clam  Shell  Buckets,  570;  Ex- 
amples-of  Cost  of  Work  with  Clam  Shell  Buckets,  571;  Bibli- 
ography, 574. 

XIII  METHODS  AND  COSTS  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CON- 

VEYORS        575-014 

Economic  Use  of  Cableways,  576;  Cableway  Costs,  576; 
Cableway  Systems,  576;  Coasting  Cableway,  583;  Balanced 
Cable  Crane,  -585 ;  Combination  Cableway  and  Derrick,  586 ; 
Life  of  Main  Cable,  586;  Skip  Dumping  Device,  587;  Drag- 
line Cableway  Excavators,  588 ;  Cableway  Scraper  Excavators, 
589;  Cost  of  a  Tower  Scraper  Excavator,  594 ;  Examples  of 
Cost  of  Work  with  Cableways,  596;  Dragline  Cableway  on  • 
Levee  Work,  603  ;  Belt  Conveyors,  603 ;  Capacity  of  Belt  Con- 
veyor, 604;  Life  of  Belt  Conveyor,  604;  Examples  of  Cost  of 
Work  with  Belt  Conveyors,  605 ;  Bucket  Conveyors,  613 ; 
Bibliography,  614. 

XIV  METHODS  AND  COSTS  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS  615-668 

Bottomless  Power  Scrapers,  615;  Overburden  Stripping 
with  Bottomless  Bucket,  616;  Power  Scraper  and  Wagon 
Loader,  619;  Leveling  Ground  with  Power  Scraper,  623; 
Loading  Wheel  Scrapers  with  an  Engine,  627;  Walking  and 
Caterpillar  Traction  for  Draglines,  633  ;  Dredging  Gravel  with 
a  Weeks  Bucket,  639 ;  Dragline  Excavator  Buckets,  643 ; 
Planking  for  Dragline  Work  over  Soft  Ground,  645 ;  Ex- 
amples of  Cost  of  Work  with  Dragline  Excavators,  648 ;  Elec- 
tric Dragline  Excavators,  657;  Steam  and  Electric  Draglines 
on  N.  Y.  Barge  Canal,  662;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with 
Electric  Draglines,  663;  Bibliography,  668. 

XV    METHODS  AND  COSTS  OF  DREDGING 669-765 

Classification  of  Dredges,  669 ;  Capacities  of  Dredges,  669  ; 
Cost  per  Ton  of  Dredge  Construction,  669 ;  Relative  Merits  of 
Different  Types  of  Dredges,  Selecting  a  Dredge,  671 ; 


CONTENTS  xi'ii 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

American  and  European  Practice  Compared  with  Regard  to 
Dredging  ,  677;  Government  Dredging  vs.  Contract  Dredging, 
677  Bucket  Dredges,  678;  Storage  Drum  for  Dredge  Cable, 
681  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  Clam  Shell  Dredges, 
681  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  Orange-Peel  Dredges, 
685  Dipper  Dredges,  686 ;  Conditions  Favorable  to  the  Dip- 
per Dredge,  688 ;  Cost  of  a  Dipper  Dredge,  688 ;  Aligning  a 
Dredge  in  a  Canal,  690 ;  Dredging  with  Steam  Shovel 
Mounted  on  Hull,  693  ;  Hydraulic  Jet  Equipment  for  Leveling 
Spoil  Banks,  695 ;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  Dipper 
Dredges,  667;  Ladder  Dredges,  704;  Dredging  Silt  Bars  with 
Ladder  Dredge,  705 ;  Trestle  Filling  with  Ladder  Dredge, 
708;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  Ladder  Dredges,  709; 
Gold  Dredges,  718 ;  Hydraulic  Suction  Dredges,  718 ;  Float- 
ing Pipe  Line,  720;  Depth  at  which  Suction  Dredge  Can 
WTork,  721;  Hydraulic  Pipe  Line  Dredge  Compared  to  Clam 
Shell  Dredge,  721;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  Sea  Going 
Hopper  Dredges,  724;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  Hy- 
draulic Pipe  Line  Dredges,  733 ;  Cost,  Life,  and  Repairs  of 
Barges,  Tow-boats  and  Dredges,  753 ;  Cost  of  Year's  Opera- 
tion of  Marine  PlaniJ  for  Construction  of  Lincoln  Park 
Extension,  Chicago,  759 ;  Bibliography,  764. 


XVI     METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING     ....   766-902 

Definitions  of  trench  and  ditch,  766 ;  Trench  Excavation  by 
Hand,  767;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Trenching  by  Hand,  772; 
Trenching  for  Tile  Drains,  775 ;  Derricks  and  Locomotive 
Cranes  on  Trench  Work,  778;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Trenching 
with  Derricks,  779 ;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Trenching  with 
Orange-Peel  and  Clam  Shell  Buckets,  783;  Trenching  with 
Dragline  Excavator,  786;  Trenching  with  Steam  Shovels, 
786;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  Steam  Shovels,  795; 
Trenching  with  Special  Machines,  807;  Examples  of  Cost  with 
Carson  Trench  Machine,  810;  Examples  of  Cost  with  Potter 
Trenching  Machine,  813;  The  Moore  Trench  Machine,  818; 
The  Parsons  Trench  Excavator,  821;  P.  &  H.  Trench  Ex- 
cavators, 825 ;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Work  with  P.  &  H. 
Trench  Excavators,  827;  Examples  of  Cost  with  Austin 
Trench  Excavators,  833;  The  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher,  839; 
Cost  of  Work  with  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher,  839;  The  Hov- 
land  Tile  Ditcher,  843 ;  Trench  Excavating  by  Hydraulicking, 
845;  Methods  of  Sheeting  and  Bracing,  846;  Examples  of 
Cost  of  Sheeting,  853;  Methods  and  Costs  of  Trench  Pump- 
ing, 862  ;  Examples  of  Cost  of  Pumping,  863  ;  Treatment  of 
Quicksand,  868 ;  Bleeding  Wet  Sand,  870 ;  Backfilling 
Trenches,  884;  Methods  and  Costs  of  Backfilling,  887;  Back- 
filling Machines,  892;  Puddling  Backfill,  896;  Cost  of  Back- 
filling and  Tamping,  897;  Tamping  Machine,  899;  Rolling 
Backfill,  901;  Bibliography,  902. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

XVII     DITCHES  AND  CANALS 903-1003 

Types  of  Ditches,  903 ;  Reducing  the  Cost  of  Drainage 
Excavation,  905 ;  Special  Ditching  Machines,  909 ;  Examples 
of  Cost  of  Operating  Wheel  Type  Excavators,  910;  Tem- 
plate Excavators,  915;  Walking  or  Land  Dredges,  921; 
Ditching  with  Capstan  Plows,  927;  Ditching  by  Explosives, 
933;  Ditch  Excavation  by  Scrapers,  937;  Examples  of  Cost 
of  Irrigation  Canals,  938 ;  Use  of  Elevating  Graders  in 
Ditching,  947 ;  Examples  of  Ditching  with  Dragline  Exca- 
vators, 950;  Floating  Dredges  for  Ditching,  954;  Cutting  1 
to  1  slopes  with  a  Dipper  Dredge,  956;  Ditch  Excavation  by 
Natural  Erosion,  962;  Railroad  Ditcher,  965;  Examples  of 
Use  of  Railway  Ditchers,  966 ;  Ditching  with  Electrically  Op- 
erated Railway  Ditcher,  969;  Highway  Ditches,  972;  Gopher 
Ditches,  973;  Maintenance  of  Ditches  and  Canals,  974; 
Grades  Required  for  Self-Cleaning  Ditches,  975 ;  Combat- 
ing Weeds  Along  Irrigation  Canals,  977;  Navigable  Canals, 
980;  The  Chicago  Drainage  Canal,  981;  New  York  State 
Barge  Canal  Work,  986;  Work  on  North  Shore  Channel,  Chi- 
cago, 994;  Cost  of  Excavation  on  Colbert  Shoals  Canal,  Ala., 
1001;  Bibliography,  1003. 

XVIII     HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING  .      .      .   1 004-1 08G 

Methods  of  Hydraulic  Excavation,  1004;  Hydraulic  Giants, 
1004;  Bed-Rock  Sluices,  1004;  Carrying  Capacity  of  Water, 
1005 ;  Volume  of  Water  for  Hydraulicldng,  1009 ;  Ditches 
and  Flumes,  1009;  Hydraulic  Elevator  Work  in  Alaska, 
1013;  Pipe  lines  for  Hydraulic  Mining,  1016;  Simple  Tim- 
,  ber  Flume,  1019;  Sluicing  Sand  and  Gravel  in  Steel-lined 
Flumes,  1023;  Methods  of  Working  Placer  Gravel,  1026; 
Range  of  Cost  of  Hydraulic  Mining,  1032;  Grading  River 
Banks  with  Water  Jet,  1036;  Stripping  Gravel  Pits  by  Hy- 
draulic Methods,  1038 ;  Stripping  Shale  Pits,  1043 ;  Removing 
a  Land  Slide  by  Hydraulic  Jetting,  1048 ;  Excavating  a 
Canal  by  Hydraulicking,  1050 ;  Hydraulic  Fills  on  Railway 
Trestles,  1051;  The  Sheerboard  Method  of  Retaining  Wet 
Earth,  1056;  Hydraulic  Methods  of  Building  Dams,  1058; 
Hydraulic  Grading  of  Westover  Terraces,  Portland  Ore'.,  1075 
The  Denny  Hill  Regrade,  Seattle,  1081;  Bibliography,  1086. 

XIX     ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS       .      .      .   1087-1146 

Method  of  Determining  Subsidence  and  Shrinkage,  1088; 
Tamping  Roller  for  Embankments,  1090;  Road  Work  with 
Power  Machinery,  1091;  Road  Embankments  over  Marshy 
Ground,  1092 ;  Compression  of  Marsh  Soil,  1098 ;  Railway 
Embankments,  1098;  Subsidence  Investigations  of  Railway 
Embankments,  1099;  Temporary  Trestles,  1102;  Movable 
Trestles  for  Bank  Construction,  1105;  Suspension  Bridge 
Trestles,  1106;  Dragline  Excavators  for  Railway  Grading, 
1115;  Building  Railway  Embankments  with  Hydraulic 


CONTENTS  xv 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

Dredges,  1116;  Filling  Trestles  by  Sluicing,  1119;  Support- 
ing Construction  Track  on  Ice,  1120;  Placing  Railroad  Fill 
from  Floating  Trestle,  1121;  Cost  of  Widening  Embank- 
ments, 1123  ;  Cost  of  Transporting  Men,  Tools  and  Supplies 
for  Railway  Grading,  1130;  Cost  of  Railway  Grading  by 
Steam  Shovel.  1132;  Cost  of  Raising  a  Railway  Embank- 
ment, 1136;  Manner  of  Filling  a  75  Ft.  Trestle,  1139;  Drag 
and  Wheel  Scraper  Work  on  North  Carolina  Railway,  1140; 
Bibliography,  1145. 

XX     DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS  .    1147-1246 

Design  of  Earth  Dams,  General  Considerations,  1147;  Per- 
meability of  Concrete  and  Puddle  Walls  in  Earth  Dams, 
1151;  Examples  of  Types  of  Earth  Dams,  1152;  Determining 
the  Percolation  Factor,  1163;  Shrinkage  of  Earth  in  Dam, 
1164;  The  Tabeaud  Dam,  1165;  Use  of  Goats  for  Com- 
pacting Puddle,  1170;  Earth  Dam  Compacted  by  Irrigation 
FJooding,  1171;  Elevating  Graders  on  the  Stanley  Lake  Dam, 
1173;  Embankment  for  an  Oil-Storage  Reservoir,  1175; 
Rolling  Reservoir  Embankment  Slopes,  1178;  Cost  of  Em- 
bankment and  Puddle  for  a  Settling  Basin,  1181;  Earth  Dam 
at  Springfield,  Mass.,  1182;  Belle  Fourche  Dam,  Excavating 
Methods  and  Costs,  1191;  Cold  Springs  Earth  Dam,  Oregon, 
1197;  Construction  of  the  Kachess  Lake  Dam,  1202;  Con- 
structing Embankment  for  Hill  View  Reservoir,  N.  Y.,  1206; 
Dams  of  Boulder  Filled  Wire  Baskets,  1208 ;  Temporary  Hy- 
draulic Fill  Dam  Across- the  Colorado  River,  1210;  Cost  of 
Earth  Embankment  with  Gravel  Facing,  1213;  Placing  Pud- 
dle in  a  Cofferdam  by  Pumping,  1215;  Embankment  for  the 
Yale  Bowl,  1217;  Hydraulic  Fill  Dams,  1220;  Hydraulick- 
ing  the  Concully  Dam,  1221;  Hydraulicking  the  Bear  Creek 
Dam,  1227;  Dam  Construction  by  Cars  and  Hydraulicking, 
123 f ;  Examples  of  Other  Dams  Built  by  Hydraulicking, 
12  .'8 ;  Accidents  to  Earth  Dams,  1243;  Bibliography,  1245. 

XXI     DIKES  AND  LEVEES 1247-1275 

The  Location  of  Levees,  1247;  Design  of  Dikes  for  Salt 
March  Reclamation,  1248;  Levee  Sections  on  the  Mississippi 
and  Sacramento  Rivers,  1249;  Enlarging  and  Slope  Walling 
a  Levee  on  the  Wabash  River,  1251;  Levee  Construction 
by  Dragline  Excavators,  Little  River  Drainage  District,  Mo., 
1252;  Levee  Construction  in  Texas  with  'Draglines,  1254; 
Machines  for  Building  Levees,  1255 ;  Building  Levees  with 
Hydraulic  Dredge,  1262 ;  Sand  Core  Levees  in  California, 
1272;  Bibliography,  1275. 

XXII     SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 1276-1327 

General  Discussion,  1276;  The  Cause  and  Cure  of  Slides, 
1277;  Land  Slide  at  Mount  Vernon,  1279;  Extensive  Earth 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

Slip  Near  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  1279;  Land  Slide  at  Bulls  Bridge 
Hydro-Electric  Plant,  1280;  Remarkable  Land  Slide  at  Port- 
land, Oregon,  1284;  Treatment  of  Railway  Slides,  1288; 
Preventing  Slips  on  Railways,  1290;  Drainage  Tunnel  to 
Stop  Sliding  Clay,  1292;  Treatment  of  a  Wet  Cut,  1294; 
A  Scoop  Car  for  Handling  Railway  Slides,  1297;  Holding 
Slides  by  Piles,  1300 ;  Stopping  a  Slide  by  the  Use  of  Ex- 
plosives. 1305;  European  Railway  Practice  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  S'ides,  1306 ;  Stopping  Slips  on  the  Nottingham  and 
Melton  Ry.,  1321;  Improving  Sliding  Material  by  Burning, 
1323 ;  The  Drainage  of  a  German  Railway  Embankment, 
1325;  Bibliography,  1327. 


.  »••     :jj 


CHAPTER,^  X1-  : 

PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH 

Composition  of  Earth.  Earths  or  soils  are  the  insoluble  resi- 
dues from  the  weathering  of  rocks.  Soils  from  whatever  source 
derived  are  mixtures  of  sands  and  clays,  and  they  differ  princi- 
pally in  the  relative  proportions  of  sand  or  siliceous  material 
to  the  clay  or  argillaceous  matter,  and  in  the  size  of  the  grains. 
Residual  soils  are  more  varying  in  composition  than  soils  that 
have  been  transported  by  water.  The  further  and  oftener  a  soil 
has  been  transported  the  more  complete  the  separation  of  the 
clay  from  the  sand. 

Clay  is  generally  the  result  of  the  decomposition  and  conse- 
quent hydration  of  feldspathic  rocks,  especially  granite  and 
gneiss.  Clays  from  these  sources  usually  contain  more  or  less 
siliceous  material;  and,  if  this  is  separated,  the  residuum  is 
found  to  consist  of  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina  with  more  or 
less  lime,  oxides  of  iron,  magnesia,  and  alkalies.  All  soils  found 
near  the  surface  of  the  earth  contain  more  or  less  organic  matter. 
Clay  is  often  the  residuum  of  limestone,  the  calcite  having  been 
dissolved  and  leached  out.  Marly  soils  are  the  remains  of  old 
shell  beds  that  have  decomposed  in  this  way. 

Earths,  therefore,  are  compositions  mainly  of  silica  and  sili- 
cates of  aluminum  and  other  metals. 

Kinds  of  Soils.  Soils  are  sometimes  named  from  the  rock 
from  which  they  have  been  derived;  thus,  a  soil  resulting  from 
decomposition  may  be  a  granite  soil,  limestone  soil,  etc.  More 
often,  however,  soils  that  have  been  transported  are  named  after 
the  agencies  involved  in  their  transportation;  as  glacial  soils;  or 
from  their  position,  as  terrace  soils;  or  from  their  characteristics, 
as  sandy  or  clayey  soils. 

The  term  loam  is  usually  applied  to  mixtures  of  sand  and 
clay  containing  organic  matter.  When  the  principal  constitu- 
ents of  a  loam  is  clay  it  is  termed  clayey  loam,  and  when  sand 
predominates,  sandy  loam. 

Many  local  terms  are  applied  to  soils,  and  there  is  much  varia- 
tion in  the  use  of  earth  and  soil  nomenclature,  thus  clay  is 
called  gumbo. 

Some  of  the  terms  applied  to  earth  and  soils  by  writers  on 
earthwork  are  as  follows: 

Adobe  is  the  name  given  to  a  calcareous  clay  of  a  general 
gray  brown  or  yellowish  color,  very  fine  grained  and  porous. 
This  material  forms  the  soil  of  a  large  portion  of  the  rainless 
region  of  the  United  States  in  Colorado,  Utah,  Nevada,  Southern 
California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Western  Texas.  It  ia 
derived  from  the  waste  of  surrounding  mountain  slopes. 

1 


2  _   t  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Alluvial  Soil  is  river-borne  material  consisting  of  mixtures  of 
sand  and  clay  in  varying  degrees  of  fineness.  It  is  usually  loose 
in  texture. 

Black-waxy  is  a  term  applied  to  certain  very  fertile  soils  in 
Texas.  They  are  a  mixture  of  clay  and  organic  matter,  black  in 
color  and  heavy  to  work. 

Buck  Shot  Clay  is  a  clay  containing  small  concretions 
cemented  with  calcareous  or  ferrous  material.  These  are  about 
the  size  of  buck- shot. 

Bull-Liver  is  a  term  applied  to  a  mixture  of  very  fine  sand, 
pulverized  limestone  and  water,  encountered  in  the  excavations 
for  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal.  (E.  R.  Shanable,  in  Trans. 
Asso.  Eng.  Soc.,  June,  1895.)  This  material  when  in  place  was 
very  tough  and  difficult  to  excavate. 

Catlinite,  or  Indian  pipe  stone,  is  an  indurated  clay  found  in 
the  Dakotas. 

Clay  is  a  mixture  of  finely  divided  silicates  of  aluminum,  iron, 
magnesium,  calcium,  and  other  metals.  It  seldom  occurs  without 
a  small  percentage  of  sand  which  has  a  greater  effect  on  its 
characteristics  than  its  chemical  composition. 

Glacial  Soil,  is  an  uneven  mixture  of  clay,  sand,  gravel  and 
boulders,  carried  and  deposited  by  prehistoric  glaciers.  It  is 
usually  loose  in  texture  but  is  sometimes  very  tough  and  even 
cemented. 

Gravel  is  any  soil  which  Is  composed  chiefly  of  small  stones. 
No  definite  line  can  be  drawn  between  sand,  gravel,  and  boulders ; 
but,  in  general,  material  passing  a  y^-in.  screen  would  be  counted 
sand,  and  stones  too  large  to  handle  on  a  hand  shovel  would  be 
called  bo  Iders.  Pure  gravel  is  loose  in  texture  and  easy  to  work. 
It  often  occurs  with  such  a  mixture  of  finer  materials  that  each 
stone  is  tightly  embedded.  In  this  condition  it  wTill  require 
picking. 

Gumbo  is  a  fine  clay.  It  is  extremely  sticky  and  difficult  to 
handle  when  wet. 

Hardpan  is  the  term  applied  to  any  extremely  compact  soil 
that  is  difficult  of  excavation.  Geologically  it  is  rock  in  the 
process  of  formation.  It  may  be  a  clay  that  has  become  hardened 
by  heat  or  pressure,  or  an  incipient  shale,  or  a  sand  or  gravel 
that  has  been  partially  cemented  by  small  amounts  of  iron 
oxide  or  carbonate  of  lime.  Glacial  deposits,  consisting  as  they 
often  do  of  nests  of  large  size  gravel  and  boulders  in  dense  sandy 
clay  beds,  are  often  spoken  of  as  hardpan.  Most  hardpans  do 
not  soften  under  the  action  of  water  when  first  taken  out  of 
the  p't,  but  after  being  exposed  to  the  air  until  dry  they  crumble 
rapul'y  i  to  ^jniite  fragments  when  submerged. 


PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH  3 

Kaolin  is  pure  aluminum  silicate.  Deposits  of  relative  purity 
are  worked  for  potters'  clay. 

Later-it e  is  a  red  furruginous  residual  clay  found  in  tropic  and 
semi-tropic  regions. 

Loam  is  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  containing  organic  matter. 
It  exists  practically  everywhere  as  the  top  soil  which  supports 
vegetation. 

Loess  is  a  clay,  similar  to  adobe  covering  wide  areas  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  It  is  in  general  wind-borne  material. 

Marl  is  a  clay  containing  much  calcium  carbonate,  the  result 
of  the  decomposition  of  old  shell  beds. 

Muck  is  a  term  applied  to  a  variety  of  material.  Thus  in 
tunneling  and  many  other  forms  of  excavation  the  excavated 
material  is  called  muck,  The  term  is  best  applied  to  the  slimy 
mud  from  pond  bottoms  and  to  similar  material. 

Muskeg  is  the  mixture  of  mud,  peat,  and  moss  that  occurs 
in  wide  areas  in  the  swamps  of  Canada  and  northern  United 
States. 

Peat  is  decayed  vegetable  matter.  Geologically  it  is  coal  in 
process  of  formation.  It  is  light  when  dried,  but  always  occurs 
in  a  water  soaked  condition. 

Quicksand  has  been  defined  as  a  mixture  of  fine  sand  with 
such  proportions  of  clay  and  loam  as  will  enable  the  mass  to 
retain  water.  The  true  quicksand,  however,  is  an  argillaceous 
material  containing  little  or  no  silica  or  grit,  and  is  usually 
leaden  in  color  in  its  natural,  water  soaked  state,  and  mainly 
white  when  thoroughly  deprived  of  water.  This  material  when 
wet  and  trampled  upon  begins  to  quake;  it  is  therefore  often 
called  quakesand.  If  after  having  reached  a  condition  where  it 
quakes,  it  is  left  quiescent  for  a  few  hours,  the  particles  settle 
down  and  expel  the  water,  and  it  again  becomes  firm. 

Three  rules  to  be  observed  in  excavating  quicksand  are  as 
follows :  ( 1 )  The  water  must  be  removed  promptly  and  thor- 
oughly; (2)  the  excavation  must  be  made  with  the  utmost  dis- 
patch; (3)  the  material  must  not  be  disturbed  after  it  begins 
to  quake. 

When  quicksand  is  encountered,  ample  dredging  and  pumping 
facilities  should  be  provided.  The  pumps  should  be  capable  of 
lifting  sand  as  well  as  water,  and  for  this  reason  pumps  of  the 
steam  siphon,  steam  vacuum,  pulsometer,  or  centrifugal  types 
are  preferable.  The  ability  of  a  pump  to  work  without  becoming 
clogged  is  of  much  greater  consequence  than  a  high  efficiency  in 
power  consumption. 

When  thoroughly  dry  quicksand  may  be  readily  excavated,  al- 
though at  times  it  becomes  so  hard  as  to  require  picking.  Lumps 


4        HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  apparently  dry  quicksand  may  be  made  "  quick "  by  the 
agitation  caused  through  handling  or  hauling,  and  become  diffi- 
cult to  remove  from  the  wagons  or  cars  in  which  they  have  been 
loaded. 

Sand  is  any  material  more  finely  divided  than  gravel  and  not 
a  fine  as  clay.  In  general  it  consists  of  silica  or  quartz  in 
very  small  fragments.  The  size,  shape,  and  gradations  of  fine- 
ness of  the  particles  have  an  influence  on  the  characteristics  of 
the  mass. 

Shale  is  clay  in  process  of  changing  to  rock.  It  is  usually 
soft  and  thinly  stratified  or  laminated. 

Sub-soil  is  the  soil  below  the  top  soil;  generally  the  material 
too  deep  to  be  disturbed  by  ordinary  plowing.  It  is  not  so  finely 
divided  as  the  top  soil  and  does  not  contain  as  much  organic 
matter. 

Top  Soil  is  the  upper  layer  of  soil  that  is  within  reach  of  ordi- 
nary plowing.  It  is  kept  loose  in  texture  by  the  growth  and 
decay  of  plant  roots. 

Wacke  is  a  compact,  dark  colored  clayey  soil  resulting  from 
the  decomposition  of  basaltic  rock. 

Weight  of  Soils.  Table  I  gives  the  weights  of  soils  according 
to  various  authorities. 

TABLE  I  —  WEIGHT  OF  SOILS 

Clays 
Description  Per  cu.  ft. 

Potters'  clay,   dry  and  solid,   T 119 

Potters'   clay  in  lumps,   T 63 

Heavy  clay,   S 75 

Half  sand,  half  clay,  S 96 

Clay,    M 63 

Gravel 

Pit  gravel,  B 

Gravel  mixed  with   clay,   B 155 

Trautwine  says  gravel  weighs  about  the  same  as  sand. 

Loam 

Common   arable  soil,    S •' 80-90 

Garden  mould  rich  in  vegetable  matter,  S 70 

Arable   soil,    M 75.4 

Old  pasture  soil,   M 65.6 

Land  100  years  in  grass,  M 59.1 

Common  loam,  perfectly  dry,  loose,  T 72-S 

Common  loam,  perfectly  dry,  shaken,  T 82-92 

Common  loam,  moderately  rammed,  T 90-100 

Mud 

Mud,  dry,   close,  T 80-110 

Mud,  wet,   moderately  pressed,  T 110-130 

Peat 

Peat,   dry,  T 20-30 

Peat  soil,  S 30-50 

Humus    ( decayed  vegetable  matter,    H. )    20.9 


PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH  5 

Sand 

Per  cu.  ft. 

Dry  siliceous  or  calcareous  sands,  S 110 

Quartz  sand,   M 90.3 

Sand,  perfectly  dry,  loose,  T 90-106 

Sand,  perfectly  dry,  shaken,  T 92-110 

Sand,  perfectly  dry,  rammed,  T 100-120 

Sand,  sharp,  very  large  and  very  small  grains  mixed,  T...        117 

Sand,  voids  full  of  water,   T 118-120 

Sand,  dry,   B 80-115 

Shale 

Shale  in  place,   T 162 

Shale  quarried,   T 92 

Authorities.  T.  Trautwine,  B.  Byrne,  "  Inspector's  Pocket 
Book."  M,  Murray,  "  Soils  and  Manures."  S,  Shubler,  "  Hand- 
book of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,"  1893. 

Effect  of  Depth  on  Weight.  In  "  Soils  and  Manures,"  J.  A. 
Murray  gives  the  following  table  of  results  obtained  from  trials 
made  at  Rothamsted  in  England: 

Wt.  per  cu.  ft.  Wt.  per  cu.  ft. 

Arable  land  Old  pasture 

Top  layer,   9   in.  deep    89.4  71.3 

Second  layer,  9  to  18  in.  deep 93.2           •  94.8 

Third  layer,  18  to  27  in.  deep  98.4  100.2 

Fourth  layer,  27  to  36  in.  deep  101.4            .  102.3 

This  is  of  considerable  interest  from  the  standpoint  of  exca- 
vation. If  we  consider  these  results  as  applied  to  the  excavation 
of  a  36-in.  trench  they  show  that  in  the  arable  land  the  second 
half  of  the  trench  weighs  9.4%  more  than  the  first;  in  the  old 
pasture  the  increase  is  21.9%.  The  increase  in  density  is  of 
course  less  at  greater  depths  but  it  is  a  factor  worth  remem- 
bering. 

Specific  Gravity.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  principal  miner- 
als of  which  soils  are  composed  is: 

Quartz     2.65 

Feldspars     2.5-2.7 

Calcareous   minerals    2.7-3.0 

Because  of  air  spaces  between  the  particles  the  apparent  specific 
gravity  of  a  cu.  ft.  of  earth  is  less  than  that  of  the  minerals 
of  which  it  is  composed.  The  range  of  apparent  specific  gravity 
for  the  soils  in  Table  I  is  as  follows: 

Clays    1.01-1.91 

Gravel   1.96 

Loam    0.95-1.44 

Peat      0.32-0.48 

Sand     1.45-1.85 

Shale    2.60 

See  the  author's  "  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation  "  for  numerous 
data  on  specific  gravity,  voids,  etc. 


6        HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Voids  in  Dry  Earth.  A  mass  of  spheres  all  the  same  size, 
packed  as  closely  as  possible  has  26%  voids  or  inter  spaces;  but 
packed  as  loosely  as  possible  such  a  mass  has  48%  voids.  A 
tumbler  full  of  bird  shot  has  36%  voids.  Sand  with  rounded 
grains  of  nearly  uniform  size  has  41%  voids  while  crushed  quartz 
sand  of  uniform  size  has  55%  voids.  It  is  evident  that  where 
large  grains  and  small  grains  are  mixed  the  percentage  of  voids 
of  the  mass  is  decreased,  but  it  is  not  decreased  to  the  'extent 
that  might  be  expected  theoretically.  Thus  when  1  cu.  ft.  of 
coarse  gravel  having  40%  voids  is  mixed  with  0.4  cu.  ft.  of 
sand  we  do  not  get  1  cu.  ft.  of  gravel  and  sand  mixture  as  might 
be  expected.  In  practice  no  mixture  of  clean  sand  and  gravel 
reduces  the  voids  to  much  less  than  22%. 

It  is  generally  safe  to  assume  that  pit  sand  or  gravel  has  35 
;o  40%  voids  when  measured  loose.  Loose  sand  of  uniform  size 
having  45%  voids  and  weighing  85  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.  can  be  com- 
pressed to  36%  voids  and  96  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.  by  saturating  with 
water  and  ramming.  Gravel,  however,  will  not  shrink  as  much 
under  the  rammer.  Pebbles  of  uniform  size  having  44%  voids 
weighing  84  Ib.  'per  cu.  ft.  can  be  rammed  to  a  mass  weighing 
92  Ib.  and  having  39%  voids.  An  artificial  mixture  of  gravel 
and  sand  weighing  125  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.  loose  and  having  30% 
voids  can  be  rammed  until  it  has  20%  voids  and  weighs  145 
Ib.  per  cu.  ft. 
Murray  gives  the  following  values: 

Per  cent,  voids 

Clay     59.5 

Loam     53.4 

Loam,    old   pasture    64.1 

Quartz   sand    44.7 

Humus     75.0 

Size  of  Particles.  It  is  not  known  what  the  ultimate  limit  of 
division  of  earth  may  be,  but  particles  of  0.0001  mm.  have  been 
measured. 

The  chief  difference  between  sand  and  clay  is  in  the  size  of 
the  particles;  in  addition  to  this,  as  the  felspathic  rocks  are 
softer  than  quartz  they  are  apt  to  become  more  finely  divided 
so  that  clays  are  made  up  largely  of  this  material.  A  thousand 
miles  down  a  river  from  their  origin  the  softer  rocks  will  be 
ground  into  clay,  while  the  quartz  will  still  exist  as  fine  sand. 
Further  up  the  river  sand  composed  of  fine  particles  of  the 
softer  rocks  could  be  found. 

Frost  Penetration.  The  heat  conductivity  of  a  soil  depends 
on  its  moisture,  contents  and  compactness.  Solid  rocks  conduct 
heat  five  times  as  fast  as  water,  but  when  pulverized  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  material  is  broken  by  air  spaces  and  the  heat 


PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH  7 

conductivity  becomes  less  than  that  of  water.  Compacting  and 
wetting  a  soil  increases  its  ability  to  conduct  heat,  while  loosen- 
ing and  drying  has  the  opposite  effect.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, May  8,  1918,  says  that  frost  will  penetrate  to  a  greater 
depth  in  gravel  than  in  clay  when  both  are  saturated  with  water, 
for  water  is  a  better  heat  conductor  than  the  minerals  that 
compose  soils.  In  a  New  England  town  last  winter  frost  pene- 
trated to  a  depth  of  GI/£  ft.  in  gravel  and  only  3i£  ft.  in  clay. 

The  following  values  are  taken  from  a  table  appearing  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  27,  1917: 

Coefficients  of  Heat  Conductivity  ( B.T.U.  per  sq.  ft.  per  hr. 
for  each  degree  difference  in  temperature  on  the  opposite  side  of 
a  plate  1  in.  thick.) 

Coefficient 

of  heat 
Material  conductivity 

Clay,    tough,    sundried    6.4 

Clay,    soft,    very   wet    9.0 

Sand    2.48 

Sand,   white,   dry   2.70 

Sand,  white,  saturated  with  water   20.30 

Soil,    dry    0.97 

Soil,   wet 4.64 

Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec.  11,  1918,  quoting  from  a 
report  of  the  Committee  on  Frozen  Water  Mains  of  the  New 
England  Water  Works  Association,  gives  the  following  informa- 
tion in  frost  conditions  encountered  during  the  winter  of  1917-18 
in  various  sections  of  the  country.  Forty-three  cities  reported 
that  frost  was  noted  at  depths  of  G  ft.  or  over.  In  57  cities  the 
average  depth  of  frost  penetration  was  4  ft.  or  over,  while  21 
cities  reported  an  average  depth  of  5  ft.  or  over.  The  greatest 
depth  noted,  9  ft.,  was  at  Duluth  and  St.  Paul,  Minn.  In  the 
first  city  the  penetration  was  in  clay  and  rock  soil;  in  the  second 
it  was  in  sand  and  gravel,  i  At  St.  Paul  the  average  depth  was 
7.5  ft.  Depths  of  8  ft.  were  noted  at  Winnipeg,  Man.,  in  gravel 
soil  and  at  St.  John,  N.  B.,  in  clay  soil. 

Angle  of  Repose.  The  slope  that  the  face  of  a  mass  of  earth 
assumes  when  exposed  to  the  elements  for  several  months  is  called 
the  natural  slope.  The  angle  of  repose  is  the  angle  or  slope 
that  a  face  of  earth  makes  with  the  horizontal  when  not  sub- 
jected to  the  elements.  The  angle  of  repose  of  various  earths 
as  given  by  different  authorities  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II  —  ANGLE  OF  REPOSE  OF  VARIOUS  EARTHS 

Clay 

Well   drained  clay,    M 45°          or  1    -1 

Wet  clay,    M 16°          or  3    -1 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Gravel 

Gravel,    M  .............  :  .......................  40°          or  1*4-1 

Shingle,    Fl  ....................................  39°          or  1^4-1 

Gravel  exposed  to  waves,   Fl  .................  11°          or  5    -1 

Loam 

Compact   earth,    M  ............................  50°          or    %-l 

Vegetable   earth,   M  ...........................  28°          or  2    -1 

Sand 

Dry  sand,   M  ..................................  38°          or  1^4-1 

Wet  sand,   M  ..................................  22°          or  2l/2-l 

Dry  sand,   R  ..................................  28°-30°  or  1%-1 

Sand   subjected   to  waves   on   shore   of  Lake 

Erie,    G  ....................................  5°          or  10  -1 

Stone 

Rubble,    Fl  ....................................  45°          or  1    -1 

Broken  stone,    E   &   C  ........................  38°  28'  or 


Authorities.  M,  Molesworth,  Fa,  Fanning,  Fl,  Flynn,  ("Irri- 
gation Canals"),  R,  Rankine,  G,  Observation  by  the  Author, 
E  &  C,  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  30,  1906. 

Greatest  Height  of  Vertical  Bank.  The  following  table  is  given 
by  Austin  T.  Byrne  ("Inspector's  Pocket  Book"). 

Greatest  depth  of 

temporary 

Earth  vertical  face 

Clean  dry  sand  and  gravel  ..............  0  to    1  ft. 

Moist  sand  and  ordinary  surface  mold...  3  to    6  ft. 

Clay,   ordinary    ............................  10  to  16  ft. 

Compact  gravel    ...........................  10  to  15  ft. 

Dry  clay  in  place  frequently  stands  at  much  steeper  slopes 
than  the  angle  of  repose  would  indicate.  C.  S.  Phelps  in  Eng. 
News,  July  1,  1896,  says  that  in  South  Carolina  clay  cut  at  % 
to  1  stands  better  than  at  iy2  to  1,  because  the  clay  bakes  in  the 
sun  and  the  steeper  slopes  shed  water  without  saturating.  In 
Engineering  News,  Sept.  13,  1900,  H.  C.  Miller  gives  examples  of 
1  to  5  slopes  in  Brazil  that  have  stood  for  years.  Many  rail- 
roads use  a  slope  of  y2  to  1  for  the  sides  of  cuts  in  clay. 

Shrinkage.  Earth  always  .swells  when  excavated.  On  being 
deposited  in  a  fill  or  embankment  it  shrinks  Obviously  the 
amount  of  swell  depends  upon  the  compactness  of  the  earth  prior 
to  excavation.  The  amount  of  shrinkage  from  the  loose  earth 
volume  depends  upon  the  means  of  compacting  it,  or  upon  the  time 
a  fill  has  stood,  or  both.  Thus,  if  no  means  of  compacting  are 
employed,  shrinkage  may  continue  for  years,  whereas,  after 
thorough  compacting,  there  may  be  no  subsequent  shrinkage 
The  earth  may  or  may  not  shrink  to  its  original  volume,  or  it 
may  shrink  to  less  than  the  original  volume.  As  compared  to 
original  volume,  ultimate  shrinkage  depends  not  only  on  the 
means  of  compacting  and  the  time,  but  upon  the  compactness  of 


PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH  f) 

the  earth  before  it  was  excavated.  Any  earth,  no  matter  how 
compact  in  its  original  position,  will  shrink  into  smaller  volume 
if  sufficient  means  of  compacting  are  employed.  Ordinary  tabu- 
lated percentages  of  shrinkage  are  useless.  There  is  so  much 
variation  between  earthwork  jobs  that  the  information  that  clay 
shrinks  10%  is  entirely  inadequate,  unless  accompanied  by  state- 
ments of  where  it  was  excavated  and  where  and  how  deposited. 

The  reader  can  best  obtain  data  on  shrinkage  by  having  many 
examples  set  before  him  from  which  he  can  select  those  where 
conditions  were  nearest  his  own  problem.  Beginning  with  the 
results  of  observations  by  Elwood  Morris,  in  1841  (published  in 
the  Proc.  Franklyn  Inst.) ,  data  given  in  the  first  edition  of  this 
book  and  other  data  from  more  recent  Engineering  literature 
follow. 

Railroad  Embankment  Built  by  Carts.  Morris  moved  eartli 
by  means  of  carts  and  wooden  drag  scrapers,  obtaining  the  fol- 
lowing results: 

Excavation  Embankment  Shrinkage 

Material  cu.  yd.  cu.  yd.  per  cent. 

Yellow  clayey  soil  6,970  6,262  10.15 

Yellow  clayey  soil   25.975  23,571  9.25 

Light  sandy  soil    10,701  9,317  12.93 

Total     43,646  39.150  10.3 

Gravelly  earth   (small  scale  experiment) 12.0 

The  railroad  embankments  built  by  Morris  were  deposited  in 
layers;  one-horse  carts  and  wooden  drag  scrapers  being  the 
means  employed  in  moving  the  earth.  Work  was  begun  one 
year  and  finished  the  next,  so  that  fills  went  through  one  winter 
before  final  measurement.  Note  that  the  shrinkage  had  all  oc- 
curred during  the  progress  of  the  work. 

Small  Scale  Experiments  in  India  were  made  by  Mr.  J.  H.  E. 
Hart  by  digging  trenches  2  ft.  deep  and  6  ft.  wide,  casting  out 
the  earth  with  shovels. 

Trench  No.  1  in  "black  cotton  soil"  measured  416  cu.  ft.,  and 
the  loose  earth  cast  out  measured  600  cu.  ft.,  showing  a  swelling 
of  184  cu.  ft.  or  23%,  which  was  checked  by  immediately  shoveling 
the  earth  back  into  the  trench,  without  ramming  it,  when  101 
cu.  ft.  of  loose  earth  were  left  over  after  filling  the  trench  level 
full.  During  the  long  and  very  wet  rainy  season  which  followed, 
the  earth  in  the  trench  settled;  and  as  fast  as  it  did  so  the  loose 
earth  was  shoveled  in,  until  at  the  end  of  the  rainy  season  only 
221^  cu.  ft.  of  loose  earth  remained,  showing  an  increase  of  5.3% 
over  the  original  measure. 

Trench  No.  2  in  "gravelly  soil"  (2  ft.  deep)  showed  a  swelling 
of  25%  when  the  earth  was  thrown  out  and  measured  loose  in  a 


10  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

bank  1%  ft.  high;  and,  after  settlement  as  before  under  heavy 
rains  of  one  season,  half  the  loose  material  remaining  when  the 
trench  was  first  filled,  was  left,  which  was  12%%  of  the  volume 
of  the  trench.  In  both  these  cases  the  earth  had  not  been 
walked  over  or  pounded  when  measured  loose- 
Swelling  of  Newly  Excavated  Material.  A.  Von  Kaven,  Presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Polytechnic  Institute  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  gives 
in  his  book  on  road  building  the  following.  According  to  a 
series  of  observations  when  material  is  first  loosened  it  swells 
thus: 

Material  Increase  in  volume 

Sand     15  to  20% 

Clay  and  sand 22% 

Hard  clay,    lia,s    24% 

Clay  mixed   with  cobbles    2G%> 

Solid   gravel   bank    289^ 

Soft  rock  which  can  be  picked   30% 

Hard   rock    34  to  50% 

While  Von  Kaven  does  not  state  how  the  material  was  loosened 
and  measured,  in  common  with  other  European  authorities  he 
doubtless  refers  to  materials  loosened  with  a  shovel  and  not 
packed  down  afterward  by  traffic,  rain  or  otherwise. 

Swell  of  Material  in  Levees.  Geo.  J.  Specht,  in  the  Trans,  of 
the  Technical  Society  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  May  1,  1885,  gives 
results  of  measurements  made  on  levee  work  coming  under  his 
own  observation.  The  levees  were  built  in  1884  along  the  Feather 
and  Sacramento  Rivers  in  Sutter  County,  California.  The  levees 
were  about  12  ft.'  high,  6  ft.  wide  on  top  and  90  ft.  wide  at  the 
base  with  front  slope  of  1  to  3  and  rear  slope  of  1  to  4.  Ma- 
terial was  borrowed  from  both  sides  for  a  distance  of  100  ft. 
from  the  toe  of  the  slope,  and  buck  scrapers  drawn  by  four 
horses  were  used  to  move  the  earth  which  was  not  rolled.  A 
buck  scraper  drifted  or  pushed  to  place  about  90  cu.  yd.  per 
day.  The  soil  was  well  plowed  before  the  fill  was  placed  upon 
it  to  insure  a  good  bond. 

There  are  several  noteworthy  points  of  difference  between  this 
work  and  that  of  Morris  already  given.  In  the  first  place  Sutter 
County,  California,  is  a  rainless  district  in  the  summer.  Secondly 
the  material  was  taken  from  the  bed  of  a  river  and  such  ma- 
terial is  always  more  dense  than  ordinary,  due  to  the  puddling 
action  at  times  of  high  water.  Thirdly  no  wheeled  vehicles 
passed  over  the  fill  during  construction,  whereas  a  large  quantity 
of  loose  earth  was  pushed  into  place  with  the  long  buck  scrapers. 

These  factors,  I  believe,  combined  to  make  an  unusually  favor- 
able condition  for  a  swelling  of  earth  when  taken  from  cut  to  fill. 

I    would   especially    emphasize   the    fact   that    sandy   earth    in 


PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH 


11 


the  bottom  of  overflowed  river  valleys,  and  earth  approaching 
hard  pan  in  certain  glacial  deposits  is  very  dense.  Such  earth 
is  quite  certain  to  occupy  more  space  in  fill  than  it  did  in  cut, 
unless  thoroughly  rolled  or  rammed. 

The  results  obtained  by  Specht  were: 

9,398  cu.  yd.  in  cut  (heavv  adobe  clay)  made  9,470  cu.  yd. 
fill,  measured  three  weeks  after  finishing. 

10,000  cu.  yd.  in  cut  (adobe  in  sandy  loam)  made  10,290 
cu.  yd.  in  fill. 

29,000  cu.  yd.  in  cut  (adobe  in  sandy  loam)  made  30,330  cu. 
yd.  in  fill. 

53,350  cu.  yd.  in  cut  (sandy  loam,  with  small  amount  of  adobe 
and  hard  pan)  made  58,350  cu.  yd.  in  fill,  or  about  9.4% 
increase. 

202,034  cu.  yd.  in  cut  made  208',915  cu.  yd.  fill  (.3  months' 
work ) . 

Shrinkage  of  Embankments.  P.  J.  Flynn  (Engineering  News, 
May  1  and  8,  1880)  collected  a  great  array  of  data  on  earth 
swelling  and  shrinking;  and  reasoning  erroneously  by  combining 
the  shrinkage  of  the  Morris  embankments  with  the  swelling  of 
the  Specht  embankments,  he  reached  the  remarkable  conclusion 
that  a  contractor  should  always  be  made  to  set  his  fill  stakes 
17%  higher  than  the  final  fill  was  to  be.  His  idea  was  that 
Specht  had  measured  his  fill  immediately  after  completion,  while 
Morris  had  waited  until  rains  had  settled  it.  This  was  erroneous 
reasoning. 

The  following  data  on  bank  shrinkage  after  the  bank  has  been 
finished,  are  taken  from  the  letters  of  contributors  to  a  contro- 
versy on  this  matter  in  Engineering  News,  Nov.  15,  1900,  and 
subsequent  issues. 


Authority 
C.    H.   Tutton 


TABLE  III  —  EARTH  SHRINKAGE 

Conditions  of  fill  ^  ft°£ 

..Pit  gravel  for  railway  fill  by 

wagons     14 

Pit  gravel  for  failway  fill  by 

wagons     14 

H.    P.    Gillette Gravelly      dike,       made      by 

wheelers     15, 

Sandy  loam  Erie  Canal  bank       22 

Gravelly     road     embankment 

by  dump  cars    16 

Chas.    R.    Felton..Sand    and    gravel    street    fill 

by    carts    5  and  6     1 

.Same   as   above,    by   carts  ..          7 


10 

12 

16 

18-20 


Vertical 
shrinkage 


after  6  mo. 
l/2%  after  12  mo. 

3%  after  4  yr. 
3%  after  50  yr. 

3V27c  after  1  yr. 

to  1%  after  4  yr. 
2%  after  4  yr. 
1%  after  4  yr. 
2*4%  after  4  yr. 
1/2%  after  4  yr. 
2r/f  after  4  yr. 
after  4  yr. 


12 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Authority                       Conditions  of  fill 
Woolsey    Finnel.  .Railroad  fills    (actual  levels), 
sand  and   gravel  by  wheel- 
ers      

.  .Clay     loam     and     earth,     by 

wheelers 

"      .  .Calico   clay,    and    kaoline    by 

wheelers     

.Same  as  above,  by  carts  ... 
.Earth,  carts,  wagons,  cars.. 
.Same  as  above,  by  wheel 

barrows     

L.  B.  Merriam.  .Railway  fills,  by  scrapers  .. 
by  wheelers  . 
by  dump  cars 


Depth  of 
fill,  ft. 


Vertical 
shrinkage 


W.   F.   Shunk... 


.Railway    fills 


1%  after  6  mo. 
2  to  3%  after  6  mo. 

5%  after  6  mo. 

8%  after  6  mo. 

4  to  10%  after  6  mo. 

15  to  25%  after  6  mo. 

3% 

5% 

7% 

2  to  4% 


Shrinkage  of  Railway  Embankment.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, March  19,  1919,  gives  the  following:  Specific  instances 
of  shrinkage  of  railway  embankments  were  cited  in  a  committee 
report  submitted  this  week  at  the  20th  annual  convention  of  the 
American  Railway  Engineering  Association.  Information  was 
given  regarding  8  embankments  between  mileposts  540  and  553 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Ry.  The  following  tabula- 
tion compiled  from  the  report  shows  the  percentage  of  material 
required  to  restore  the  several  embankments  to  their  original 
width  after  a  lapse  of  4  years'  time: 


Quantities 

in  fill  at 
completion, 

Nov.,  1911 
Cu.  yd. 


Embankment  No.  1 
Embankment  No.  2 
Embankment  No.  3 
Embankment  No.  4 
Embankment  No.  5 
Embankment  No.  6 
Embankment  No.  7 
Embankment  No.  8 


15.762 

147,582 

125,680 

19,067 

150,852 

57,709 

33,902 

62,207 


Quantities  re- 

quired to  re- 

store fill  to 

Amount  of 

original     width 

shrinkage 

of  18  ft.. 

Per  cent. 

Nov.,  1915 

Cu.  yd. 

1,824 

11.6 

6,995 

4.7 

2,371 

1.9 

99 

.5 

664 

.4 

1,642 

2.8 

1,678 

5.0 

3,090 

5.0 

The  base  of  embankment  No.  1  was  constructed  from  side  borrow 
with  fresnos.  It  was  topped  with  wheelers  and  carts.  The  ma- 
terial was  brown  pack  sand,  gyp  and  joint  clay.  The  base  of 
embankment  No.  2  was  also  made  from  side  borrow  with  fresnos 
and  wheelers.  It  was  topped  with  cars.  The  material  was  the 
same  as  for  No.  1.  For  No.  3  the  base  was  placed  with  fresnos; 
it  was  topped  with  wheelers.  The  material  was  brown  pack  sand, 
gyp  and  joint  clay.  Several  rains  occurred  during  the  period 
this  fill  was  being  placed  which  accounts  for  the  small  amount 
of  shrinkage.  The  base  of  No.  4  was  placed  with  fresnos;  it 
was  topped  with  wheelers  using  gyp  and  pack  sand.  The  base 


PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH  13 

of  No.  5  was  placed  with  fresnos  from  side  borrow;  it  was  topped 
with  machine  and  wagons.  The  material  was  red  sandy  clay  and 
gyp.  Fresnos  were  used  in  placing  the  base  of  No.  6;  it  was 
topped  with  wheelers.  The  material  was  brown  sandy  clay  and 
gyp.  During  the  time  this  fill  was  being  put  in  there  were 
several  very  heavy  rains,  which  accounts  for  small  amount  of 
shrinkage.  The  fill  for  embankment  No.  7  was  made  from  side 
borrow  with  fresnos;  the  material  was  black  sandy  loam  and 
clay.  The  fill  for  No.  8  was  made  from  side  borrow,  the  base 
being  placed  with  fresnos  and  the  top  with  wheelers.  The  ma- 
terial was  black  sandy  loam  and  brown  sandy  clay  and  gyp. 

Effect  of  Water  on  Clay  Shrinkage.  In  the  ninth  annual  re- 
port of  the  Boston  Transit  Commission,  1903,  data  on  clay  shrink- 
age are  given  by  Howard  A.  Carson. 

Experiments  were  made  on  12-in.  cubes  of  clay  taken  from  the 
East  Boston  Tunnel  which  were  dried  for  three  days  beside  a 
warm  stove. 

Experiment  No.  1,  clay  containing  no  sand,  from  East  Boston 
Tunnel : 

No.  1          No.  2  No.  3 

Shrinkage   in  volume    19.5%  19.3%  16.3% 

Shrinkage  in  weight   21.4%  22.2%  21.4% 

1  cu.  ft.  shrank  to   0.8  cu.  ft. 

1  lin.    ft.   shrank  to    0.93  lin.  ft. 

Experiment  No.  2,  clay  containing  30%   fine  sand: 

Shrinkage   in   volume    11.5% 

Shrinkage   in  weight    18.6% 

1  cu.  ft.  shrank  to  0.9  cu.  ft. 

1  lin.  ft.  shrank  to 0.96  ft. 

Carson  states  in  a  letter  to  the  author  that  the  first  tests  were 
made  upon  12-in.  cubes  of  clay  spaded  from  the  tunnel  but  that 
later  tests  were  made  on  clay  cylinders  2  in.  in  diameter  by 
4  in.  long  placed  in  gasoline.  Measurements  were  made  by  the 
displacement  of  mercury  and  the  results  were  as  follows. 

Effect  of  water  on  volume  of  clay : 

Water,  per  cent.  Volume  of  c,lay 

of  dry  weight  per  cent. 

28  100 

25  95 

23  92 

22  9iy2 

21  90 

19  88 

18  87 

16  83 

15  82 

141/2  80 

13  80 


14  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Plotted  to  scale  these  tests  show  that  the  volume  varies  almost 
exactly  as  the  percentage  of  water. 

European  Experience  with  the  Shrinkage  of  Clay.  An  article 
by  Tlianneur,  Ing.  Fonts  et  Chausses,  is  translated  in  Engineering 
Acws,  April  2,  1887,  by  H.  N.  Ogden. 

In  the  embankments  built  in  1874-1882  from  the  quarry-clay 
and  green  loam  of  the  Coulomnieer  district  an  allowance  of  10 
to  15%  was  made  as  compared  with  the  excavation.  But  in 
spite  of  this  precaution  these  embankments  settled.  Capt.  Martin, 
of  the  English  engineers,  showed  in  a  paper,  read  Mar.  23,  1882, 
that  for  certain  miry  loams  the  shrinkage  attained  23.5%. 
Preliminary  tests  can  alone  determine  the  coefficient  for  any 
particular  case;  but  prudence  will  indicate  25%  as  a  minimum 
allowance. 

This  is  borne  out  by  experience  in  building  the  "new  wall" 
at  Calais.  Here  on  the  south  front  the  ditch  was  dug  in  miry 
loam,  and  the  difference  in  volume,  between  the  excavation  and 
material  extracted,  was  so  great  as  to  be  at  first  charged  to 
error  in  calculation. 

Experiments  have  been  made  as  follows:  An  excavation  was 
made  specially  of  5,174  cu.  yd.,  the  earth  removed  was  levelled 
and  tamped  on  a  heavy  timber  platform,  and  when  measured 
was  found  to  contain  4,912  cu.  yd.  This  dirt,  however,  was 
artificially  moistened  to  compensate  for  drying;  and,  as  the 
water  already  in  the  soil  could  not  be  measured,  it  was  impos- 
sible to  arrive  at  relative  quantities  of  moisture.  As  a  certain 
portion  of  this  water  drained  off  from  the  "filling,"  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  conclude  that  the  first  settling,  to  the  extent  of  about 
5%,  is  explained  by  this  loss  of  moisture.  In  the  experiment 
above  noted  a  cube  (0.45  cu.  ft.)  weighing  50  1').,  was  taken 
from  the  levelled  and  pounded  and  still  fresh  earth.  This  cube 
kept  for  some  days  at  the  normal  temperature  dried  quite  rapidly, 
and  after  one  year  was  reduced  to  a  volume  of  0.39  cu.  ft.  and 
weight  of  45.5  Ib. 

Shrinkage  of  Rolled  Earth  Dam.  The  most  valuable  careful 
tests  made  in  recent  years  are  those  described  by  Burr  Bassell 
in  his  book  on  "Earth  Dams"  (also  in  Engineering  News, 
July  10,  1902).  Tests  were  made  on  the  material  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  Tabeau  Dam  which  was  a  mixture  of  62% 
earth  and  38%  gravel. 

Material  in  its  natural  bank  weighed   11G.5  Ib.  per  cu.  ft. 

Material  sprinkled  and  rolled  in  G-in.  layers  in  embankment 
weighed  133  Ib.  per  cu.  ft. 

Material  delivered  by  wagons  moist  and  dumped  loosely  weighed 
76.6  Ib.  per  cu.  ft. 


PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH  15 

Material  dug  out  of  dam  embankment  loose  and  shaken  weighed 
80  Ib.  per  cu.  ft. 

The  natural  soil  contained  19%  of  moisture,  and  33%  of 
water  had  to  be  added  to  fill  all  its  voids,  making  a^otal  of 
52%  of  voids  in  the  natural  soil  when  loosened. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  evident  that  the  natural  bank  when 
loosened  and  placed  in  a  wagon  swelled  46%,  which  is  a  high 
percentage  and  indicates  an  unusually  dense  bank.  Upon  roll- 
ing the  earth  in  the  embankment  there  was  a  shrinkage  of  about 
12%  from  the  original  place  measure.  Let  it  be  noted  that  the 
rolled  fill  weighed  1%  times  as  much  as  the  loose  moist  earth 
and  that  its  weight  of  133  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.  is  almost  as  great  as 
solid  masonry!  In  fact,  concrete  often  weighs  no  more  than 
this  earth  dam  embankment.  For  a  description  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Tabeau  Dam  see  the  chapter  on  Earth  Dams. 

Shrinkage  of  Embankment  of  Hardpan  and  Boulders.  The 
Forbes  Hill  Reservoir  (Mass.)  is  described  in  Engineering  \ews, 
Mar.  13,  1902.  The  embankments  were  made  of  clay  hardpan  con- 
taining boulders;  a  four-horse  plow  was  required  to  loosen  the 
hardpan.  The  following  are  the  volumes  of  cut  and  fill: 

Hardpan,   measured  before  loosening   17,466  cu.  yd. 

Rolled  hardpan  embankment   15,474    ' 

Shrinkage,   11.4%  or    1,992    "      " 

Material  excavated  as  above    17,460  cu.  yd. 

Estimated    equivalent   amount   of  stone    (bould- 
ers, etc.),   removed,   5.9%  or   1,013  cu.  yd. 

While  the  item  of  stone  removed  is  rather  obscurely  recorded 
it  would  seem  that  the  natural  bank  really  shrank  1,992  —  1,043 
=  849  cu.  yd.  or  less  than  5%  during  the  rolling.  After  the  fill 
was  finished  it  did  not  shrink  at  all  during  the  winter  following. 

Shrinkage  of  Top  Soil  Under  Rolling.  The  shrinkage  of  top 
soil  rolled  in  0-in.  layers  has  been  investigated  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  North  Dike  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  near  Clinton, 
Mass.,  and  is  reported  upon  by  Alex.  E.  Kastl,  "  The  Technic " 
for  1902,  Eng.  Xews,  Aug.  7,  1902.  The  length  of  the  trench 
which  was  filled  was  1,375  ft.  About  500  ft.  of  this  length  was 
about  30  ft.  deep,  30  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  with-  side  slope  of  1 
on  1.  The  remainder  varied  in  depth  from  0  to  25  ft.,  and  in 
width  from  50  to  80  ft.  between  slope  stakes;  with  side  slopes  of 
approximately  1  to  1,  having  been  partially  filled  under  a  previous 
contract.  The  soil  was  excavated  from  an  area  of  64  acres  to  an 
average  depth  of  0.78  ft.  About  59  acres  of  this  area  contained 
stumps.  The  land  from  which  the  soil  was  excavated  was  called 
sprout  land  —  land  which  has  been  cleared  of  forest  growth  and 
again  allowed  to  grow  over  with  trees  and  brush.  The  volume 


16  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  the  soil  measured  in  excavation  was  80,355  cu.  yd.  The  vol- 
ume of  the  soil  after  it  w.as  deposited  and  compacted  in  the  cut- 
off trench  was  50,735  cu.  yd.  or  29,020  cu.  yd.  less  than  the  vol- 
ume measured  in  excavation.  The  final  levels  were  taken  a  few 
days  after  the  completion  of  the  work.  From  the  above  it  follows 
that  the  shrinkage  of  the  soil  was  37%,  calling  the  volume  of 
80,355  cu.  yd.  100%.  This  shrinkage  includes  roots  y2  in.  or  more 
in  diameter  and  stumps  so  far  as  they  were  originallv  embedded 
in  the  soil,  but  which  were  removed  and  burnt.  Roots  y2  'n-  or 
more  in  diameter,  stumps  or  other  wood  were  not  allowed  to  be 
deposited  with  the  soil  in  the  cut-off  trench.  The  soil  was  free 
from  stones.  The  volume  of  the  soil  excavated  was  determined 
from  levels  taken  when  there  was  no  frost  in  the  ground.  The 
first  levels  were  taken  after  the  ground  was  cleared  of  trees  and 
brush,  which  were  removed  and  burnt  or  otherwise  disposed  of, 
and  before  the  contractor  had  commenced  grubbing;  and  the  final 
levels  after  the  final  excavation  was  finished.  The  volume  of  the 
soil  excavation  includes  the  roots  and  stumps  so  far  as  the  same 
were  embedded  in  the  layer  of  soil  excavated.  The  levels  extended 
over  the  entire  area  stripped  and  were  taken  not  more  than  25  ft. 
apart,  that  is,  not  less  than  70  cuts  or  depths  of  soil  were  de- 
termined for  each  acre.  The  ground  was  divided  into  squares  500 
ft.  on  a  side,  the  corners  of  which  were  permanently  marked 
and  the  sides  were  used  as  base  lines  for  the  cross  section  work. 
The  average  depth  given,  0.78  ft.,,  is  the  total  volume  of  the 
soil  excavated  divided  by  the  area,  and  is  only  intended  to  give 
some  idea  of  the  depth  of  the  soil  stripping.  All  the  soil  con- 
taining 4%  or  more  of  organic  matter  is  removed  from  the  reser- 
voir site.  The  volume  of  the  soil  when  in  the  trench  was  cal- 
culated from  accurate  cross-sections,  taken  not  more  than  25 
ft.  apart  before  and  after  the  filling  of  the  trench.  Before  rolling 
the  soil  it  was  watered  as  much  as  it  would  bear  without  stick- 
ing to  the  roller.  The  type  of  roller  which  was  used  weighs 
about  6,000  lb.,  and  is  drawn  by  two  horses.  The  cylinder  of  the 
roller  is  5  ft.  long  and  is  composed  of  19  cast-iron  wheels,  3  in. 
thick  at  rim,  10  being  2  ft.  11  in.  and  9  2  ft.  8  in.  in  diameter, 
respectively,  arranged  alternately. 

The  amount  of  shrinkage  encountered  on  this  work,  37%,  is  ex- 
treme, but  was  to  be  expected  as  forest  top  soil  is  the  loosest  of 
all  soils;  and  rolling  in  thin  wetted  layers  is  a  very  efficient 
way  of  compacting. 

Shrinkage  of  Embankment  of  Wachusett  Reservoir.  Accord- 
ing to  Engineering  ~Kews,  June  11,  1903,  the  North  Dike  of  the 
Wachusett  Reservoir  was  flooded  after  rolling,  from  May  19  to 
June  30.  Small  dikes  were  used  to  hold  the  water  on  an  area  of 


PROPERTIES  OF  EARTH  17 

4}£  acres  on  the  main  dike  which  had  been  built  up  of  6-in.  rolled 
layers  to  a  height  of  51  ft.  Settlement  after  Hooding  ranged 
from  0.06  ft.  to  0.26  ft.,  the  average  being  0.15  ft. 

On  a  dike  40  ft.  high  built  in  7.5-ft.  layers  without  rolling  the 
maximum  settlement  was  1  ft.  and  the  average  0.47  ft. 

Shrinkage  of  Rolled  Embankment.  In  the  construction  of  the 
Peterborough.  Ont.,  lock  on  the  Trent  Canal  the  earth  embank- 
ment, upon  which  the  canal  is  carried  up  to  the  back  of  the 
breast  wall,  was  built  in  layers  about  8  in.  in  thickness,  thor*- 
oughly  compacted  and  rolled.  During  the  hot  and  dry  season  the 
earth  filling  was  liberally  watered.  The  material  was  clay  con- 
taining small  stories.  This  method  produced  an  embankment  hav- 
ing the  remarkable  record  for  settlement  of  only  about  0.1  ft.  in  a 
period  of  nearly  a  year  where  the  depth  of  fill  was  upwards  of 
40  ft. 

Increase  in  Volume  of  Dredged  Material.  In  the  construction 
of  the  Buffalo  Breakwater,  which  is  described  by  Emile  Low  in 
"  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,"  Vol.  52,  the  total  quantity  of  material 
dredged  was  as  follows: 

Cu.  yd. 

Season  of  1897  by  dipper  dredge  8,117 

"    1898 4,934 

"   1898  by  clam-shell  dredge   193,810 


Total  scow  measurement   206,861 

Total  place  measurement   192,258 

Swelling   17.6%,    or 14,603 

The  following  results  have  been  found  on  the  United  States 
Public  Works: 

Increase  of 

scow 
measurement 

over  place 

Material  measurement 

Rock  (large  fragments  make  greater  increase)..        75  to  100% 

Sandstone   and  limestone    307o 

Very  soft  mud    13% 

Soft   blue   mud    15% 

Hard  sand  with  small  admix.uie  of  silt  20-30% 

Loose  muck  dredged  from  reservoir    15-17% 

With  the  hydraulic  suction  dredge  where  nauch  fine  light 
material  is  encountered  the  scow  measure  will  be  equal  to  or  less 
than  the  place  measure. 

Summary.  From  this  varied  mass  of  data  we  may  deduce  the 
following  general  rules: 

1.  Taking  extreme  cases,  earth  swells  when  first  loosened  with 
a  shovel,  so  that  after  loosening  it  occupies  1^  to  1^  times  as 


18  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

much  space  as  it  did  before  loosening;  in  other  words  loose  earth 
is  14  to  50%  more  bulky  than  natural  bank  earth. 

2.  As  an  average  we  may  say  that  clean  sand  and  gravel  swell 
14% ;    loam,  and   loamy   sand  and  gravel,  20% ;    dense  clay  and 
dense  mixtures  of  gravel  and  clay,  33  to  50%. 

3.  That  this  loose  earth   is  compacted  by  several  means:    (a) 
the   puddling   action   of   water,    (b)    the   pounding   of   hoofs   and 
wheels,    (c)    the  jarring  and  compressive  action   of   rolling  arti- 
ficially. 

4.  If  the  puddling  action  of  rains  is  the  only  factor,  a  loose 
mass    of    earth    will    shrink    slowly    back    to    about    its    original 
volume;   but  an  embankment  of  loose  earth  will  at  the  end  of  a 
year  be  still  about  8%  greater  than  the  cut  from  which  it  came. 

5.  If  the  embankment  is  made  with  small  one-horse  carts,  or 
wheel  scrapers,  at  the  end  of  the  work  it  will  occupy  5  to  10% 
less  space  than  the  cut  from  which  the  earth  was  taken;   and  in 
subsequent   years    will    shrink    about    2%    more,   often    less    than 
2%. 

6.  If  the  embankment  is  made  with  wagons  or  dump  cars,  and 
made  rapidly  in  dry  weather  without  water,  it  will  settle  verti- 
cally, 3  to  10%  in  the  year  following  the  completion  of  the  work 
and  very  little  in  subsequent  years. 

7.  The  height  of  the  embankment  appears  to  have  little  effect 
on  the  percentage  of  its  subsequent  shrinkage. 

8.  By  proper  mixing  of  clay  or  loam  and  gravel,  followed  by 
sprinkling  or  rolling  in  thin  layers,  a  bank  can  be  made  weighing 
1%  times  as  much  as  loose  earth,  or  133  Ib.  per  cu.  ft. 

9.  The  bottom  lands  of  certain  river  valleys  and  banks  of  ce- 
mented gravel  or  hardpan  are  more  than  ordinarily  dense  and  will 
occupy  more  space  in  fill  than   in  cut,  unless  rolled.     Dry  clay 
taken  from  deep  cuts  will  absorb  and  hold  additional  moisture  in 
embankment  and  will  be  accordingly  increased  in  volume. 

10.  Dry,  tough  clay  often  breaks  into  chunks  resembling  shale, 
and  then  swells  when  first  loosened  almost  as  much  as  rock. 

Bibliography.  "  A  Treatise  on  Rocks,  Rock  Weathering  and 
Soils,"  George  P.  Merrill.  "  Soils  and  Manures,"  J.  Allen  Mur- 
ray. "  Practical  Designing  of  Retaining  Walls,"  Win.  Cain  (co- 
hesion and  friction). 

"  Bulletin  No.  64,"  Bureau  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
1900. 


CHAPTER  II 

MEASUREMENT,   CLASSIFICATION  AND  COST 
ESTIMATING 

Earthwork    Definitions.     The    American    Railway    Engineering 

and  Maintenance  of  Way   Association   have   standardized   defini- 
tions which  are  given  in  their  "Manual"  for  1915  as  follows: 
Group  A  —  General. 

CLASSIFICATION. —  Arranging  the  material  in  groups  according  to 
its  character. 

CONTRACT. —  A  written  agreement  between  two  or  more  parties 
specifying  terms,  conditions,  etc.,  under  which  certain  obli- 
gations must  be  performed.  (Specifications  are  a  part  of  the 
contract.) 

ESTIMATE  (noun). —  (a)  A  statement  of  work  performed  or  ma- 
terial furnished,  according  to  which  payment  is  to  be  ren- 
dered. 

ESTIMATE  (noun). —  (b)  A  statement  showing  the  probable  cost  of 
a  proposed  piece  of  work. 

ESTIMATE   (verb). —  The  act  of  making  an  estimate. 

QUANTITIES. —  The  amount  of  material  to  be  handled,  expressed 
in  the  usual  units. 

SLIDE. —  The  movement  of  a  part  of  the  earth  under  the  force  of 
gravity.  !!  . 

SPECIFICATION. —  That  part  of  the  contract  describing  the  ma- 
terials for  or  the  details  of  construction. 

STOCK-PASS. —  A  culvert  or  bridge  opening  under  the  track,  pri- 
marily for  tbe  passage  of  stock. 

UNIT  PRICK. —  The  price  per  unit  of  the  various  quantities  speci- 
fied in  a  contract  for  which  a  certain  work  is  to  be  per- 
formed. 

WAsiiorT. —  The  carrying  off  of  the  permanent  way  by  the  im- 
pact and  erosion  of  waters. 
Group  K  —  Itight-of-Way. 

KIGIIT-OF-WAY. —  The  land  or  water  rights  necessary  for  the  road- 
bed and  its  accessories. 

ROADIJED. —  The  finished  surface  of  the  roadway  upon  which  the 
track  and  ballast  rest. 

ROADWAY. —  That  part  of  the  right-of-way  of '  a  railway  prepared 
to  receive  the  track.  (During  construction  the  roadway  is 
often  referred  to  as  the  "grade.") 

STATION  GROUNDS. —  Property  to  be  used  for  station  purposes. 
Group  C  —  Technical. 

ALINEMENT. —  The  horizontal  location  of  a  railway  with  reference 
to  curves  and  tangents. 

19 


20       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

CENTER-LINE. —  A  line  indicating  the  center  of  an  excavation, 
embankment  or  track. 

CONSTRUCTION  STATION. —  The  center  line  stake  set  at  the  end  of 
each  full  100-ft.  tape  or  chain  length  (commonly  called  a 
"station  "). 

CONTOUR. —  The  line  of  intersection  between  a  horizontal  plane 
and  a  given  surface. 

CROSS-SECTION. —  A  section  through  a  body  perpendicular  to  its 
axis. 

CENTER  STAKES. —  Stakes  indicating  the  center  line. 

ELEVATION  OR  HEIGHT. —  The  distance  of  any  given  point  above  or 
below  an  established  plane  or  datum. 

FINISHING  STAKES. —  Final  stakes  set  for  the  completion  of  the 
work. 

GRADE  (verb). —  To  prepare  the  ground  for  the  reception  of  the 
ballast  and  track. 

GRADE-LINE. —  The  line  on  the  profile  representing  the  tops  of 
embankments  and  bottoms  of  cuttings  ready  to  receive  the 
ballast. 

GRADIENT. —  The  rate  of  inclination  of  the  grade-line  from  the 
horizontal. 

LOCATION. —  The  center  line  and  grade  line  of  a  railway  estab- 
lished, preparatory  to  its  future  construction. 

PLAN. —  A  drawing  furnished  for  guidance  of  work. 

PROFILE. —  The  intersection  of  a  longitudinal  vertical  plane  with 
the  ground  and  established  gradients;  or  a  drawing  repre- 
senting the  same. 

SLOPE. —  The  inclined  face  of  a  cutting  or  embankment. 

SLOPE  STAKES. —  Stakes  .set  to  indicate  the  top  or  bottom  of  a 
slope. 

SUBGRADE. —  The  tops  of  embankments  and  bottoms  of  cuttings 
ready  to  receive  the  ballast. 

TOP  OF  SLOPE. —  The  intersection  of  a  slope  with  th£  ground  sur- 
face in  cuts,  and  the  plane  of  roadbed  on  embankment. 

TOE  OF  SLOPE. —  The  intersection  of  a  slope  with  the  ground  sur- 
face in  embankments,  and  the  plane  of  roadbed  in  cuts. 
Group  D  —  Clearing. 

BRUSH. —  Trees  less  than  4-in.  stump-top  diameter,  shrubs  or 
branches  of  trees  that  have  been  cut  off. 

CLEARING. —  Removing  natural  and  artificial  perishable  obstruc- 
tions to  grading. 

GRUBBING. —  Removing  the  stumps  and  roots. 
Group  D  —  Drainage. 

BOG.-^-  Soft,  spongy  ground,  usually  wet  and  composed  of  more 
or  less  vegetable  matter. 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      21 

CHANNEL. —  The  depression  or  cut  in  which  a  stream  is  confined. 

CULVERT. —  An  arched,  circular  or  flat  covered  opening  of  timber, 
iron,  brick  or  masonry,  carried  under  the  ro'adbed  for  the 
passage  of  water,  or  for  other  purposes. 

DRAIN. —  An  artificial  waterway  for  conducting  water  from  the 
roadway. 

DRAINAGE.— The  interception  and  removal  of  water  from,  upon 
or  under  the  roadway.  . 

DITCH. —  An  open  artificial  waterway  for  providing  drainage. 

INTERCEPTING  DITCH. —  An  open  artificial  waterway  for  prevent- 
ing surface  water  from  flowing  over  the  slopes  of  a  cut  or 
against  the  foot  of  an  embankment. 

SUBDRAIN. —  A  covered  drain,  below  the  roadbed  or  ground  sur- 
face, receiving  the  water  along  its  length  by  absorption  or 
through  the  joints. 

TRENCH. —  A  narrow,  shallow  excavation  to  receive  a  structure. 

WATERWAY. —  A  channel,  either  natural  or  artificial,  for  conduct- 
ing the  flow  of  water. 
Group  F  —  Grading. 

AVERAGE  HAUL. —  The  mean  distance  material  is  to  be  hauled. 

AVERAGE  TOTAL  HAUL. —  The  average  total  distance  material  is  to 
be  hauled. 

BENCHED. —  Formed  into  a  series  of  benches. 

BERME. —  (a)  The  space  left  between  the  top  or  toe  of  slope  and 
excavation  made  for  intercepting  ditches  or  borrow  pits, 
(b)  An  approximately  horizontal  space  introduced  in  a  slope. 

BORROW    (verb). —  To  take- material  from  a  borrow  pit. 

BORROW    ( noun ) . —  Material  removed  from  a  borrow  pit. 

BORROW  PIT. —  An  excavation  made  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
material. 

EMBANKMENT  (or  Fill). —  A  bank  of  earth,  rock  or  other  ma- 
terial constructed  above  the  natural  ground  surface. 

EXCAVATION  (or  Cutting). —  (a)  The  cutting  down  of  the  natural 
ground  surface;  (b)  The  material  taken  from  cuttings,  bor- 
row pits  or  foundation  pits;  (c)  The  space  formed  by  remov- 
ing material. 

FOUNDATION  PIT. —  An  excavation  made  for  laying  the  foundation 
of  a  structure. 

HAUL. —  The  distance  material  is  moved  in  the  construction  of  the 
roadway. 

FREE  HAUL. —  The  distance  within  which  material  is  moved  with- 
out extra  compensation. 

OVERHAUL. —  The  number  of  cu.  yd.  moved  through  the  over- 
haul distance  multiplied  by  the  overhaul  distance  in  units  of 
100  ft. 


22  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

OVERHAUL,  DISTANCE. —  The  distance  beyond  the  free-haul  limit 
that  material  is  hauled  in  constructing  the  roadway,  for 
which  extra  compensation  is  allowed. 

RAMP. —  An  inclined  approach. 

SHRINKAGE. —  The  contraction  of  material. 

STEPPED. —  Formed  into  a  series  of  steps. 

TAMPED   (or  Packed). —  Packed  down  by  light  blows. 

TOTAL  HAUL. —  The  total  distance  that  material  is  to  be  hauled. 

WASTE. —  Material  from  excavation  not  used  in  the  formation  of 
the  roadway. 

WASTE  OR  SPOIL  BANKS. —  Banks  outside  the  roadway  formed  by 

waste. 
Group  G  —  Tunnels. 

CURB.—  A  broad,  flat  ring  of  wood,  iron  or  masonry,  placed  under 
the  bottom  of  a  shaft  to  prevent  unequal  settlement,  or  built 
into  the  walls  at  intervals  for  the  same  purpose. 

ROCK. —  A  solid  mass  of  mineral  substance. 

SHAFT. —  A  pit  or  well  sunk  from  the  ground  surface  above  into 
a  tunnel  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  ventilation  or  for  fa- 
cilitating the  work  by  increasing  the  number  of  points  from 
which  it  may  be  carried  on. 

TUNNEL. —  An  excavated  passageway  under  ground  or  water. 

WELL  (or  Sump). —  A  cistern  or  wrell  into  which  water  may  be 
conducted  by  ditches  to  drain  other  portions  of  a  piece  of 
work. 

Measurement.  Earthwork  is  measured  and  paid  for  by  the 
cubic  yard  or  cubic  meter.  Usually  the  measurement  is  of  earth 
"  in  place,"  that  is  in  the  natural  -bank,  cut  or  pit,  before  loosen- 
ing. This  is  called  "  place  measurement."  Where  small  embank- 
ments are  built  from  side  borrow  or  from  other  irregular  pits, 
it  is  more  convenient  to  measure  the  material  in  the  embankment, 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  this  should  not  be  done.  Levees  and 
dikes  are  usually  paid  for  by  the  cubic  yard  of  compact  embank- 
ment, the  allowance  required  for  shrinkage  being  given  in  the 
specifications  and  stated  to  apply  to  the  slopes  as  well  as  the  top 
of  the  dike.  Structures  built  by  hydraulic  fill  are  measured  in 
embankment.  Dredging  is  often  paid  for  by  measurement  in 
scows. 

Measurement  "  in  place  "  is  most  satisfactory  and  should  ordi- 
narily be  adhered  to  for  all  "  useful  excavation,"  that  is,  where 
material  is  cleared  away  from  -required  space  to  make  room  for 
a  building,  railway,  canal  or  other  structure.  Excavation  done 
to  procure  material  for  building  embankments  is  called  "  borrow." 
This,  too,  should  be  measured  in  place  if  the  borrow  pits  can  be 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      23 

readily  cross-sectioned  and  if  the  means  of  transportation  are 
such  that  none  of  the  material  is  lost;  otherwise  it  is  best 
measured  in  embankment.  But  in  any  case  the  specifications 
should  say  how  measurement  is  to  be  made;  and  if  in  embank- 
ment, they  should  say  how  soon  after  completion  the  embankment 
is  to  be  measured  and  what,  if  any,  allowance  is  to  be  made  for 
shrinkage. 

On  railway  and  other  similar  work  "  useful  excavation "  from 
cuts  is  used  to  build  nearby  embankments.  This  material  is  not 
paid  for  twice,  but  it  is  specified  that  it  shall  be  hauled  a  cer- 
tain minimum  distance,  called  "  free  haul,"  without  extra  com- 
pensation. Transportation  beyond  this  distance,  called  "  over- 
haul," is  paid  for  in  cents  per  cu.  yd.  per  100  ft.  of  overhaul. 
When  the  distance  from  cut  to  fill  becomes  so  great  that  the  cost 
of  overhaul  is  greater  than  the  cost  of  excavation,  material  from 
the  cut  is  wasted,  and  a  borrow  pit  is  opened  to  obtain  material 
for  the  embankment.  In  this  case  double  payment  is  made,  one 
for  the  yardage  borrowed,  and  one  for  the  yardage  wasted. 

Legality  of  Methods  of  Calculating  Earthwork.  It  is  not  the 
author's  intention  to  discuss  methods  of  staking  out,  measuring 
and  calculating  volumes  in  this  book.  These  operations  are 
classed  as  surveying,  and  information  concerning  them  is  readily 
available  in  books  on  that  subject.  One  point  however  in  which 
some  of  the  text  books  are  misleading  is  that  they  lay  undue 
emphasis  on  the  value  of  the  prismoidal  formula.  The  method  of 
computing  by  average  end  areas  is  equally  accurate  if  intelligently 
used,  is  much  simpler,  and  has  the  sanction  of  the  courts.  The 
laws  of  some  states  provide  that  "  in  the  absence  of  any  specified 
agreement  as  to  measurement,"  the  "  average  end-area "  formula 
must  be  used. 

Search  No.  774  in  the  library  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers  gives  references  on  the  law  of  New  York  State  in  re- 
gard to  the  calculation  of  earthwork. 

In  a  law  suit  over  a  contract  for  railroad  building  in  South 
Dakota  the  court  favored  the  prismoidal  formula  over  the  aver- 
age end-area  method  of  computation.  That  this  decision  was 
brought  about  by  the  misuse  of  the  average  end-area  method  is 
shown  by  the  following,  which  is  taken  from. a  history  of  the 
case  by  Francis  C.  Tucker  in  Jour.  Asso.  Eng.  Soc.,  Vol.  15,  1895. 

Another  reason  for  large  differences  in  quantities  was  that  the 
engineers  of  the  Railroad  Company  substantially  gave  the  true 
prismoidal  quantities,  while  the  quantities  given  by  the  sub-con- 
tractor's engineer  were  obtained  by  averaging  end  areas  without 
correcting  in  any  way  for  the  most  extreme  differences  in  con- 
secutive cross-sections,  although  he  took  his  cross-sections  much 


24  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

further  apart,  usually,  than  the  Company's  engineers  did,  thereby 
much  increasing  the  need  of  correction.  He  carried  the  method 
of  averaging  end  areas  to  the  extreme  of  using  it  at  both  ends  of 
every  cut  on  side-hill;  that  is,  he  invariably  treated  material 
which  was  actually  pyramidal  in  form  as  being  wedge-shape, 
thereby  increasing  the  quantity  by  50%.  An  attempt  was  made 
in  the  evidence  to  show  that  custom  had  established  the  method 
of  averaging  end  areas  without  correction ;  in  effect,  legalizing  it. 
To  disprove  this  the  defendants  introduced  in  evidence  the  fol- 
lowing portions  of  standard  works: 

Computation  from  Diagrams  of  Railway  Earthwork,  Wellington.  Preface, 
page  4. 

"  Economic  Theory  of  Location  of  Railways,  Wellington."  Page  896, 
articles  1257  and  1258. 

"Field  Engineering,"  Searles.  Page  203,  article  235;  page  225,  article 
254;  page  229,  article  256;  page  236,  article  263;  page  200,  article  231;  page 
201,  article  232. 

il  Excavations  and   Embankments,"   Trautwine. 

"Engineer's  Pocket-Book,"  twenty-fifth  thousand;  page  161,  Trautwine. 

"  Mensuration  of  Volumes."     Page  129,   Davies'   Legendre. 

They  also  claimed  a  strict  interpretation  of  the  contract,  which 
says :  "  Payment  being  made  only  for  number  of  yards  actually 
removed  by  contractor,  within  the  specified  slope,  grade  and  sur- 
face planes."  and  "  Earthwork  will  be  computed  from  cross-sec- 
tion notes  of  excavation  prisms;  that  is,  the  quantities  between 
the  slope,  grade  and  surface  planes  shall  be  taken,  and  shall  be 
paid  for  by  the  cubic  yard  of  twenty-seven  (27)  cubic  feet." 

To  show  the  importance  of  this  question  of  methods,  and  the 
extortion  that  an  unscrupulous  engineer  might  perpetrate  by  a 
judicious  misuse  of  the  averaging  end-area  method  without  cor- 
rection, several  test  cases  were  selected  from  the  cross-sections 
as  measured  and  used  by  the  sub-contractor's  engineer,  models 
,  were  made  and  put  in  evidence,  and  the  differences  between  the 
two  methods  of  computation  amply  testified  to.  ,  In  one  instance 
that  engineer  added,  according  to  his  own  measurements,  in  a 
prismoid  only  32  ft.  long,  439  cu.  yd.  of  excess,  and  this  in  solid 
rock. 

The  following  from  "Wellington's  Economic  Theory  of  Railway 
Location,"  correctly  and  concisely  states  the  proper  use  of  the 
two  methods  of  calculating  volumes: 

"  The  nature  of  the  error  in  the  method  of  computing  by  aver- 
age end  areas  is  this:  The  error  increases  as  the  square  of  the 
difference  in  center  height,  and  is  not  in  the  least  affected  by  the 
absolute  volume  of  the  solid.  The  heavier  the  work,  therefore, 
or  the  less  the  sudden  changes  of  profile,  the  less  the  proportion- 
ate error.  That  cut  is  an  unusual  one  in  which  the  error  is  more 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      25 

than  5  per  cent,  and  that  section  of  road  would  be  very  unusual 
on  which  the  error  was  more  than  1  per  cent,  and  this  error  is 
always  in  excess.  There  are  indeed  certain  possible  solids  in 
which  the  error  will  be  In  deficiency  and  certain  others  (those 
whose  width  on  top  is  the  same  while  the  center  heights  differ,  or 
vice  versa)  in  which  the  end-area  method  is  precisely  correct, 
while  certain  methods  by  the  prismoidal  formula  which  appear 
much  more  exact  will  give  a  deficiency;  but  except  on  perhaps 
one  solid  in  a  thousand  averaging  end  areas  always  gives  an  ex- 
cess of  volume. 

"  All  methods  of  computing  volume  by  first  transforming  the 
end  sections  into  equivalent  level-sections  introduces  a  constant 
tendency  to  deficiency,  and  for  that  and  other  reasons  are  worse 
than  useless  labor,  far  simpler  methods  giving  a  more  accurate 
result.  The  proper  method  of  computing  earthwork  in  con- 
struction is  to  compute  by  end  areas  only,  and  then  at  any  later 
time  when  convenience  serves  to  determine  prismoidal  corrections 
for  those  solids  which  need  it  only,  which  are  those  differing 
by  more  than  two  or  three  ft.  in  center  height." 

In  Engineering  News,  Dec.  13,  1002,  I  deduced  a  simple  correc- 
tion formula  for  calculating  earthwork  by  which  the  "  mean  end- 
areas  formula  "  results  can  be  corrected  with  ease  and  rapidity. 
I  also  derived  the  following  rule  for  accurate  use  of  the  mean 
end-areas  formula : 

Take  cross-sections  so  close  together  that  no  cut  or  fill  shall 
exceed  by  more  than  50%  the  corresponding  cut  or  fill  in  the 
previous  cross-section;  except  that  where  the  previous  fill  is  0 
the  next  cut  or  fill  must  be  2  ft.  or  less. 

Classification  of  Excavation.  There  is  no  scientific  distinction 
between  earth  and  rock,  the  line  of  demarcation  being  entirely 
arbitrary.  Various  classifications  have  been  used  on  different 
works,  but  none  yet  devised  is  entirely  satisfactory,  and  no 
phase  of  earthwork  is  so  fruitful  of  disputes  with  contractors  as 
this. 

The  old  test  for  earthwork,  now  generally  discredited,  was  that 
material  which  could  be  plowed  by  a  four-horse  or  a  six-horse  team 
should  be  classed  as  earth,  and  all  other  material  as  rock.  This 
test  had  many  limitations  and  disadvantages.  Much  material 
exists  that  cannot  be  plowed,  yet  is  not  called  rock.  Plows  can- 
not be  used  at  all  on  the  rough  surfaces  of  steam  shovel  cuts, 
and  the  test  is  utterly  useless  on  frozen  ground. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  a  better  test  would  be  to  classify 
as  rock  all  material  in  which  holes  for  blasting  must  be  drilled; 
material  in  which  holes  for  blasting  can  be  made  by  driving  a  bar 


26  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

at  a  specified  rate  per  minute,  would  then  be  classed  hardpan; 
and  material  in  which  a  bar  can  be  driven  at  faster  than  the 
specified  rate,  as  average  earth. 

A  better  way  out  of  the  difficulty  is  to  avoid  verbal  classifica- 
tion entirely,  marking  on  the  profile  what  the  materials  are  in 
each  cut,  and  specifying  that  payment  will  be  made  for  materials, 
as  classified  on  the  profile,  and  not  otherwise.  This,  of  course, 
involves  thorough  exploration  of  the  ground  during  the  survey; 
but  such  an  exploration  should  usually  be  made  in  any  case. 

Specifications  for  the  Classification  of  Excavation  were  sug- 
gested by  James  H.  Bacon  in  a  paper  before  the  American  So- 
ciety of  Engineering  Contractors,  Jan.,  1910.  The  following  is 
taken  from  an  abstract  of  his  paper  appearing  in  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Feb.  23,  1910: 

There  should  be  only  three  classes  of  excavated  material,  not 
including  excavation  under  water,  or  excavation  or  removal  of  any 
artificial  work  such  as  old  masonry,  etc.  These  three  classes 
should  be:  (1)  Solid  rock.  (2)  Loose  rock.  (3)  Common  ex- 
cavation. 

Common  Excavation.  In  many  specifications  the  dividing  line 
between  common  excavation  and  loose  rock  is  determined  by  the 
"plow  test";  this  test  should  be  discarded  entirely  as  unsatis- 
factory. There  are  thousands  of  acres,  which  may  in  the  future 
be  crossed  by  railways,  where  the  material  to  be  moved  has  not 
the  faintest  resemblance  to  rock  and  where  no  sane  man  would 
attempt  to  break  ground  with  a  plow.  The  plow  test  is  impos- 
sible, and  the  logical  result,  if  the  specifications  provide  this 
test,  is  that  such  material  must  be  classed  as  loose  rock. 

Many  of  the  western  roads  have  discarded  this  test  and  specify 
that  "  all  material  not  classed  as  loose  or  solid  rock  shall  be 
common  excavation."  The  companies  using  this  specification  spe- 
cify that  loose  rock  shall  be  any  rock  that  can  be  removed  without 
blasting,  although  blasting  may  occasionally  be  resorted  to,  or 
any  rock  in  detached  masses  varying  in  size  between  given  limits, 
and  that  solid  rock  shall  be  rock  in  masses  that  cannot  be  re- 
moved without  blasting.  It  will  be  noticed  that  these  specifica- 
tions require  a  definition  of  the  word  "  rock." 

Mr.  Bacon  submits  the  following  specifications  for  excavated 
material : 

In  these  specifications  the  word  "  rock "  shall  be  interpreted 
to  mean  any  portion  of  the  consolidated  material  forming  the 
crust  of  the  earth  which  has  a  greater  volume  than  1  cu.  ft. 
Un  con  soli  da  ted  materials,  such  as  sand,  gravel,  clay,  hardpan, 
are  not  rock  under  these  specifications. 

Solid  Rock.     All  rock  in  masses  that  cannot  be  removed  without 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      27 

drilling  and  blasting.  All  boulders  or  detached  pieces  of  rock 
that  measure  1  cu.  yd.  or  more  in  volume. 

Loose  Rock.  All  rock  which  is  loose  or  soft  enough  to  be  re- 
moved without  blasting,  although  blasting  may,  at  the  option  of 
the  contractor,  be  occasionally  resorted  to.  Detached  pieces  of 
rock  measuring  in  volume  from  1  cu.  ft.  to  1  cu.  yd. 

Common  Excavation.     All  material  not  solid  or  loose  rock. 

The  sizes  specified  for  boulders  and  detached  pieces  are  of  course 
subject  to  be  changed  according  to  varying  circumstances.'  No 
tests  are  recommended,  as  the  writer  believes  that  they  would 
serve  no  useful  purpose  and  tend  to  cause  complications. 

Excavation  Under  Water.  This  classification  should  be  applied 
to  all  channels  and  pits  under  water  which  cannot  be  drained  by 
ditching.  The  price  or  prices  paid  should  be  per  cubic  yard  and 
should  cover  all  material  and  labor,  including  coffer  dams,  neces- 
sary to  do  the  excavation  required.  There  should  be  at  least  two 
classes — i.e.,  with  and  without  coffer  dams.  In  many  cases 
special  specifications  would  be  necessary. 

Overhaul.  Overhaul  should  be  paid  for,  a  price  fixed  by  the 
company,  per  cu.  yd.  per  hundred  feet  beyond  the  free  haul, 
and  the  method  by  which  overhaul  is  to  be  calculated  should  be 
described.  The  price  should  equal  the  cost  of  the  work  and  is 
therefore  a  variable  quantity.  The  limit  of  free  haul  is  also  vari- 
able. Both  price  and  free  haul  limit  should  be  accurately  fixed 
for  each  section. 

A  Cassification  According  to  Difficulty  of  Picking.  Wm.  O. 
Lichtner,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  17,  1913,  outlines 
a  system  of  classification  that  has  been  used  with  success  in  tak- 
ing time  studies  on  sewer  work. 

Many  varying  materials  were  encountered  on  this  work  rang- 
ing from  fine  dry  quicksand,  through  stiff  clay  to  solid  rock. 
Attempts  to  classify  and  study  these  materials  according  to  or- 
dinary methods  were  unsuccessful  although  made  with  very 
great  care.  It  was  found  that  considerable  difference  existed 
from  day  to  day  in  the  cost  of  excavating  what  appeared  to  be 
the  same  material. 

A  new  set  of  time  studies  were  made,  adopting  a  new  classifi- 
cation based  on  two  variables,  first,  on  the  time  it  takes  to  pick 
the  material,  and  secondly  on  the  time  it  takes  to  shovel  the 
material  after  it  is  picked.  The  material  to  be  excavated  then 
would  be  designated  by  two  capital  letters  like  BA.  The  first 
letter  always  designated  the  picking  element  and  the  second  let- 
ter the  shoveling  element.  By  time  studies  the  amount  of  time 
it  would  take  a  man  to  pick  one  cu.  ft.  of  material  was  deter- 
mined and  classified  as  B  picking;  also  a  time  per  cu.  ft.  was 


28  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

determined  for  C  picking,  etc.  In  a  similar  manner,  time  per 
cu.  ft.  was  determined  for  all  kinds  of  shoveling.  The  pick- 
ing classification,  which  was  always  the  first  letter  and  always 
made  with  a  capital,  was  as  follows: 

A  —  No  picking  required. 

B  —  Loosens  uniformly  into  fine  material,  with  no  appreciable 
lumps,  and  picks  easily. 

C' — Loosens  easily  into  its  component  parts  like  a  non- 
homogeneous  material,  as  gravel  mixed  with  sand,  clay,  or  loam. 
Gravel  less  than  50%  and  not  large. 

D  —  Same  as  B  except  pick  does  not  enter  readily. 

E  —  Loosens  into  lumps  like  a  homogeneous  material,  not  as 
hard  as  J. 

F  —  Loosens  hard  into  component  parts  like  a  non-homogeneous 
material  as  a  cemented  gravel. 

G  —  Loosens  into  lumps  and  picks  hard  like  a  homogeneous  ma- 
terial which  is  brittle. 

H  —  Loosens  into  lumps.     Material  very  tenacious. 

I  —  Loosens  into  large  lumps  with  very  little  fine. 

J  —  Loosens  hard  on  account  of  pick  striking  stones. 

K  —  Loosening  small  boulders  in  trench  (1  man  size). 

L —  Loosening  large  boulders  in  trench. 

M  — Sledging  rock. 

The  shoveling  classif.cation,  which  was  always  the  second  let- 
ter and  always  made  with  a  capital,  was  as  follows: 

A  —  Finely  divided  material  which  heaps  up  on  shovel. 

B  —  Finely  divided  material  which  does  not  heap  up  on  shovel. 

C  —  Lumpy  and  fine  material  mixed. 

D  —  Loose  material  like  sand,  clay,  or  loam,  mixed  with  small 
gravel. 

E  —  Same  as  D  except  large  gravel. 

F  —  Finely  divided  material.  Can  be  spaded  easily  and  re- 
quires no  picking. 

G  —  Supersaturated  clay  which  can  be  shoveled. 

H  —  Supersaturated  clay  which  must  be  baled  out  in  buckets. 

I  —  Supersaturated  material  with  small  boulders  which  is  baled 
out  in  buckets. 

J  —  Sticky  material  which  adheres  to  shovel. 

K  —  Large  lumpy  material  which  averages  1  to  2  lumps  per 
shovel. 

L  —  Lifting  small  boulders  from  trench    (1  man  size). 

M  —  Lifting  large  boulders  from  trench. 

This  classification  has  been  used  with  great  success  for  some 
time  now  and  is  a  most  satisfactory  classification  for  practical 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      29 

purposes.  The  determination  of  the  time  for  each  one  of  these 
items  is  a  matter  of  time  study  which  can  be  readily  accom- 
plished. Studies  will  have  to  be  made,  of  course,  to  take  care 
of  the  great  number  of  variables,  and  tables  compiled  accord- 
ingly- 

Railway  Specifications  of  Classification.  W.  F.  Dennis  pre- 
sented a  paper  in  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  June,  1907.  An  abstract 
of  this  paper  appears  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  30, 
Feb.  6,  and  April  10,  1907.  Mr.  Dennis  says  in  part: 

Nearly  all  railroads  find  it  useful  to  retain  classification  in 
their  forms  of  agreement.  Such  classification  gives  a  solid  rock 
material  at  one  end  and  an  earthy  material  at  the  other,  with 
generally  an  intermediate  material  called  loose  rock,  and  fre- 
quently an  additional  hardpan  classification,  formerly  more  com- 
mon than  now. 

While  classification,  in  the  opinion  of  some  roads,  leads  to  law 
suits,  the  writer  believes  that  it  saves  money  by  reducing  the 
contractor's  risk,  a  matter  that  could  be  accomplished  otherwise 
only  by  investigations,  not  always  practical. 

Is  it  practicable  to  make  a  test  upon  the  materials  generally 
found  in  excavation  for  public  work?  As  a  first  criterion,  a 
simple,  measurable  test,  easily  applicable,  and  defining  what 
should  be  properly  in  the  "  earth "  classification,  is  whether  or 
not  the  material  can  be  plowed  in  its  natural  state  by  a  definite 
plow  pulled  by  a  definite  number  and  weight  of  stock.  Whether 
this  material  is  moved  by  scraper,  grader,  cart,  car,  wheelbarrow, 
or  steam  shovel,  what  is  meant  is  clearly  described,  namely  a  ma- 
terial which  a  designated  plow  will  produce  in  shoveling  condi- 
tion. This  description  excludes  from  the  earth  classification  some 
material  included  in  some  earth  specifications,  and  includes  some 
material  which,  in  others,  is  classed  as  loose  rock  or  as  hardpan. 
As  will  be  seen  later,  earthy  material,  not  included  in  the 
"  earth  "  classiiication,  goes  to  an  intermediate  classification,  for 
convenience  and  other  considerations,  termed  "  loose  rock." 

The  reason  for  placing  the  earthy  material,  sometimes  included 
in  earth  and  hardpan  classifications,  in  the  loose-rock  classifica- 
tion, is  the  obvious  one  of  similarity  of  voost.  If  the  material 
is  too  wet  to  be  plowed,  as  in  case  of  swamp  muck,  quicksands 
and  some  gumbos;  or  is  too  hard  to  be  plowed,  like  hardpan,  ce- 
mented gravel,  etc.,  holding  to  the  proper  theory  of  grouping  by 
rough  similarity  in  cost,  no  designation  by  name  can  properly 
make  it  "earth"  (in  a  cost  sense)  for  all  appliances,  although 
it  might  be  for  some.  Additional  costly  work  may  be  required  to 
get  the  material  loaded  or  transported.  In  some  cases  the  cost 
of  unplowable  earthy  material  may  approximate  and  exceed 


30  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

that  of  solid  rock;  but,  speaking  generally,  the  cost  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  cost  of  loose  rock,  and  such  material  is  most  fairly 
included  in  that  classification. 

Preliminary  to  the  consideration  of  a  physical  test  for  solid 
and  loose  rock,  the  following  definitions  have  been  abstracted 
from  current  specifications: 

Solid  Rock 

New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford. — "  All  rock  or  stone  con- 
taining one  cubic  yard  or  more."  (All  other  material  is 
earth. ) 

Erie. — "  Rock  in  masses  exceeding  one  cubic  yard,  which  cannot 
be  removed  without  blasting." 

Pennsylvania. — "  Rock  in  masses  exceeding  one  cubic  yard,  which 
cannot  be  removed  without  blasting." 

Baltimore  and  Ohio. — "  Rock  in  solid  beds  or  masses,  which  may 
be  best  removed  by  blasting." 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio. — "  Rock  in  ledges  and  detached  masses  ex- 
ceeding one-half  cubic  yard,  which  may  best  be  removed  by 
blasting." 

Norfolk  and  Western. — "  Rock  in  masses  which  may  best  be  re- 
moved by  blasting." 

Southern. — "  Rock  in  masses  of  more  than  one  cubic  yard,  which 
may  be  best  removed  by  blasting." 

"  Big  Four." — "  Stone  in  solid  masses  or  ledges." 

Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy. — "  Stratified  rock  weighing  more 
than  140  Ib.  per  cubic  foot,  which  can  only  be  removed  by 
blasting." 

Chicago  and  Alton. — "  All  stratified  rock  and  rock  occurring  in 
masses  which  can  only  be  removed  by  blasting  .  .  .  must 
ring  under  hammer." 

Great  Northern. — "  Rock  in  place,  in  removing  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  resort  to  drilling  and  blasting." 

Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe. — "  Rock  in  solid  beds  or  masses  in 
its  original  or  stratified  position  .  .  .  other  material  which 
can  be  removed  without  continuous  drilling  and  blasting, 
but  which  is  as  difficult  ...  as  solid  lime  or  sandstone." 

Illinois  Central. — "  Rock  in  solid  beds  or  masses  in  its  original 
position  .  .  .  which  may  best  be  removed  by  blasting." 
(Everything  else  classed  as  "common  excavation.") 

Northern  Pacific. — "  All  rock  in  masses  that  cannot  be  removed 
without  drilling  and  blasting." 

Missouri  Pacific. — "  Rock  in  solid  beds  or  masses,  in  its  original 
position,  which  can  only  be  removed  by  continuous  Wasting." 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      31 

What  is   "  rock  "  and   "  stone  "  ?     Notice  the   following  defini- 
tions: 

Standard  Dictionary. —  Rock. — "  The  consolidated  material  form- 
ing the  crust  of  the  earth.  .  .  not  excluding  beds  of  clay  or 
sand  ...  a  rock  may  consist  of  one  mineral  species,  as  lime- 
stone, or  of  several  intermingled,  as  granite  .  .  .  massive 
rock,  a  rock  that  does  not  exhibit  foliation  or  schistose  struc- 
ture." 

Stone. — "  A  small  piece  of  rock.  Rock  as  a  material,  a 
piece  of  rock  shaped  for  a  specific  purpose.  Synonyms,  boul- 
ders, cobble,  mineral,  gem,  pebble." 

Century  Dictionary. —  Rock. — "  The  mass  of  mineral  matter  of 
which  the  earth,  so  far  as  accessible  to  observation,  is  made 
up;  a  mass,  fragment  or  piece  of  the  crust,  if  too  large  to  be 
designated  as  a  stone.  The  unconsolidated  stony  materials 
which  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  superficial  crust,  such 
as  sand,  gravel  and  clay,  are  not  commonly  designated  as 
rock  or  rocks;  the  geologist  .  .  .  includes  under  the  term 
rock  ...  all  of  the  consolidated  materials  forming  the  crust, 
as  well  as  the  fragmental  or  detrital  beds  which  have  been 
derived  from  it." 

Stone. — "  A  piece  of  rock.  The  name  rock  is  given  to  the 
aggregation  of  mineral  matter  of  which  the  earth's  crust  is 
made  up.  A  small  piece  or  fragment  of  this  rock  is  generally 
called  a  stone." 

Webster's  Dictionary. —  Rock.—-"  Any  natural  deposit  forming 
part  of  the  earth's  crust,  whether  consolidated  or  not." 

Stone. — "  Concreted,  earthy  or  mineral  matter  .  .  .  also 
any  particular  mass  of  such  matter.  In  popular  language, 
very  large  masses  of  stone  are  called  rocks;  small  masses  are 
called  stones;  and  finer  kinds,  gravel  or  sand." 
Gillette's  "  Rock  Excavation." — "  Rocks  are  aggregates  of  one  or 
more  minerals,  or  the  disintegrated  products  of  minerals." 

These  definitions  do  not  help  to  clear  up  any  uncertainties  there 
may  be  in  railroad  classifications. 

Loose  Rock     t  ?,/.- 

•ifrjf'tfrf*    -"-jo «.-.:;.;    i:'...fUt>>      r>  '  .     n-t.-hvV«ifc    m^i- 

Erie. — "  Slate,  shale  or  other  rock  which  can  properly  be  removed 

by  steam  shovel,  pick  or  bar,  without  blasting,  although  blast- 
ing may  be  resorted  to  on  favorable  occasions  to  facilitate 
the  work  .  .  .  detached  masses,  3  cu.  ft.  to   1  cu.  yd." 
Pennsylvania. — "  Stone  and  detached  rock  lying  in  separate  and 
continuous  masses  containing  not  over  one  cubic  yard;   also 


32  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

all  slate  or  other  rock  that  can  be  quarried  without  blasting, 
although  blasting  may  be  occasionally  resorted  to." 

Baltimore  and  Ohio. — "  Slate,  coal,  shale,  soft  friable  sandstone 
and  soapstone,  detached  masses  3  cu.  ft.  to  1  cu.  yd." 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio. — "  Shale,  slate,  ochre,  which  can  be  removed 
with  pick  and  bar,  and  is  soft  and  loose  enough  to  be  re- 
moved without  blasting,  although  blasting  may  be  occasion- 
ally resorted  to.  Detached  masses  3  cu.  ft.  to  1  cu.  yd." 

Southern. — "  Soapstone,  shale  and  other  rock  which  can  be  re- 
moved by  pick  and  bar  and  is  soft  and  loose  enough  to  be 
removed  without  blasting,  although  blasting  may  be  occa- 
sionally resorted  to.  Detachtd  stone  1  cu.  ft.  to  1  cu.  yd." 

Norfolk  and  Western. — "  Shale,  soapstone,  and  other  rock  which 
can  be  removed  by  pick  and  bar,  and  is  soft  and  loose  enough 
to  be  removed  without  blasting,  although  blasting  may  be  .oc- 
casionally resorted  to.  Detached  masses  1  cu.  ft.  to  1  cu.  yd." 

"  Big  Four." — "  Shale,  coal,  slate,  soft  sandstone,  soapstone,  con- 
glomerate stratified  limestone  in  layers  less  than  6  in. —  de- 
tached masses  3  cu.  ft.  to  1  cu.  yd." 

Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy. — "  Stratified  rock  which  can  be 
removed  by  pick  and  bar  weighing  more  than  140  Ib.  per  cu. 
ft.  Detached  masses  3  cu.  ft.  to  1  cu.  yd." 

Chicago  and  Alton. — "  Stratified  rock  which  can  be  removed  by 
pick  and  bar  .  .  .  and  masses  between  3  cu.  ft.  and  1  cu.  yd." 

Great  Northern. — "  Slate  and  other  rock,  and  loose  enough  to  be 
removed  without  blasting,  although  blasting  may  be  occa- 
sionally resorted  to.  Detached  stone  3  cu.  ft.  to  1  cu.  yd. 

Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe. — "  Hard  shale  or  soapstone  .  .  . 
in  original  or  stratified  position,  boulders  in  gravel,  cemented 
gravel,  hardpan  .  .  .  and  other  material  requiring  .  .  .  use 
of  pick  and  bar  or  which  cannot  be  plowed  with  10-in.  plow 
and  6-horse  team." 

Illinois  Central. —  (No  loose  rock.  Everything  but  solid  rock 
classed  as  common  excavation.) 

Northern  Pacific. — "  Slate,  soft  sandstones,  or  other  rock  that 
can  be  ...  removed  without  blasting1  .  .  .  detached  rock 
between  1  cu.  ft.  and  1  cu.  yd." 

Missouri  Pacific. — "  All  rock  .  .  .  which  requires  for  its  removal 
steam  shovel  or  pick  and  bar,  without  blasting,  although 
blasting  may  be  resorted  to  at  the  option  of  the  contractor. 
Detached  masses  1  to  18  cu.  ft." 

A  composite  view  of  the  several  descriptions  of  rock  and  loose 
rock  would  reduce  to  about  this:  Rocky  material  which  can  be 
removed  without  blasting  is  loose  rock;  and  that  which  cannot  is 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      33 

solid  rock.  That  word  "  can  "  is  the  whole  of  the  question,  the 
uncertainty  of  the  answer  to  which  causes  most  of  the  disputes 
about  classification. 

Taking  a  general  view,  the  difference  between  materials  in  a 
construction  sense  is  obtained  by  the  writer  from  consideration  of 
the  operations  necessary  in  loading  such  material.  Earth  is  a 
material  which  can  be  reduced  to  loading  condition  by  plowing  or 
equivalent  inexpensive  picking  or  blasting.  Loose  rock  is  a  ma- 
terial which  generally  can  be  put  into  handling  shape  by  picking, 
barring  and  light  sledging,  or,  in  lieu  thereof,  by  moderate  blast- 
ing, but  it  is  not  quite  as  easy  to  load  as  earth.  Solid  rock 
is  a  more  refractory  material,  requiring  drilling,  strong  explosives, 
and  general  sledging;  and,  with  this  additional  expense,  is  not 
capable  of  reduction  to  a  loading  condition  as  favorable  as  the 
other  materials. 

Can  a  physical  uniform  test  be  applied?  It  is  known  that  cer- 
tain soft  or  fractured  rocks  can  be  picked  or  barred  apart  with 
reasonable  rapidity,  and  customary  specifications  state  the  fact, 
but  do  not  state  the  rate.  By  definition  of  that  rate  the  classifi- 
cations of  rock  oan  be  clearly  defined.  The  writer  thinks  that, 
keeping  close  to  current  practice  in  classification,  the  rate  of 
disintegration  for  loose  rock  should  be  within  the  performance 
of  two  men  thus  employed.  A  material  requiring  mo.vi  than  two 
men  working  with  pick  and  bar  to  keep  one  shoveler  busy  is  cer- 
tainly a  material  that  "  may  better  be  removed  by  blasting  "  and 
which  "  can  only  be  removed  by  blasting,"  in  a  reasonable  sense, 

A  consideration  of  importance  is  the  size  of  the  rocky  mass  that 
must  be  exceeded  in  order  to  constitute  a  solid-rock  classification. 
In  hand-work  an  isolated  mass  of  3  cu.  ft.  can  be  handled  without 
much  difficulty;  but  any  larger  mass  will  require  disintegration 
before  loading.  The  expense  of  this  disintegration  per  cu.  yd. 
will.be  higher  than  that  for  disintegrating  masses  of  the  same  ma- 
terial which,  under  any  size  limit,  would  still  be  solid  rock.  In 
steam-shovel  work  very  considerable  masses  can  be  loaded  without 
disintegration,  and,  consequently,  without  much  real  extra  ex- 
pense. An  objection  to  a  small  size  limit  would  be  an  apparent 
necessity  for  more  particularity  of  measurement.  As  to  that,  the 
separate  quantities  in  mixed  material,  in  practice,  are  approxi- 
mated percentages,  and  are  as  easy  to  calculate  with  one  size 
limit  as  another.  Bearing  in  mind  the  theory  of  trying  to  fix 
classification  by  similarity  of  cost,  the  writer  thinks  that  1  cu. 
yd. —  the  limit  most  frequently  specified  —  is  too  high;  3  cu.  ft., 
although  right  in  one  view,  is  probably  too  lo*v;  and  that  the 
compromise  limit  of  %  cu.  yd.  would  be  about  right.  This  limit 
was  formerly  common,  and  is  still  retained  in  some  specifications, 


34  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

In  an  endeavor  to  set  forth  the  foregoing  more  clearly,  Mr.  Den- 
nis proposes  the  following  as  an  outline  classification: 

Excavation,  excepting  foundation  pits  for  structures,  elsewhere 
classified  separately  as  foundation  excavation,  shall  be  either  clas- 
sified or  unclassified,  as  may  be  determined  at  the  time  of  the 
contract.  If  classified,  the  following  classification  shall  apply: 

Earth. —  Material  which  in  its  customary  natural  condition  can 
be  plowed  —  or  is  equivalent  to  a  material  which  can  be  plowed  — 
with  a  plow  cutting  a  furrow  10  in.  wide  and  10  in.  deep,  drawn 
by  a  team  of  4  horses,  or  mules,  each  having  an  average  weight 
of  1,100  lb.,  and  moving  at  a  reasonable  plowing  speed,  shall  be 
classified  as  earth. 

Loose  Rock. —  The  following  shall  be  classified  as  loose  rock: 
Earthy  or  mixed  materials,  not  susceptible  of  plowing  under 
the  foregoing  test;  soft,  fractured,  disintegrated  or  other  rocky 
material,  soft  or  loose  enough  in  its  natural  condition  to  be  barred 
or  picked  apart  by  two  men  thus  employed  serving  one  man 
shoveling  or  loading  by  hand;  solid  rock  in  separate  masses  ex- 
ceeding 1  cu.  ft.  each,  and  not  exceeding  y2  cu.  yd.  The  contin- 
uous or  occasional  use  of  explosives,  at  the  contractor's  option, 
shall  not  affect  the  classification,  but  it  shall  be  governed  solely 
by  the  test  above  set  forth. 

Solid  Rock. —  The  following  shall  be  classified  as  solid  rock: 
Rocky  material  in  masses  exceeding  y2  cu-  y<U  which  cannot  be 
broken  apart,  or  displaced  from  its  natural  position,  except  by 
the  use  of  explosives;  and  other  rocky  material  which  cannot  be 
picked  or  barred  apart  by  two  men  thus  employed  serving  one 
man  shoveling  or  loading  by  hand. 

Where  any  excavation  contains  material  of  more  than  one  clas- 
sification, the  relative  percentage  of  each  shall  be  determined  by 
measurement  and  observation  during  the  progress  of  the  work. 

For  heavy  steam-shovel  work,  Mr.  Dennis'  opinion, is  that  there 
is  no  especial  benefit  in  a  distinction  by  classification  between 
loose  rock  and  earth,  and,  for  that  class  of  work,  a  classification 
for  solid  rock  and  another  for  all  other  material  would  be  suffi- 
cient; but  nearly  all  steam-shovel  work  involves  more  or  less 
miscellaneous  accessory  work  for  team  and  hand  appliances,  and 
the  loose-rock  classification  is  needful  for  them;  furthermore,  clas- 
sification on  all  work  would  become  better  established  by  its  uni- 
form practice. 

Excavation  for  foundations  of  pipes,  masonry,  or  other  struc- 
tures, shall  be  classified  as  foundation  excavation  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads: 

Dry -Foundation  Excavation.  Material  of  whatever  nature,  ex- 
cepting solid  rock,  found  above  water  level ; 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      35 

Rock- Foundation  Excavation.  Material,  elsewhere  defined  as 
solid  rock,  found  above  water  level; 

Wet-Foundation  Excavation.     All  material   below  water   level. 

By  "  water  level  "  is  meant  the  average  or  mean  level  during 
construction  at  which  pumping  or  bailing  becomes  necessary  in 
the  work  of  excavating.  The  quantity  of  wet  excavating  shall  be 
computed  as  a  prism  having  a  height  equal  to  the  distance  between 
the  average  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  foundation  pit  and  the 
water  level  and  a  base  equal  to  the  area  of  the  foundation  course 
plus  4  ft.  all  around.  The  dry  and  rock  excavation  quantities 
shall  be  computed  on  a  base  equal  to  the  bottom  area  of  the  wet 
excavation  as  above  defined,  with  the  necessary  slopes  to  the 
natural  surface. 

Wet  excavation  shall  include  the  cost  of  excavating,  piling, 
coffer-dams,  pumping,  bailing,  leveling  off  the  bottom,  and  the 
expense,  of  whatever  nature,  necessary  to  complete  the  founda- 
tion pit  from  low-water  level  to  the  level  finally  determined  for 
the  bottom,  and  to  maintain  the  foundation  pit  open  until  the 
structure  shall  have  been  placed  therein,  not,  however,  including 
the  placing  of  iron,  timber,  or  piles,  in  permanent  artificial  foun- 
dations, these  items  being  paid  for  under  a  separate  schedule 
elsewhere  described. 

The  prices  for  all  classes  of  foundation  excavation  shall  include 
the  cost  of  removing  the  spoil,  and  depositing  it  in  adjoining 
fills,  or  of  wasting  the  spoil,  if  such  deposit  in  fills  be  not  re- 
quired by  the  engineer;  and  also  the  cost  of  removing  such  por- 
tions of  coffer-dams  as  the  engineer  may  require,  for  appearance 
or  for  reducing  obstruction  to  the  waterway. 

Mr.  Dennis'  paper  brought  forth  much  discussion  in  which  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  most  of  those  who  favored  a  classification 
had  one  of  their  own  to  propose.  The  following  discussion  was 
contributed  by  the  author  of  this  work: 

It  would  be  difficult  to  select  any  work  so  hard  to  define  in 
words,  as  the  classes  of  excavation.  Earth  merges  by  insensible 
degrees  into  hardpan  or  shale;  hardpan  and  shale  merge  into 
conglomerate  and  slate  by  equally  insensible  degrees;  geologically, 
there  is  no  dividing  line  between  what  is  called  "  earth "  and 
what  is  called  "rock."  This  fact  is  well  illustrated  in  the  dic- 
tionary definitions  cited  by  the  author,  and  it  is  shown  even  better 
by  the  definitions  found  in  textbooks  on  geology. 

It  may  be  seen,  therefore,  that  some  arbitrary  test  should  be 
prescribed  to  differentiate  rock  from  earth  when  different  prices 
are  to  be  paid  for  each.  The  ancient  "  plow  test "  has  many 
adherents,  but  in  its  usual  form  it  is  probably  more  productive 
of  legal  trouble  than  any  other  clause  ever  devised  by  an  en- 


36  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

gineer.  Some  years  ago  the  State  Engineer  of  New  York  suffered 
most  unjust  criticism  because  of  supposedly  unfair  classification 
of  excavation  by  the  plow  test,  and  his  retirement  from  office  was 
probably  due  in  large  measure  to  this  unjust  criticism. 

The  writer,  while  on  the  editorial  staff  of  Engineering  News  in 
1903,  wrote  a  series  of  editorial  articles  criticizing  specifications, 
and  he  recalls  having  written  one  suggesting  an  earth  classifica- 
tion test  somewhat  similar  to  that  proposed  by  Mr.  Dennis.  In- 
stead of  specifying  a  furrow  10  by  10  in.,  however,  he  suggested 
a  minimum  number  of  cu.  yd.  loosened  per  10-hr,  day  by  a 
6-horse  plow.  It  still  seems  to  the  writer  to  be  a  much  better 
plan  to  specify  in  cubic  yards,  for  the  cubic  yard  is  the  unit  of 
cost,  and,  after  all,  the  object  is  to  secure  some  definite  cost 
classification.  A  10  by  10-in.  furrow  cut  by  four  horses  means 
nothing  very  definite  unless  the  amount  of  useful  work  is  specified, 
either  by  naming  the  average  speed  of  cutting,  or  the  average  num- 
ber of  cu.  yd.  to  be  loosened  in  a  given  time:  but  why  limit 
"earth"  to  such  easy  material  as  can  be  loosened  by  four  horses? 
Ten-horse  plows  are  very  common  in  the  West,  where  driving  with 
a  jerk-line  is  practiced.  There  is  a  serious  objection  to  the  plow 
test  wherever  work  is  to  be  done  with  steam  shovels,  and  the 
objection  is  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  apply  the  test 
in  many  cases.  In  a  through  cut,  for  example,  the  top  4  ft.  of 
material  may  be  loam,  below  which  may  lie  an  indurated  clay  of 
hardpan  consistency.  The  steam  shovel  exposes  a  vertical  face 
upon  which  no  plow  test  can  be  made;  unless  this  4-ft.  stratum 
is  stripped,  the  plow  test  is  of  no  use  on  the  surface.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  pit  may  be  solid  rock.  Of  what  practical  use  is  the 
plow  test  under  such  conditions?  ;j»f$i 

Many  other  conditions  might  be  mentioned  to  show  the  exceed- 
ing difficulty  of  applying  a  plow  test  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 
One  more  will  suffice.  In  soil  of  glacial  origin,  lenses  of  hardpan 
are  frequently  encountered,  surrounded  by  gravel,  sand,  or  shot 
clay.  It  is  impracticable  to  strip  these  lenses  in  steam-shovel 
work  for  the  purpose  of  using  a  plow  test,  and,  without  stripping, 
no  such  test  is  possible. 

The  plow  test,  therefore,  may  serve  in  plow  work,  but  it  is 
practically  useless  in  much  of  the  work  done  by  steam  shovels. 

What  test,  then,  shall  be  applied?  In  the  writer's  book  on 
earthwork,  the  suggestion  is  made  that  excavation  be  classified 
by  samples  taken  from  specified  locations  on  the  profile.  No 
practical  method  of  specifying  with  any  degree  of  exactitude  seems 
possible  to  the  writer,  and  a  varied  experience,  embracing  exca- 
vation at  different  places  across  the  American  continent,  has 
served  to  emphasize  this  conclusion. 


MEASUREMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING      37 

It  is  true  that  this  method  of  "  specifying  by  samples  "  involves 
digging  test-pits  and  sinking  bore-holes,  but  the  writer  is  firmly 
convinced  that  no  engineer  ever  spent  a  dollar  that  returned  a 
greater  dividend  than  the  one  spent  in  ascertaining  the  character 
of  the  excavation  before  the  award  of  the  contract. 

On  any  extensive  piece  of  excavation,  earth  should  be  dug,  and 
rock  should  be  blasted,  by  the  engineer,  to  ascertain  its  quality, 
as  well  as  to  determine  the  relative  quantities  of  each  class.  The 
engineer  who  cannot  persuade  his  employer  to  go  to  this  extra 
expense  is  hardly  fit  to  be  in  charge  of  the  work;  or,  if  he  is 
fit,  he  does  himself  an  injustice  in  not  resigning  if  his  advice  is 
ignored. 

The  American  Railway  Engineering  and  Maintenance  of  Way 
Association  Classification  as  given  in  the  Manual  for  1915  is  as 
follows : 
Classification. 

17.  All  material  excavated  shall  be  classified  as  "Solid  Rock," 
"  Loose  Rock,"  "  Common  Excavation,"  and  such  additional  classi- 
fications of  material  as  may  be  established  before  the  award  of 
the  contract. 

18.  "Solid  Rock"  shall  comprise  rock  in  solid  beds  or  masses 
in  its  original  position  which  may  be  best  removed  by  blasting; 
and  boulders  or  detached  rock  measuring  one  cubic  yard  or  over. 

19.  "  Loose  Rock  "  shall  comprise  all  detached  masses  of  rock 
or  stone  of  more  than  one  cubic  foot  and  less  than  one  cubic  yard, 
and  all  other  rock  which  can  be  properly  removed  by  pick  and 
bar  and  without  blasting;  although  steam  shovel  or  blasting  may 
be  resorted  to  on  favorable  occasions  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
work. 

20.  "  Common  Excavation "   shall  comprise  all  materials   that 
do  not  come  under  the  classification  of  "  Solid  Rock,"   "  Loose 
Rock,"   or   such   other   classifications   as   may   be  established   be- 
ford  the  award  of  the  contract. 

Factors  Affecting  the  Cost  of  Earthwork.  These  are  many. 
Not  all  can  be  determined  beforehand  but  it  is  well  that  they 
all  be  kept  in  mind  so  that  the  extent  to  which  an  estimate  is  a 
guess  may  be  known.  Some  of  the  factors  are: 

1.  Location. 

2.  Climate. 

3.  Time  of  year  during  which  work  is  to  be  done. 

4.  The  quantity  of  earth  to  be  moved. 

5.  The  position  of  the  earth  to  be  moved. 

6.  The  amount  and  nature  of  clearing  and  grubbing. 

7.  The  average  depth  of  cut. 


3ft  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

8.  The  kind  of  earth. 
0.  The  length  of  haul. 

10.  The  hauling  conditions,   including  grades. 

11.  Ground  water  conditions. 

12.  The  square  yards  of  surface  of  cut  and  till  that  must  be 
trimmed. 

13.  The  disposition   made  of  excavated  material. 

14.  The  method  of  compacting. 

15.  Wage  rates  and  prices. 

16.  The  interest  rate  on  money. 

Most  of  these  factors  cannot  be  considered  independently  but 
their  relation  to  each  other  must  be  borne  in  mind.  Thus,  the 
type  of  excavating  equipment  used  is  not  only  a  factor  that 
affects  the  cost  but  is  itself  determined  by  existing  conditions. 

Location  is  of  chief  importance  in  respect  to  its  relation  to 
lines  of  transportation.  This  is  especially  true  on  work  in- 
volving the  use  of  heavy  machinery  which  away  from  railroads 
is  moved  only  at  great  expense. 

The  Climate  has  a  greater  effect  on  earthwork  costs  than  is 
generally  recognized.  Local  contractors  know  more  or  less  what 
to  expect;  and,  like  farmers,  their  losses  through  bad  weather 
one  year  are  made  up  for  by  favorable  weather  in  another.  A 
firm  taking  a  single  earth  work  contract  or  taking  one  in  a 
strange  location  should  consider  the  climate  most  carefully.  Ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold  slow  up  outdoor  work,  and  storms  stop 
it  all  together.  Profit  or  loss  may  depend  o.n  the  number  of 
days  available  for  working  during  the  season. 

The  Time  of  Year  that  work  is  to  be  done  considered  in  rela- 
tion to  climate  and  other  factors  will  largely  determine  the 
conditions  encountered.  Muddy  roads  in  the  spring,  dusty  roads 
in  the  late  summer,  and,  above  all,  snow  and  frozen  ground  in 
the  winter  add  to  the  cost  of  earthwork. 

The  Quantity  of  Earth  to  be  Moved  is  the  chief  factor  for  de- 
termining the  means  to  be  employed  for  moving  it.  It  is  im- 
possible to  state  any  quantity  or  range  of  quantities  of  excavation 
as  best  suited  to  a  particular  type  of  machinery,  as  it  is  often 
more  economical  to  use  equipment  on  hand  than  to  purchase 
more  elaborate  machinery. 

The  Position  of  the  Earth  to  be  moved  is  shown  on  the  plans. 
A  mass  of  earth  may  be  under  water,  and  require  dredging;  or 
it  may  be  along  the  slope  of  a  hill  where  it  can  be  cast  down 
with  steam  shovels;  or  it  may  be  through  the  center  of  a  hill 
permitting  attack  from  the  ends  only,  as  in  deep  railroad  cuts. 
These  conditions  not  only  affect  cost  but  are  factors  in  deter- 
mining the  means  of  excavation. 


MEASUKEMENT,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ESTIMATING       39 

The  Amount  and  Nature  of  Clearing  and  Grubbing.  Costs  of 
clearing  are  always  determined  by  the  area  to  be  cleared  and 
the  growth.  Grubbing  costs  on  the  other  hand  depend  equally 
on  the  method  of  excavation.  Deep  steam  shovel  cuts  require 
no  grubbing.  Scraper  work  requires  grubbing  and  ground  moved 
with  elevating  graders  must  be  most  carefully  grubbed. 

Depth  of  Cut.  Material  at  the  bottom  of  deep  cuts  is  often  com- 
pact'ed  into  a  condition  hard  to  excavate.  Deep,  long  cuts  permit 
the  use  of  powerful  machinery  with  a  minimum  amount  of  shift- 
ing, and  are  therefore  generally  cheaper  to  excavate  than  shallow 
cuts. 

The  Kind  of  Earth,  No  earthwork  on  a  new  locality  can  be 
closely  estimated  without  first  digging  test  pits  the  full  depth  of 
the  proposed  excavation.  The  common  method  of  driving  a  steel 
bar  into  the  ground  is  often  very  deceptive,  for  it  may  not  dis- 
close the  existence  of  quicksand,  or  of  numerous  scattered  boul- 
ders; and  even  hardpan  may  be  penetrated  with  a  bar.  Test 
pits  are  costly  to  dig  and  many  methods  of  making  borings  are 
resorted  to.  These  usually  bring  up  the  material  in  a  thoroughly 
loosened  condition  so  that  its  original  consolidation  can  only  be 
judged  by  the  difficulty  of  boring.  Results  of  wash  drilling  for 
this  purpose  may  be  very  deceptive.  At  least  one  test  pit  should 
b  opened  as  a  means  of  interpreting  every  series  of  test  bor- 
ings. 

The  Length  of  Haul  is  generally  shown  on  the  profile  of  rail- 
road work.  On  other  work  it  is  not  so  well  shown  and  should 
be  investigated.  Beyond  a  rather  short  limit  a  light  railway 
furnishes  the  cheapest  means  of  haulage,  and  if  it  is  used  the 
length  of  haul  is  of  relatively  less  importance  than  the  ability 
to  load  and  dump  trains  rapidly. 

Hauling  Conditions.  Light  railways  are  more  easily  main- 
tained in  muddy  weather  than  wagon  roads.  Wagons,  on  the 
other  hand,  can  operate  over  steeper  grades  and  greater  irregu- 
larities. Truck  haulage  is  of  greatest  advantage  where  somebody 
else  pays  for  the  roads.  Whatever  the  means  of  hauling  adopted 
a  grade  against  the  movement  of  material  will  add  materially 
to  the  cost. 

Ground  Water.  The  presence  of  water  always  increases  the 
difficulty  and  cost  of  excavation.  If  cuts  are  not  self-draining 
means  of  pumping  must  usually  be  provided,  and  when  the  work 
gets  below  the  ground  water  level  pumping  must  be  constant. 
Excavations  in  springy  hill  sides  will  be  hard  to  handle  even  if 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  drain  themselves. 

Trimming  Cuts  and  Embankments  is  seldom  paid  for  as  a 
separate  item.  An  estimate  based  on  the  number  of  sq.  yd.  of 


40  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

trimming  involved  should  be  included  in  the  price  bid  for  exca- 
vation. 

Disposition  of  Excavated  Material.  If  material  is  to  be  used 
in  an  embankment,  its  disposition  is  clearly  indicated,  otherwise 
dumping  space  must  be  provided. 

The  Compacting  of  Embankments  for  railroads  and  levees  is 
usually  left  to  nature.  For  structures  requiring  artificial  con- 
solidation the  method  to  be  used  is  specified  in  detail.  Usually 
water  is  required  and  will  have  to  be  carried  to  the  work.  The 
cost  involves  not  only  spreading,  wetting  and  rolling,  but  dump- 
ing in  thin  layers  will  be  more  expensive  than  dumping  hap- 
hazard. 

Bibliography.  "  Measurement  Computations  from  Diagrams  of 
Railway  Earthwork,"  Wellington. — "  Economic  Theory  of  Rail- 
way Location,"  Wellington. — "  Field  Engineering,"  Searles. — 
"  Excavations  and  Embankments,"  Trautwine. — "  Mensuration  of 
Volumes,"  Davies  Legendre. — "  Methods  for  Earthwork  Computa- 
tion," C.  W.  Crockett.—"  Earthwork  Haul  and  Overhead,"  J.  C.  L. 
Fisk. 

Law  regarding  measurement.  "  Search  No.  774,"  Am.  Soe. 
C.  E.,  Law  of  the  State  of  New  York  in  regard  to  the  calculation 
of  earthwork. — "  Law  of  Operations,"  Wait. — "  Engineering  and 
Architectural  Jurisprudence,"  W7ait. — "  The  Engineering  History 
of  a  Law  Suit,"  Francis  C.  Tucker,  Jour.  Asso.  Eng.  Soc.,  Vol.  15, 
1895. — "A  Law  Suit  Involving  an  Earth  Measurement  Clause," 
Eng.  News,  Feb.  25,  1904. 


CHAPTER  III 
BORING  AND  SOUNDING 

Prospecting  or  Testing  Earth.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  make 
an  "  underground  survey  "  of  earth  that  is  to  be  excavated,  par- 
ticularly if  it  is  likely  to  be  variable  in  character,  or  if  rock, 
boulders,  or  hardpan  may  be  encountered.  For  this  purpose  the 
following  means  may  be  employed: 

1.  Soundings. 

2.  Wash  Drilling. 

3.  Earth  Augers. 

4.  Posthole  Diggers. 

5.  Cable  Drills. 

6.  Diamond  Drills. 

7.  Test  Pits. 

8.  Test  Trenches. 

foundings.  The  word  sounding  is  used  to  designate  the  driving 
of  a  rod  into  the  earth,  the  object  being  to  ascertain  the  depth 
to  rock  or  hardpan  or  to  determine  the  presence  of  boulders. 

Wash  Drilling.  Wash  drilling  consists  in  sinking  a  "  casing 
pipe  "  inside  of  which  is  a  smaller  "wash  pipe"  through  which 
water  is  pumped.  The  water  raises  the  earth  to  the  surface. 
Where  boulders  are  encountered,  small  blasts  may  be  fired,  or  a 
chopping  bit  may  be  used  to  break  vp  a  small  boulder. 

Earth  Augers.  Modified  wood  augers  are  frequently  used  to 
bore  holes 'in  earth,  either  with  or  without  the  use  of  a  casing 
pipe. 

Posthole  Diggers.  For  shallow  test  holes,  pesthole  diggers 
of  various  types  are  available. 

Cable  Drills.  For  deep  holes,  cable  drills  of  the  well-drill  type 
are  often  used.  This  type  of  drill  is  fully  described  in  my 
"  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation." 

Diamond  Drills.  Where  there  are  many  boulders  or  where  it 
is  desired  to  obtain  cores  of  the  bed  rock,  diamond  drills  are 
often  used,  as  described  in  my  "  Handbook  of  Rock  Excava- 
tion." 

Test  Pits.  Test  pits  are  small  wells  dug  to  ascertain  the  char- 
acter of  the  earth. 

Test  Trenches.  These  are  more  often  used  in  prospecting  for 
mineral  ledges  than  for  testing  the  character  of  earth  to  be 
excavated.  It  is  well,  however,  to  bear  in  mind  that  on  sidehill 
work  trenches  can  be  frequently  excavated  very  cheaply  by  the 
use  of  hydraulic  "  giants." 

Importance  of  Prospecting  Excavations.  Considering  the  rela- 

41 


42 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


tively  slight  cost  of  testing  the  character  of  earth,  it  is  surprising 
how  seldom  underground  surveys  are  made.  Engineers  have  been 
too  much  given  to  guessing  at  the  percentages  of  each  class  of 
excavation.  Seldom  has  the  cost  of  extensive  railway  or  canal 
work  been  correctly  estimated,  because  of  erroneous  assumptions 
as  to  the  character  of  the  excavation.  Almost  microscopic  care 
has  usually  be  exercised  in  ascertaining  the  total  quantity  to  be 
dug,  but  with  next  to  no  attention  given  to  the  exceedingly  im- 
portant fact  of  quality  to  be  dug. 

Sounding  is  a  cheap  and  rapid  method  of  prospecting  for 
rock  or  hardpan.  A  rod  or  pipe  may  be  driven  to  depths  of  20 
or  30  ft.  with  a  maul  or  drop  weight.  If  varying  materials  are 
encountered,  sounding  may  be  extremely  unreliable  as  a  stratum 
of  hard  sand  or  gravel  may  be  mistaken  for  solid  rock.  The 
usual  manner  of  testing  for  this  is  by  striking  the  rod  a  smart 
blow  with  a  hammer.  If  its  end  is  on  solid  rock  the  rod  should 
rebound  and  should  ring  with  a  clear  metallic  tone,  whereas  on 
gravel  or  hard  pan  it  will  not  rebound  and  will  not  give  a  clear 
ring.  The  presence  of  a  boulder  may  cause  this  test  to  be 
deceptive. 

A  Jointed  Sounding  Rod.  M.  L.  Hastings  in  Engineering 
~Sews,  June  29,  1889,  described  the  sounding  rod  illustrated  in 
Fig.  1.  The  rod  itself  is  made  of  seamless  cold-drawn  steel 

TOP  view  of  c#oss  a  a  ft. 


s/ae    |       vtew 


o*l  n 


POO  PO/NT  LONG  POINT 

Fig.  1.     Jointed  Sounding  Rod. 

tubing,  %  in.  in  exterior  diameter,  i/8  in.  thick  in  section,  and 
8  ft.  long.  The  sections  are  joined  and  plugged  with  a  steel 
plug  with  thread  cut  to  screw  into  the  end  of  other  sections.  The 
advantages  of  this  type  of  joint  is  that  a  smooth  outside  surface 
is  obtained  throughout  the  length  of  the  rod.  The  rod  has  three 
points:  (1)  The  blunt  one  for  testing  the  bottom;  (2)  the 
long  one  for  going  through  crust,  etc.;  and  (3)  the  pod  point  for 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  43 

bringing  up  samples.  The  cross-bar  is  attached  to  the  rod  by 
means  of  a  movable  block  of  hardened  steel  on  the  face  of  which 
.(next  to  the  rod)  are  cut  teeth,  the  block  being  held  in  place 
by  a  wedge  attached  to  the  bar  with  a  small  chain.  The  mov- 
able block  is  kept  from  falling  by  a  pin  in  the  back  of  the 
cross-bar. 

A  Square  Sounding  Rod.  W.  L.  Goodhue,  in  Engineering  News, 
May  11,  1889,  describes  an  effective  boring  outfit  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  This  apparatus  cost  about  $25  and  was  easily  con- 
structed. It  could  bore  through  earth  to  depths  of  28  to 
30  ft. 

The  drill  was  formed  from  a  1-in.  square  iron  rod,  with  a 
chisel-shape  bit  about  %  in.  wider  than  the  rod.  A  square 
rod  penetrated  more  easily  than  a  round  rod  ai\d  was  more 
readily  raised.  The  upper  half  of  the  rod  was  drilled  with  a 
%-in.  hole  every  20  in.  Through  this  hole  an  iron  pin,  about 
3  in.  long,  with  an  eye  on  one  end,  was  inserted  for  holding  the 
lifting  chain.  The  iron  cross-bar  was  made  of  bar-iron  l^  in. 
square,  4  ft.  long.  It  was  reinforced  with  1  in.  of  iron  at  the 
eye  through  which  the  drill  rod  passed.  One  side  of  the  eye 
was  tapped  for  a  %-in.  set-screw  which  held  the  cross-bar  to 
the  rod.  The  rod  was  lifted  and  forced  down  by  men  on  the 
ground,  assisted,  if  necessary,  by  other  men  on  the  timber  plat- 
form; a  total  of  3  men  being  employed.  When  difficulty  was  ex- 
perienced in  lifting  the  rod  the  levers  illustrated  were  used. 
Plenty  of  water  was  used  for  puddling  the  hole. 

A  Light  Pile  Driver.  For  sounding  the  thickness  of  earth 
over  rock  on  the  Welland  Canal  a  pile  driver  is  described  in 
Engineering  Xews,  Apr.  8,  1915. 

The  pile  driver  was  about  25  ft.  high  and  weighed  about  200 
lb.,  so  that  it  was  easily  portable  by  two  or  three  men.  It 
carried  a  135-lb.  hammer  operated  by  hand  through  a  single  line 
over  a  sheave  at  the  top  of  the  leads.  A  bar  3  in.  in  diameter, 
shown  in  Fig.  3,  with  an  upset  head  and  tenon  joint  into  which 
a  driving  point  was  fitted,  was  driven  to  rock.  A  new  driving 
point,  at  a  cost  of  2  ct.,  was  provided  for  each  operation,  the 
old  one  being  left  in  the  hole.  For  pulling  the  bar  a  clamp 
in  the  shape  of  a  bifurcated  cone  was '  fitted  under  the  head 
of  the  bar  and  the  pile  driver  rope  slung  around  the  clamp  to 
the  bar  and  lifted  the  bar  at  the  same  time. 

This  rig  was  used  extensively  on  the  Welland  Canal  to  locate 
the  rock  surface,  and  later  was  used  in  Nova  Scotia  where  it 
worked  ahead  of  a  steam  shovel,  making  blast  holes  for  small 
shots  to  break  up  a  shaly  formation. 

Samples  of  the  Material  Penetrated  may  be  secured  by  driv- 


44 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING 


45 


ing  or  screwing  a  hollow  tube  into  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  An 
open  ended  pipe  provided  at  the  end  with  sharp  teeth,  may  be 
twisted  into  the  material,  and  then  withdrawn,  carrying  with 
it  a  sample  in  the  form  of  a  plug  filling  the  hollow  of  the  pipe. 
The  R.  G.  Hunt  &  Co.  sampler  for  marl  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  4. 
This  tool  is  forced  down  the  depth  desired  and  then  turned 
half-way  around,  filling  it  with  a  sample  of  the  material.  The 


Clamp  far. 


Wing 


t 


\J— ¥ 

BIT  POINT 

Fig.  3.     Bar  and  Attachments  for  Rock   Sounding  Pile  Driver. 

Michigan  Geological  Survey  Marl  sampler,  illustrated  in  Fig.  5, 
is  used  for  obtaining  samples  of  material  in  a  semi-liquid  state. 
In  operation,  the  plug  is  held  firmly  against  the  mouth  of  the 
pipe  by  means  of  the  rod  and  the  whole  tool  is  pushed  the 
desired  depth.  The  pipe  is  then  raised  while  the  rod  is  held 
stationary,  and  is  pushed  down  to  its  former  position.  The 
whole  tool  is  then  raised,  the  plug  and  pipe  being  held  tightly 
together. 

A  Soil  Sampler.     A  device  designed  by  R.  R.  Ryan  is  shown 


46 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


in  Fig.  6,  which  is  taken  from  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Nov.  21,  1917.  The  device  consists  of  an  outer  section,  composed 
of  6-in.  light  weight  well  casing,  which  is  forced  down  by  a 
weighted  platform.  The  inner  section  is  made  of  5-in.  light 
weight  well  casing  and  carries  the  cutter.  The  two  sizes  of 
casing  rest  snugly  but  not  tightly  so  that  the  barrel  moves 


Fig.    4.     Sampler   for   Marl    Made    by    Robert    G.    Hunt    &    Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

freely  within  the  outer  case.  The  arrangement  was  first  used 
in  190!)  in  bringing  up  samples  of  the  soil  at  the  site  of  Florence 
Bridge,  Florence,  Ariz. 

Wash  Borings.     These  can  be  made  to  depths  beyond  the  reach 
of  sounding.     Like  soundings   they   may  be   deceptive.     The  ma- 


Wood 


K e'o' H 

Fig.  5.     Sampler  for  Liquid  Marl;  Michigan  Geological  Survey. 

terial  washed  up  will  show  whether  the  bit  is  working  in  clay 
or  gravel,  but  it  is  so  broken  up  and  mixed  with  water  that  it 
does  not  indicate  the  compactness  of  the  underlying  material. 
Boulders  can  be  mistaken  for  ledge  rock,  and  any  fine  sand  for 
quicksand. 

In  general  the  wash   drill  consists  of  a  small   pipe  contained 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING 


47 


in  a  larger  pipe.  The  inner  pipe  is  used  for  carrying  water 
under  pressure  down  into  the  hole  where  it  loosens  material 
which  is  washed  up  and  out  of  the  larger  pipe.  The  outlet  pipe 
is  lowered  as  the  inner  one  progresses,  at  an  interval  depending 
on  the  material.  Sand  and  gravel,  being  apt  to  -cave,  require 
that  the  outer  pipe  be  kept  close,  whereas  considerable  advance 
can  be  made  in  clay  without  casing. 

Although  it  is  customary  to  use  a  2-in.  casing  pipe  with  a 
1-in.  water  pipe  inside,  a  4-in.  casing  and  a  %-in.  water  pipe 
(not  contracted  at  the  bottom)  may  be  preferable  where  large 
gravel  must  be  washed  out  of  the  hole.  If  gravel  is  so  large 


075 


'^v 

Fig.  6.     Half  Section  of  Soil  Sampler. 

that  it  will  not  pass  between  the  water  pipe  and  the  casing,  two 
expedients  are  available.  The  gravel  may  be  broken  up  or 
pushed  aside  with  a  heavy,  blunt  drill,  or  one  with  a  star-cutting 
bit,  which  can  be  lifted  with  a  block  and  fall  suspended  from  a 
light  tripod.  The  other  method  consists  in  using  a  ''  sand  pump  " 
or  "  pipe  bucket  "  with  a  valve  at  its  bottom.  Lifting  and  drop- 
ping a  sand  pump  with  short,  quick  strokes,  will  fill  it  with 
material  not  too  large  to  pass  its  valve. 

Tests  made  by  boring  holes  require  careful  observation  and 
intelligent  interpretation  if  they  are  to  prove  reliable.  In  wash 
borings,  especially  when  the  water  used  is  under  great  pressure, 
the  natural  tendency  is  to  indicate  coarser  material  than  is  really 
encountered,  because  the  fine  material  is  carried  off,  and  the 
greater  portion  of  the  particles  remaining  in  the  sample  pail 


48 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


/s\ 


star 

SKETCH  OF 

NEW  YORK  RIG 

EMPLOYED   ON 

TEST  BORINGS  OF  COMMISSION 
ON 

ADDITIONAL  WATER  SUPPLY 

LONG  ISLAND  DEPARTMENT. 

AUGUST  AKO  SEPTEMBER.  19O3. 

Of     FIET. 


W/'/ '/'/'/'/  '/\VY '/'/'/'/ 

fig.  7.    New  York  Wash  Boring  Rig. 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  40 

are  large  in  si/e.  Clay  and  silt  appear  to  be  sand  and  sand 
appears  to  be  gravel.  To  remedy  this,  dry  samples  should  be 
taken  occasionally,  and  the  discharge  pipe  should  be  covered 
with  bagging  in  order  to  catch  as  much  of  the  finer  material 
as  possible. 

In  the  report  of  the  Commission  on  Additional  Water  Sup- 
plies for  the  City  of  New  York,  rendered  in  1903,  by  Messrs. 
Burr,  Herring  and  Freeman,  are  given  descriptions  and  illustra- 
tions of  hand-operated  wash-boring  machines  used  for  driving 
test  holes.  There  were  four  types  of  rigs  used:  (1)  the  New 
York  rig;  (2)  the  Boston  rig;  (3)  the  Providence  rig;  (4)  a 
rig  designed  by  the  Commission. 

The  New  York  rig  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  7  and  is  the  outfit 
commonly  employed  about  New  York  by  the  Brooklyn  water 
department  for  driving  2-in.  service  and  test  holes.  The  essen- 
tial features  are  a  heavy  wooden  base  about  2  ft.  high,  4  hammer 
guide-rods  erected  on  this  base,  a  cast  iron  head  which  holds 
the  guide  rods,  and  a  small  lead  rope  wheel  through  which 
the  lead  from  the  hammer  passes  to  a  handle  with  two  cranks. 
The  hammer  v  weighs  about  150  Ib.  and  is  automatically  tripped. 
The  maximum  drop  is  8i/£  ft.  A  %-in.  wash  pipe  and  an  inex- 
pensive 2l£-in.  foice  pump  with  a  delivery  of  8  to  10  gal.  of  water 
per  min.  are  commonly  used  for  this  machine.  This  size  pump 
does  not  deliver  water  at  sufficient  pressure  to  wash  up  gravel 
larger  than  peas,  however.  This  rig  does  not  permit  continuous 
washing  and  driving,  the  wash  pipe  being  advanced  several  feet 
below  the  bottom  of  the  casing,  but  it  usually  washes  holes  larger 
than  the  casing  and  will  permit  more  rapid  progress  than  will 
the  other  rigs.  It  does  not  produce  samples  as  accurate,  how- 
ever. 

The  Boston  rig  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  In  general  it  consists  of  a 
hollow  cast  steel  driving  head,  2^-in.  casing  with  1^-in.  side 
discharge,  and  2  hammers  of  100  and  200  Ib.  weight,  a  wash  pipe 
of  1-in.  section  and  special  wash  drills,  and  a  double-acting 
force  pump,  with  a  1%-in.  suction  hose  and  a  1-in.  discharge 
hose.  A  force  of  four  men  (one  foreman  and  three  laborers) 
was  required,  in  addition  to  the  driver  of  the  water  wagon; 
two  men  worked  on  the  hammer,  one  on  the"  pump  and  one  on 
the  wash  pipe  and  handling  the  water. 

The  Providence  rig  like  the  Boston  rig  is  of  the  continuous 
wash  type  but  the  method  of  operating  the  hammer  is  essentially 
different,  as  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  9.  The  hammer  is  raised  and 
dropped  by  men  working  on  a  platform.  The  pump  successfully 
used  with  this  type  was  similar  to  those  used  on  the  Boston 
rig.  The  weight  of  the  men  of  the  platform  was  of  little  value 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


SKETCH  OF 

BOSTON   RIG 

EMPLOYED  ON 
TEST  BORINGS  OF  COMMiSSlO! 

ON 

ADDITIONAL  WATER  SUPPLY 
LONG  ISLAND  DEPARTMENT 

FROM  WAY  TO  SEPTEMBER    1903 
SCAIC    Or    rtCT. 


// 


• 

t,—  Surfoce   of    Ground 


/////'/  /  /  /  /  /  y 

Fig.  8.     Boston  Wash  Boring  Rig. 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING 


51 


SKETCH  OF 

PROVIDENCE  RIG 

EMPLOYED  CM 

TEST  BORINGS  OF  COMMISSION.' 

OM 

ADDITIONAL  WATER  SUPPLY 
LLONG  ISLAND  DEPARTMENT. 

FROM  APRIL  TO  JUNE  INCLUSIVE. 

•CAU  or  rrir. 


Fig.  9.     Providence  Wash  Boring  Rig. 


52  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

in  lowering  the  casing  and  made  it  difficult  to  keep  the  casing  in 
a  vertical  position.  The  sair.e  crew  was  required  as  for  the 
Boston  rig. 

The  rig  finally  adapted  by  the  commission  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  10.  This  was  patterned  after  the  Boston  rig.  The  yoke 
and  small  pulleys  were  replaced  by  2  large  gin  wheels  suspended 
at  the  peak  of  a  12-ft.  pipe  derrick.  With  this  rig  it  was  pos- 
sible to  secure  dry  samples  by  driving  a  114-111.  pipe  3  or  4  ft. 
into  the  material  at  the  bottom  of  the  casing.  A  force  of  4  men 
and  1  driver  was  employed  with  this  rig.  The  cost  of  the  rig 
complete  was  about  $150. 

Altogether  332  test  holes  (2-in.)  were  driven  a  distance  of 
11,605  ft.  The  total  cost  of  the  work  is  shown  in  Table  I.  In 
the  loose  gravels  of  the  Southshore  of  Long  Island  boring  cost 
about  60  ct.  per  ft.,  but  in  the  compacted  till  on  the  northernly 
portion  where  dynamite  was  used  the  cost  ran  up  to  $2  per  ft. 
or  more.  This  work  was  more  costly  than  the  average  work,  for 
it  is  not  generally  customary  to  place  more  than  one  engineering 
inspector  on  several  outfits.  Moreover,  casings  are  usually  pulled 
and  the  pipes  used  repeatedly,  and  water  can  ordinarily  be  piped 
from  a  town's  supply.  The  cost  of  labor  was  $1.75  per  day 
except  during  the  first  few  weeks.  After  deducting  15  ct.  per 
ft.  from  the  item  of  inspection,  10  ct.  per  ft.  from  that  of 
teams,  and  10  ct.  per  ft.  from  cost  of  pipe,  the  total  cost  reduces 
to  85  ct.  per  ft.  which  is  probably  nearer  the  usual  cost  of 
such  work. 

//  \\ 

TABLE   I.    COST   OF   LONG   ISLAND   WASH   BORING 

Cost  per  ft. 

of  pipe 

Total  driven 

Item  cost  (11,605  ft.) 

Superintendence,    inspection,    engineering    $  2,815  $0.243 

Labor:    foremen,    $3    and    $3.50    per    day;    laborers, 

$1.50  and  $1.75 5,074  0.437 

Teams :  $3  and  $3.50  per  day   1,612  0.139 

Transportation,   fares,   livery,    freight,   express    

Cost  and  rental  of  boring  rigs    

Two-in.  pipe,  perforated  pipe,   points   1,724  0.149 

Misc.  expenses,  sample  bottles,  cases,  blasting,   etc..  315  0.027 

Totals     ..;;^^^  $1.096 

Wash  Borings,  New  York  State  Canal  were  made  along  the 
possible  routes  of  a  proposed  ship  canal  in  New  York  between 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Hudson  River,  as  described  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contract inf/,  Mar.  27,  1007.  A  very  complete  abstract 
of  that  article  is  given  in  my  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data." 

Cost  of  Well  Drill  Borings  at  Stanley  Lake.     I  am  indebted  to 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING 


53 


,.''frf-'!    . 
Iv>!'^  ii»/4- 


•v? 

'*    *oc 


iX* 


SKETCH    OF 
TEST  BORING  RIG 

ARRANGED   BY 

COMMISSION    ON 
ADDITIONAL    WATER    SUPPU 
LONG    ISLAND  DEPARTMENT 

FROM  JUUY  TO  SEPTEMBER    1903 
SCAi.r      or     FEET 


»'»^i*    Ifrrb.   oilT 
>ff<>»!  fK»i)«ni«fiiioj 
i'i:  a»U>Il  .  ->Jvii(1 
t>')  ii  *»ni  IKI«  >Iii>i 
-nl't.aono  -,HT 


rift,? 

[   rcf3 


Sut-foce    of   Ground 


Fig.  10.     Rig  for  Wash  Boring  Finally  Adopted  liy  Commission. 


54  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

a  report  by  M.  E.  Witham  published  in  Engineering  Record, 
Nov.  27,  1909,  for  the  following  data  of  the  method  and  cost 
of  making  wash  drill  borings  for  the  Stanley  Lake  Dam  near 
.  Denver,  Colorado.  This  dam  had  a  length  at  the  crest  of 
9,140  ft.  and  a  test  hole  was  sunk 'every  200  ft.  on  the  axis  of 
the  dam,  and  at  intervals  of  100  ft.  on  the  line  of  the  outlet 
structure  under  the  dam  to  depths  of  from  20  to  80  ft.  The 
site  of  the  borrow  pits  from  which  material  was  to  be  taken  was 
also  bored. 

The  drill  used,  of  the  spudding  type,  was  a  No.  4,  8-hp., 
combination  hollow-rod  Cyclone  machine,  mounted  on  a  4-wheeled 
truck.  Holes  2}£  in.  in  diameter  were  drilled  with  1^-in.  hollow- 
rods  having  a  center  bore  of  %  in. 

The  operating  force  consisted  of  a  drill  runner,  a  fireman,  and 
a  sample  collector.  Coal  and  water  were  delivered  by  team. 
Coal  cost  $3  per  ton  at  a  mine  7  mi.  distant.  The  water  was 
brought  from  adjacent  irrigating  ditches.  The  drill  runner  re- 
ceived $5  per  day  and  board,  the  fireman  $2,  the  sample  col- 
lector $3,  and  the  team  and  driver  regularly  employed  $4. 
Extra  teams  and  drivers  cost  at  the  rate  of  80  ct.  per  day 
for  the  entire  time  occupied  by  the  work.  The  first  9  days  were 
occupied  largely  in  putting  the  drill  in  proper  shape.  The 
average  time  consumed  in  taking  down  the  drill,  moving  200  ft. 
and  setting  up  was  2  hr.  and  cost  about  $3.  In  satisfactory 
material  drilling  cost  30  ct.  per  ft.  of  hole;  about  10  ft.  of  hole 
per  hr.  was  drilled.  In  troublesome  material  where  casing  was 
required  the  cost  was  60  ct.  per  ft. 

Maximum  Cost  Hole: 

Depth,  ft. 

Surface  clay,  mixed  sand  and  gravel  5.5 

Yellow    mud    10.2 

Yellow  clay   24.0 

Blue  clay    32.0 

(hard)     47.9 

(soft)     48.9 

(fine)     65.0 

(light) 71.6 

(hard)     72.4 

(soft)     83.5 

Total  depth  reached  90.0 

Expenses : 

Salaries    $58.60 

Board 6.00 

Coal 2.10 


Cost  of  90  ft.  at  $0.74  $66.70 

Minimum  Cost  Hole: 

Depth,  ft. 

Surface  clay  and  sandy  yellow  clay  6.0 

Mixed  blue  and  yellow  clay   19.0 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  55 

Depth,  ft. 

Blue  clay   (hard)    40.0 

Total  depth  reached 60.0 

Expenses : 

Salaries    $13.50 

Board    1.50 

Coal    .  1.00 


Cost  of  60  ft.  at  $0.27  $16.00 

Total  for  2,481   ft.  drilled: 

Salaries     

Board    

Coal    

Teams 

Repairs,  supplies,  etc 


Total,  2,481  ft.  at  $0.43  $1,073.95 

Cost  of  Borings  at  Cristobal,  Panama.  E.  B.  Karnopp  gives 
the  following  information  in  Engineering  News,  June  16,  1910. 

Wash  drill  and  diamond  drill  borings  were  made  to  determine 
the  material  beneath  a  proposed  dock  for  the  Panama  Railroad 
at  Cristobal.  The  pipe  used  in  earth  consisted  of  a  line  of 
casing  2y2  in.  in  diameter,  in  the  interior  of  which  was  a  line 
of  hollow  rod  1%  in.  in  diameter.  A  tripod  derrick  drum  and 
wheel  attachment  was  employed  for  hoisting  the  pipe.  The  tri- 
pod was  of  2  x  4  in.  and  4x4-in.  timber,  and  was  18  ft.  high. 
Six  men  were  able  to  carry  it  when  folded.  The  casing  was 
made  in  5-ft.  lengths  with  flush  joints,  the  first  section  having  a 
flaring  toothed  cutting  edge.  In  sinking,  this  pipe  was  revolved 
with  chain  tongs,  and  was  assisted  occasionally  in  its  descent 
by  an  iron  jar  weight  of  100  Ib.  The  hollow  rods  were  5  and 
10  ft.  in  length,  the  lowest  one  being  fitted  with  a  chopping  bit 
and  the  top  one  with  a  water  swivel.  In  work  where  the  wash 
drill  process  was  too  slow  to  be  economical,  a  hand-power  dia- 
mond drill  was  used.  For  details  of  diamond  drill  outfits  and 
the  method  and  cost  of  their  operation  see  my  "  Handbook  of 
Rock  Excavation." 

For  boring  holes  under  water  a  staging  was  erected  on  piles. 
Water  was  obtained  from  the  city  mains.  Boring  operation 
occupied  7  months,  and  over  a  length  more  than  a  mile  235  holes 
were  drilled. 

The  equipment  comprised  3  drills,  each  operated  by  a  white 
foreman  and  6  negro  laborers.  Pipe  laying,  staging-building, 
the  handling  of  material,  and  all  surveying  work  was  done  by 
an  extra  gang  of  6  to  10  laborers.  Foremen  received  $150 


50  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

gold  per  month  and  laborers  13  to  18  ct.  United  States  currency 
per  hr.     A  recorder  and  draftsman  were  also  employed. 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  cost  and  the  amount  of 
work  done. 

15.183.1  ft.  of  earth  borings,  at  $0.587  per  ft $  8,91725 

1,217  ft.  of  rock   borings,    at  $2,536   per   ft 3,087.42 

16.400.2  ft.  Total  at  average  cost  $7,319  per  ft $12,004.67 

Cost  per  ft. 

Earth  Rock 

Supervision   and   surcharge   $0.054  $0.227 

Foreman     107  .449 

Labor  drilling 147  .616 

Extra  gang  and  driver 124  .520 

Drafting  and  recording    070  .292 

Materials    consumed    065  .349 

Repairs     020  .083 

Totals     $0.587  $2.536 

Wash  Borings,  Winnipeg  Aqueduct.  Douglas  L.  McLain,  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  April  7,  1915,  gives  the  following: 
Wash  borings  were  made  for  the  Intake  Site  and  at  the  Falcon 
River  Crossing  with  a  "  string  of  tools  "  which,  though  complete 
for  the  purpose,  was  not  as  elaborate  as  that  necessary  for  deep 
drilling.  The  Irat  of  equipment  with  cost  of  same,  given  in 
Table  1,  may  be  used  for  reference  when  similar  work  is  con- 
templated. 

TABLE    I.    LIST  AND   COST  OF   EQUIPMENT  FOR   MAKING   WASH 
BORINGS   ON   WINNIPEG   SHOAL   LAKE   AQUEDUCT 

Unit     . 
Quantity  and  description  price        Cost 

50  ft.  2Mrin.  extra  heavy  pipe  (drive  casing)  in  5-ft.  lengths.     $0.57       $  28.50 

Cutting  and  threading  pipe  5.00 

50  ft.  1^4-in.    heavy    pipe,     five    4-ft.    lengths    and    six    Sift. 

lengths     25  12.50 

Cutting  and  threading  pipe   3.30 

10  2%-in.    couplings    16  1.60 

11  1%-in.   couplings    08  .88 

1  malleable  1^-in.   tee    16  .16 

1  double  run  10-in.   wooden   block   1.85  1.85 

60  ft,  %-in.  manila  rope,  per  Ib 14  1.40 

1  hand  force  pump  R.  470  —  30  gal.  per  minute  7.00  7.00 

2  24-in.   Stillson   wrenches    2.25  4.50 

15  ft.  1%-in.  discharge  hose   30  4.50 

20  ft.  2-in.  suction  hose  35  7.00 

1  l^-in.  street  elbow 15  .15 

1  1%-in.  coupling  for  hose  30  .30 

1  2  x  lV2-in.  bushing  10  .10 

1  l^j-in.  short  nipple  10  .10 

11%  x  2-in.  nipple  10  .10 

1  drive  weight  7  in.  diameter  by  15  in.  long,  2-in.  hole  all 

the  way  through  long  dimension,    widened   to  3%   in. 

from  4  in    below  top  to  top 

3  ft.  of  y\ -in.  flexible  wire  rope  for  handle 5.60  5.60 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  57 

Quantity  and  description  price  Cost 
2  1%-in.    chopping    bits    of    drill    steel    with    Ui-in.    theads 

8   in.  long    |6.00  $  12.00 

6  pairs    lumberman's    rubbers,     two    buckles,     sizes    10     11 

and  12  1.60             9.60 

1  pipe  vi.se  to  take  2%-in.  to  IVi-in.  pipe  2.CO             2.00 

1  2-in.    foot   valve 45  .45 

1  machinist's    hammer    . ...  1.10             1.10 

2  cold  chisels   ; [35               .70 

1  pair  jacks,  2  in.  by  18  in.,  with  handles  6.80  13.60 

Steel  spindles  for  same,  per  Ib 10  1.20 

2  sleeve  couplings,  1^4-in.  W.  T. 10  !20 

3  sleeve  couplings,  2%-in.  W.  T 16  .48 

2  1%-in.  nipples,  6  in.  long 06  !l2 

2  1^-in.  to  Q4-1B.  reducing  couplings    10  .20 

2  1%-in.  nipples,  6  in.  long  08  ,16 

6  1-gal.    pails    21  1.26 

1  pint  machine  oil,  black   15  .15 

1  2-in.  nipple,   6  in.  long   10  .10 

1  recovering  tap    3.75  3.75 

2  sister   hooks    2.50  5.00 

1  clasp  for  2y2-in.  pipe    2.00  2.00 

1  hoisting  ]  Ing   1.75  1.75 

6  couplings  for  l^i-in.  pipe  (extra)    08  .48 

1  ice  chisel    3.50  3.50 

2  axes.    3%-1b 1.25  2.50 

1  air  tight  heater    2.10  2.10 

1  length   stove  pipe    10  .10 

3  chain  tongs,  No.  33  Vulcan    4.50  9.00 

2  pairs     extra     leather     (front     and    back)     for     piston     of 

Meyer's  low-down  force  pump   35  1.40 

3  logs  for  tripod 

Delivery  from  C.  P.  R.  station  to  site  (18  miles)    12.10 

Total $171.54 

With  this  equipment,  the  process  of  sinking  the  test  holes  waa 
very  simple  and  usually  was  as  follows: 

The  derrick  or  tripod,  consisting  of  three  logs,  was  set  up 
over  the  station  where  a  hole  was  cut  through  the  ice  and  the 
depth  of  water  obtained  by  sounding.  After  this  suitable  length 
of  casing  was  put  down ;  at  the  same  time  a  hole  for  the  pump 
suction  was  made  and  a  fire  started  in  the  heater  to  warm 
water,  which  facilitated  the  thawing  of  the  tools.  Then  drill 
rods  of  the  required  length  with  chopping  bit  on  lower  end  and 
hoisting  water-swivel  on  upper  end  connected  to  derrick-rope 
and  by  hose  to  the  force-pump,  were  put  down  inside  the  casing. 
The  position  of  the  bottom  of  the  casing  and  the  drill  rods 
having  been  noted,  the  drill  rods  were  churned  up  and  down  by 
means  of  rope  over  block  attached  to  tripod.  At  the  same  time 
water  was  forced  down  the  center  of  these  rods  to  the  outlet 
in  chopping-bit  and  then  up  between  the  rods  and  the  casing. 
The  chopped  material  brought  up  by  the  water  jet  was  noted 
by  the  leader  in  charge  of  the  work.  To  sink  the  casing,  chain 
tongs  were  attached  and  it  was  rotated.  This  rotation  or  turn- 
ing of  the  casing  to  keep  it  free  from  sticking  to  the  material 


58  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

drilled  through,  was  the  detail  that  added  most  to  the  speed  of 
work,  not  only  in  sinking  the  casing,  but  more  especially  in  the 
pulling  of  the  pipe.  This  method  of  sinking  the  casing  was  not 
practical  at  all  times  and  in  such  cases  the  drive  weight  was 
used  to  pound  the  casing  down.  After  it  had  been  used  it  was 
necessary  to  use  two  jacks  to  draw  the  pipe.  As  the  hole  was 
sunk  either  by  rotation  of  casing,  or  driving,  constant  watch 
was  kept  of  the  position  of  the  bottom  of  the  casing  and  the 
drill  rods,  together  with  careful  note  of  the  materials  brought 
up  by  the  water  jet.  For  this  particular  piece  of  work  at 
Indian  Bay  it  was  found  advantageous  to  use  a  force  of  one 
leader  pr  foreman  and  four  laborers. 

The  progress  that  can  be  made  under  winter  conditions  and 
the  cost  of  same  is  given  in  Table  II.  This  gives  total  and  aver- 
age figures  on  the  footage,  the  materials  encountered  and  the 
labor  and  food  costs  and  should  be  of  use  for  information  when 
similar  work  is  contemplated.  The  force  on  this  work  usually 
consisted  of  1  topographer  at  $3.95  and  3  laborers  at  $2.55  each, 
or  1  foreman  at  $2.80  and  4  laborers  at  $2.70.  The  work  was 
done,  with  the  exception  of  one  day  in  December,  between  Jan. 
9  to  Feb.  27,  1914.  The  thickness  of  ice  ranged  fairly  gradually 
from  1.46  ft.  on  Jan.  9  to  2.60  on  Feb.  9.  On  that  day  the  tem- 
perature dropped  to  — 35°  and  work  was  discontinued  until 
Feb.  24,  when  the  temperature  was  +5°  at  7  A.  M.  and  the  thick- 
ness of  ice  was  3.17  ft. 

TABLE  II.    WASH   BORINGS   AVERAGE   COST  DATA  FOR 

WINNIPEG  AQUEDUCT 
Depth  of  —  Totals  Average 

Water     523.0 

Muck 45.3 

Clay     594.2 

Sand     73.7 

Gravel 31.7 

Depth  of  material  bored  744.9  27.6 

Total  length  of  casing,  includes  ice,  water  and  material    1,267.9  47.0 

Labor  and  food   cost    $404.75  $15.00 

Cost  per  ft.  below  lake  bottom  $0.541 

Total  cost  per  ft.  of  casing  in  ice,  water,  material  $0.319 

Wash  Borings  for  Railway  Valuation  Work.  George  H. 
Burgess,  in  Engineering  News-Record,  April  5,  1917,  gives  the 
following:  Like  other  roads  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  has  sec- 
tions—  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Champlain,  for  example  — 
where  there  has  been  much  subsidence.  The  records  showed  much 
of  this,  but  were  incomplete.  Wash  borings  were  resorted  to, 
and  the  company  profited  more  or  less  by  the  experiences  of 
other  roads  that  faced  the  problem  sooner.  Bids  were  asked 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  59 

iti'l'    *V}~{"i<>'i    "•iI)!-><{   fiffifJ'    'ii    i ••!••  i  i«r  '»•»•»/   -'JiK     /•       f     •"     f 

for,  but  they  contained  so  many  conditions  that  the  company 
decided  to  do  the  work  by  company  forces. 

Two  simple  outfits  were  made  in  the  company's  shops.  In 
addition,  two  Sheffield  hand-cars  and  four  standard  track  jacks 
were  bought,  and  a  6  x  20-ft.  scowboat  was  built  for  use  where 
the  fill  crosses  bays  of  Lake  Champlain. 

The  working  force  consisted  of  one  foreman  at  $2.85  per  day, 
five  men  at  $2.75  and  a  recorder  at  $50  per  month.  The  fore- 
man and  his  men  were  also  allowed  $1  each  per  day,  and  they 
lived  in  a  maintenance-of-way  boarding  car,  cooking  their  own 
meals.  They  were  company  bridge  carpenters.  The  recorder  was 
a  rodman  from  the  survey  party,  and  his  expenses  were  about 
$2.25  per  day.  The  cost  of  boring  outfits  was  as  follows: 

2  double  A-frame  drilling  outfits    $299.22 

4  standard  track  jacks   43.36 

2  Sheffield   hand-cars    63.00 

1  boat  101.30 


Total T    $506.88 

In  a  report  by  Mr.  Mansfield,  the  company's  valuation  engineer, 
it  is  pointed  out  that  the  outfits  can  be  used  to  great  advantage 
by  the  maintenance-of-way  department  when  the  valuation  de- 
partment is  through  with  them. 

By  the  use  of  the  outfits  over  an  aggregate  of  about  12  miles, 
1,870,883  cu.  yd.  of  filling  material  and  45,603  cu.  yd.  of  riprap 
were  discovered.  This  work  was  done  at  a  total  cost  of  $1,570 
exclusive  of  plant  investment  or  at  a  cost  of  31.82  ct.  per  lin.  ft. 
inclusive,  or  25.56  ct.  exclusive,  of  the  recorder.  The  total  cost 
per  yd.  of  all  material  disclosed  was  less  than  0.1  ct,  per  cu.  yd. 

Wash  Borings  on  the  Ashokan  Dam  Site.  A  paper  by  J.  S. 
Langthorn,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  23,  1909,  de- 
scribes the  methods  used  in  making  wash  and  diamond  drill  bor- 
ings for  the  Ashokan  dam  site  in  the  Catskill  Mountains.  The 
diamond  drill  work  is  described  in  my  "Handbook  of  Rock  Ex- 
cavation," as  are  also  the  pressure  tests  of  the  bore  holes  to 
determine  the  seaminess  of  the  rock. 

The  methods  used  to  interpret  results  of  wash  boring  on  this 
work  were  of  special  interest.  One  man  was  able  to  take  care 
of  four  boring  rigs,  and  one  test  pit,  and  to  take  ground  water 
observations  on  completed  holes.  He  took  samples  on  holes  in 
progress,  water  observations  on  completed  holes,  assisted  in  lo- 
cating holes  and  made  monthly  estimates  on  test  pits.  A  one- 
horse  conveyance  was  used  to  travel  from  one  boring  to  another, 
when  they  were  at  some  distance,  and  also  to  carry  core  boxes, 
sample  bottles,  marking  boards,  etc. 


CO 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Dry  and  wash  samples  were  placed  in  small  bottles,  corked  and 
carefully  labeled.  These  were  placed  in  drawers  which  were 
systematically  arranged  and  so  subdivided  that  the  samples 
from  any  hole  could  be  readily  found. 


Fig.  11.     Outfit  for  Making  Wash  Borings  on  Ashokan  Dam  Site. 

Upon  being  removed  from  the  core  barrel   of  the  boring  ma- 
chine all  cores   were   stored   in   core-boxes.     Each   box   contained 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  61 

room  for  four  rows  of  core  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  together 
with  three  shelves  for  three  rows  each.  A  box  would  hold  about 
37  ft.  of  core,  whicli  generally  represents  about  40  ft.  of  actual 
drilling. 

The  core  was  labeled,  boxed  and  stored  in  a  small  portable 
building  shelved  on  all  sides,  where  the  core  boxes  were  properly 
painted  with  number  and  depth  of  hole.  Here  they  were  readily 
available  for  future  inspection.  In  addition  to  the  core  boxes, 
cabinets  containing  drawers  were  provided  for  filing  the  samples. 

Instructions  to  Inspectors  of  Borings.  A  copy  of  the  following 
instructions  was  given  to  each  inspector  for  his  guidance: 

These  borings  and  test-pits  are  being  made  to  ascertain:  The 
character  of  the  overlying  material;  the  elevation  of  bed-rock; 
the  quality  of  this  rock  and  incidentally  all  data  that  would  aid 
in  the  selection  of  the  best  dam  site. 

In  order  to  get  an  accurate  determination  of  these  conditions 
much  depends  upon  the  faithfulness  and  good  judgment  of  the 
observer.  His  interpretation  of  the  material  must  be  based  on 
the  samples  taken  and  careful  observation  of  the  mechanical 
operations  of  the  machines  and  the  wash  which  comes  up  through 
the  casing.  The  following  are  some  of  the  general  rules  which 
the  inspector  should  be  careful  to  note. 

1.  Observe  very  carefully  the  character  of  the  material  washed 
up  and  the   color  of   the  escaping  water.     Upon  the   proper   in- 
terpretation  of   the  above   depends   very  much   the  value   of   the 
test  hole;   for,  no  matter  how  good  or  how  accurate  the  samples 
may  be,  the  true  nature  of  the  ground  is  best  obtained   by  ob- 
serving  the   mechanical   operations    involved.     For    instance,    the 
wash  may  be  clayey  while  the  sample  will  contain  no  trace  of 
clay;   but  the  observer  should  record  clay  present  as  noted  from 
the  discoloration  of  the  escaping  water. 

2.  Take  a  sample  for  every  10  ft.  driven  and,  if  the  material 
changes    rapidly,    a    sample    should    be    taken    at    every    decided 
change.     Should  less  than   10  ft.  be  made  in  a  day,  one  sample 
will  then  be  sufficient.     There  are  two  methods  of  taking  samples 
of  materials.     A,  the  dry  method,  B,  the  wash  method. 

A,  the  dry  method,  is  by  far  the  more  satisfactory  when  very 
accurate  results  are  required.  It  is,  however,  an  expensive  and 
tedious  method  of  procuring  results.  A  l^-in.  perforated 
wrought-iron  pipe  is  driven  into  the  material  below  the  casing. 
The  pipe  has  holes  in  it  so  that  the  water  may  be  easily  displaced 
when  the  sample  of  compact  material  enters  the  bottom  of  the 
pipe.  For  sand  or  material  which  would  fall  out  of  the  sample 
pipe  on  being  lifted,  a  "  sand  spoon  "  is  used,  a  pipe  with  a  closed 
pointed  end,  with  a  slit  or  opening  about  1  ft.  from  the  point. 


62  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

This  is  driven  into  the  material,  and,  on  pulling  it  up,  the  sand 
enters  the  spoon  and  is  so  brought  to  the  surface.  In  this  way 
the  material  is  obtained  just  as  it  exists. 

B,  the  wash  method,  is  as  follows:  In  a  tub  or  a  half-barrel 
with  a  glass  panel  in  one  side,  the  wash,  which  comes  up 
through  the  casing,  is  allowed  to  flow.  If  conditions  are  right 
and  the  tub  becomes  full,  it  is  placed  at  one  side  and  about  a 
teaspoonful  of  hydrochloric  acid  mixed  with  water.  The  action 
of  the  hydrochloric  acid  is  very  decided.  It  takes  about  30  min. 
to  settle,  while  with  no  acid,  it  would  take  half  a  day.  The 
settlement  of  the  material  may  be  seen  through  the  glass  panel. 
When  settled,  siphon  off  the  clear  water  and  the  washed  sample 
remains.  Fill  a  sample  bottle  with  the  material,  label  with 
date,  depth  of  hole  and  description  of  material. 

Take  dry  samples,  owing  to  their  expense,  only  of  material 
which  may  be  regarded  as  porous,  i.  e.,  sand  and  gravel,  sand, 
or  sand  with  a  little  clay;  otherwise  the  wash  sample,  combined 
with  the  proper  observations,  will  serve  all  general  purposes. 
Kever  take  a  sample  directly  after  a  blast,  nor  when  the  wash 
pipe  is  too  far  ahead  of  the  casing.  The  best  time  is  when  the 
wash  pipe  is  about  3  in.  ahead. 

3.  Make  a  concise  record  of  the  action  of  water  in  all  boring 
operations.     Should  the  water   forced  down   the  wash   pipe   fail 
to  come  to  the  surface  again,  it  should  be  recorded  as.  "  losing 
water."     This  would  signify  that  the  material  is  water  bearing 
or  porous,  or  it  may  be  a  seam  or  cavity  such  as  may  exist  in 
rock.     Should  the  water  stay  at  the  top  of  the  pipe  it  would  show 
the   impervious   nature   of   the   underlying   material.     The   water 
may  flow  out  of  the  top  of  the  casing,  indicating  that  a  stream 
of  water  has  been  encountered  with  a  greater  head  than  that  in 
the   pipe. 

4.  It  will  not  be  sufficient  to  report  a  material  as  "  clay  and 
sand,"    for    clay    and    sand    in    different    proportions    and    under 
different  conditions  may  vary  from  a  very  soft  material  to  hard- 
pan.     They    may   be   stratified   or    exist    as    separate    pockets    or 
closely    intermingled,    and    all    these    conditions    may    be    upset 
when   water    is    present.     A    proper    description    should    read    as 
follows: 

From  90  to  100  ft. —  Hardpan,  i.  e.,  clay,  small  stones  and 
boulders  in  a  very  compact  mass.  Must  use  dynamite  almost 
constantly  in  order  to  make  any  progress. 

From  100  to  140  ft. —  Clay  and  sand.  Material  very  soft,  the 
weight  of  rods  being  sufficient  to  penetrate  material  which 
stands  up  well  and  does  not  fill  in  when  casing  is  removed. 

5.  The   inspector  must  bear   in   mind  the   possibility   of   large 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  63 

boulders  existing,  and  should  constantly  be  on  the  lookout  for 
indications  of  them  in  the  drilling. 

NOTE:  In  this  locality  boulders  greater  than  20  ft.  in  any 
dimension  were  not  met  with,  but  some  were  found  that  were 
10  or  12  ft.  through.  Consequently,  when  bedrock  was  reached, 
it  was  decided  to  drill  20  ft.  to  make  certain  it  was  not  a 
boulder. 

Conclusions. —  The  experience  gained  in  the  borings  at  the 
Ashokan  Reservoir  led  to  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  A   washed    sample   without   proper   observations   was   of    no 
value  as  a  record,  while  greater  weight  given  to  the  inspection 
of  the  boring  operations  would  approach   the  actual  conditions 
much  nearer. 

2.  A  dry  sample  was   more  satisfactory,  but,  without  the  in- 
spector's observations,  was  not  sufficient. 

3.  Invariably   the  proportion   of  clay  given   in   boring  records 
was  too  small. 

4.  The  coarser  materials,  such  as  boulders,  cobbles,  etc.,  were 
not  given  enough  weight. 

5.  Small  stones  would  be  chopped  up  by  the  bit  and  on  com- 
ing up  through  the  casing  would  be  interpreted  as  sand. 

6.  If  water  was  lost  it  was  in  a  pervious  material  or  water- 
bearing stratum  with  little  or  no  clay  present,  or  a  seam  in  rock. 

7.  If   material   was   recorded   as   "  sand  and   gravel "   with   no 
loss  of  water,  it  was  probably  an  incorrect  record,  for  clay  gen- 
erally was  present. 

8.  The  percentage  of  core  obtained,  everything  else  being  equal, 
varied  directly  with  the  hardness  of  the  rock. 

9.  A    larger    percentage    of    core   was    possible    with    a    bit    of 
large  diameter. 

10.  The  conglomerates  and  harder  sandstones  yield  nearly  95%, 
while   the   softer,    loose   and    tilted    shales   yield    less    than    25% 
of  core  at  best. 

11.  A  good  hard  rock  suitable  for  foundation  or  construction 
may   be  granular   or   nodular   in   texture  and    consequently   give 
very   little  core  and   that   very   seamy.     This   core   would   be   re- 
corded  as   seamy   and  would  give   a   false   impression   of   actual 
characteristics.  • 

12.  The   amount   of   core   should   be   but  a   small    factor   in   a 
general  determination  of  the  quality  of  the  rock.     The  improper 
setting  of  a  bit,  excessive  vibration  of  the  rods,  too  strong  a  force 
of   water,   or    the   grinding   away    of    the*  core,    will    reduce   the 
amount  obtained. 

13.  Vertical  seams  will  reduce  the  amount  of  core.     One  case 
is  worthy  of  mention :     Ten  feet  had  been  drilled  and  the  working 


04  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  the  machine  showed  no  unusual  conditions.  On  pulling  up 
the  core  barrel,  it  was  found  that  only  1  ft.  of  core  'had  been 
obtained.  A  weighted  tape  was  dropped  into  the  hole  to  see 
whether  any  core  was  left,  but  the  hole  was  found  clear  and 
empty.  By  careful  inspection  of  the  core  that  was  obtained,  the 
presence  of  a  vertical  seam  was  discovered.  The  machine  showed 
no  indications  of  soft  rock  or  horizontal  seams  in  the  running, 
the  wash  came  up  throughout  the  run  with  good  blue  stone  cut- 
tings. It  was  concluded,  therefore,  that  the  bit  had  been  in  a 
vertical  seam  and  was  cutting  good  rock  with  its  outside  dia- 
monds and  consequently  no  core  was  made  and  a  report  to  that 
effect  was  sent  to  the  office. 

14.  It    is    possible    from    inspection    to    see    whether    detached 
pieces  of  core  are  broken  mechanically  or   whether   seams  exist. 

15.  Boulders  greater  than    12   ft.   in   vertical   dimensions  were 
not  encountered  in  the  glacial  till  of  this  section. 

Boring  with  Augers.  A  common  wood  auger,  welded  on  to 
the  end  of  lengths  of  gas  pipes  or  other  rods  and  turned  by  men 
with  levers,  may  be  sunk  from  25  to  100  ft.  in  ordinary  earth. 
When  sand  is  the  material  to  be  penetrated,  an  outer  casing  of 
pipe  may  be  driven  with  mauls  or  weights  in  order  to  prevent 
the  sides  of  the  hole  from  caving  in.  Hardpan,  gravel  and  diffi- 
cult materials  cannot  be  penetrated  by  augers.  For  ordinary 
materials,  however,  this  method  will  give  fair  results  if  the 
observations  are  made  with  care  and  intelligence.  Some  so- 
called  earth  augers  are  not  true  augers  but  are  really  spoons 
or  pods  which  are  twisted  or  driven  down  into  the  soil  and  then 
raised  for  removal  of  the  spoil.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
drive  the  spoons  or  augers  too  deeply  without  raising  them  for 
cleaning.  All  devices  of  this  character  tend  to  show  the  earth 
penetrated  as  being  more  compact  than  it  really  is. 

A  Simple  Boring  Device.  In  commenting  upon  the  failure  to 
investigate  the  foundation  of  a  high  embankment  in  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  May  17,  1911,  the  writer  described  a  very  sim- 
ple boring  device.  The  instrument  is  a  bar  of  hexagon  or  octagon 
steel,  the  end  of  which  is  swedged  and  enlarged  at  the  butt  and 
tapered  to  a  point  at  the  ends;  the  sides  of  the  head  are  corru- 
gated with  a  cutting  edge.  (Fig.  12.)  On  the  opposite  end  the 
bar  has  a  T  handle  riveted  firmly  to  the  shank,  and  this  shank 
or  rod  may  be  20  to  25  ft.  long,  often  more.  The  method  of 
operating  is  to  raise  this  rod  to  a  vertical  position  with  the 
sharp  bit  on  the  ground,  and  then  by  churning  the  rod  drive  it 
into  the  earth  until  the  bit  reaches  an  obstacle.  If  continued 
churning  does  not  remove  or  penetrate  the  obstacle  in  its  path, 
several  hard  churns  will  dislodge  particles  from  the  obstruc- 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING 


05 


tion,  and  by  twisting  the  handle  around  several  times  the  particles 
will  lodge  within  the  cutting  edge  of  the  bit,  and  may  be  brought 
to  the  surface,  where  they  may  be  examined. 

In  open-cut  mining  work,  it  was  customary  to  lay  off  a  tract 
of  land  to  be  examined  in  squares  of  10  ft.,  so  that  each  square 
contained  100  sq.  ft.,  staking  the  corners.  At  each  stake  sound- 
ings were  taken  to  the  ore  bed.  Two  men  were  sufficient,  and 
they  were  capable  of  sounding  from  10  to  15  holes  per  hr. 


[ngConlg. 


I  Round  Iron* 


*|  Hex  or  Octagon 
Drill  Site/ 


Cutting  &gn 


Fig.  12.     Sketch  of  Device  for  Boring. 

A  Hand  Auger  for  Prospecting.  The  hand  auger  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustrations,  from  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Jan.  19,  1910,  was  developed  by  Baird  Halberstadt,  engineer  and 
geologist,  Pottsville,  Pa.,  in  the  course  of  his  work  in  prospecting 
some  new  coal  fields  in  West  Virginia. 

The  tool,  Fig.  13,  consists  essentially  of  four  parts  —  a  heavy 
auger,  a  handle,  a  cutting  bit  and  a  number  of  sections  of  1-in. 
gas  pipe  (one  8  ft.,  the  others  3  ft.  in  length),  threaded  at  both 
ends  and  fitted  with  ferrules.  The  auger  is  made  of  ^-in.  steel, 
4  turns  in  13  in.,  rounded  and  threaded  to  fit  the  ferrule,  and  to 
this  are  screwed  the  sections  of  pipe  as  the  depth  of  the  hole» 
increases.  It  has  been  found  well  to  have  the  first  section  made 
longer  than  the  others,  as  the  handle  can  be  passed  up  and  down 
as  required  without  entirely  uncoupling  it,  as  becomes  necessary 
when  passing  over  a  ferrule.  The  handle  is  made  in  two  sections, 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


as  shown  in  the  drawing;  the  joining  ends  are  held  firmly  by 
two  bolts,  and  a  circular  hole  drilled  of  a  diameter  slightly  less 
than  that  of  the  pipe.  With  the  bolts  tightened  up  fully,  the 
pipe  will  twist  before  the  handle  will  slip  around  the  pipe. 

For  holes  exceeding  10  ft.,  when  loose  rock  is  encountered,  a 
cutting  bit   replaces  the  auger   until  the  obstruction   is   passed 


Fig.  13.     Auger  for  Making  Test  Borings. 

through.  It  has  been  found  that  greater  speed  can  be  made 
••by  using  for  holes  where  obstructions  are  met  at  a  depth  of 
less  than  10  ft.  and  more  than  4  ft.  Ordinary  jumpers  are  made 
of  1^-in.  octagon  steel  of  good  quality.  The  bits  are  of  the 
round  rather  than  triangular  shape.  Two  of  these  are  usually 
carried  with  the  party,  one  6  ft.  and  the  other  10  ft.  long.  Fig. 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  67 

14  fully  explains  the  forms  of  each  of  the  parts.  Any  good 
colliery  blacksmith  should  be  able  to  make  one  at  a  cost  not 
to  exceed  $15. 

The  outfit  consists  of  2  auger  bits  (one  for  any  emergency, 
although  but  two  or  three  were  broken  in  drilling  the  65  miles 
outcrop),  a  cutting  bit,  2  jumpers  6  and  1()  ft.,  one-half  dozen 
18-in.  bastard  files  for  sharpening  the  blades  of  the  auger,  an 


I 


Fig.  14.     Details  of  Bits  for  Test  Boring  Auger. 

8-lb.  striking  hammer,  an  18-in.  Stilson  pipe  wrench,  a  monkey 
wrench  for  loosening  the  bolts  in  handle,  a  galvanized  iron  bucket 
and  tin  cut,  a  mattock  and  short  handle  shovel,  an  oil  cadger 
filled  with  lubricating  oil  for  use  on  ferrules  and  pipes,  and  a 
short  handle  cutting  axe. 

The  entire  outfit  can  be  carried  readily  by  a  party  of  three 
men  almost  anywhere.  In  fact  where  the  holes  are  not  far 
apart  two  men  by  making  an  extra  trip  can  transport  them.  It 


68  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

has  been  found  advantageous  to  use  three  rather  than  two  men 
to  a  crew,  as  three  can  work  to  far  better  advantage,  and  the 
dilference  in  cost  is  more  than  made  up  by  the  increased  amount 
of  work  accomplished. 

If  the  hole  is  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  a  space  of  say  2i/£  to  3  ft. 
square  should  be  leveled  off  with  a  mattock  and  spade.  This 
gives  the  men  firm  foothold.  The  auger  (attached  to  an  8-ft. 
section  of  pipe  to  which  the  handle  is  securely  fastened)  is  put 
down  and  the  handle  turned  until  the  auger  has  cut  through 
7  or  8  in.  of  "wash";  it  is  then  removed  and  a  cup  or  two 
of  water  is  poured  into  the  hole  and  drilling  is  resumed.  The 
purpose  of  the  water,  if  the  ground  is  very  dry,  is  to  dampen  the 
soil,  but  not  to  make  it  too  wet.  The  material  cut  through  will 
then  cling  to  the  auger,  filling  the  grooves,  and  the  whole  can 
be  quickly  removed  when  the  auger  is  withdrawn.  On  each 
drawing  up  of  the  auger  a  small  quantity  of  water  is  introduced. 

The  advantage  of  the  auger  over  the  churn  drill  is  here  ex- 
hibited, for  with  the  former  neither  a  scraper,  swab  stick  nor 
sand  pump  is  required,  while  with  the  latter  the  whole  mass 
must  be  made  pasty,  so  that  it  can  be  drawn  up  with  swab 
stick  or  in  a  sand  pump.  Another  advantage  the  auger  has 
is  that  the  sides  of  the  hole  become  packed  hard  and  no  diffi- 
culty is  experienced  from  caving  in.  The  holes  drilled  with  it, 
if  covered,  remain  open  for  many  months.  The  sand  pump  was 
used  only  in  extremely  wet  holes  and  generally  it  was  only 
necessary  to  use  it  when  holes  were  drilled  near  water  level. 
Throughout  this  entire  work  the  sand  pump  was  resorted  to  in 
but  a  few  instances. 

Hook  Connections  for  Auger  Rods.  These  were  used  in  mak- 
ing subsidence  tests  on  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and 
Omaha  Railway,  as  described  by  M.  M.  Wilcox  in  Engineering 
News- Record,  May  3,  1917. 

As  some  of  the  holes  bored  were  more  than  50'  ft.  deep,  to 
unscrew  joints  every  time  the  auger  was  pulled  up  for  cleaning 
would  have  been  slow  work.  With  the  hook  connections  the 
rods  were  disconnected  as  fast  as  they  were  lifted  from  the 
hole,  and  still  there  was  no  chance  for  them  to  become  dis- 
connected while  in  a  vertical  position. 

The  tools  used  for  the  tests  were  a  carpenter's  2-in.  auger,  a 
2-in.  pod  auger,  a  short  drill,  two  bars,  5  and  8  ft.  long  re- 
spectively, both  of  1-in.  drill  steel,  a  supply  of  2-in.  single- 
strength  pipe  and  couplings  for  casing  the  hole  in  soil  that 
caved,  a  Channon  pipe  lifter  with  a  Little  Giant  pipe  holder, 
wooden  mauls  for  driving  the  casing,  a  shovel  and  post-hole 
digger  for  use  in  going  through  the  ballast,  a  short  piece  of 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  89 

heavy  log  chain  with  hook  and  eye,  two  pipe  wrenches  and  a 
supply  of  extension  rods.  The  augers  and  drill  each  had  a  shank 
4  ft.  long  with  an  eye  at  the  upper  end  so  that  an  extension 
rod  could  be  hooked  on  as  the  hole  was  lowered.  These  exten- 
sion rods  were  of  }£-in.  round  steel,  8  ft.  long,  with  an  eye  at  one 
end  and  a  hook  at  the  other.  There  was  one  rod  4  ft.  long  to 
use  in  connection  with  the  longer  ones,  so  that  there  was  never 
more  than  4  ft.  out  of  the  ground  at  a  time. 

The  method  followed  in  making  these  tests  was  to  put  a  hole 
through  the  ballast  with  the  shovel  and  post-hole  digger,  than 
set  in  a  length  of  the  2-in.  casing  and  use  the  auger  the  rest 
of  the  way,  lowering  the  casing  as  the  hole  progressed.  If  the 
fill  was  of  clay  or  any  material  that  would  stand  without 
caving,  it  was  often  possible  to  complete  the  hole  with  only 
the  one  piece  of  pipe,  as  that  would  keep  the  ballast  out  of 
the  hole.  Where  the  fill  was  dry  sand,  or  if  there  was  water 


h" 

A lof4L0'' •->/ 

Fig.  15.    Extension  Bar  for  Boring  Auger. 

on  the  sides  of  the  fill,  it  was  necessary  to  keep  the  casing  close 
to  the  bottom  of  the  hole;  and  in  some  holes  better  progress 
was  made  with  the  casing  driven  lower  than  the  hole,  the  ma- 
terial being  bored  out  inside  of  the  casing. 

In  a  number  of  holes  small  gravel  stones  were  found  which 
caused  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  until  a  3-ft.  piece  of  1^-in.  pipe 
(the  largest  that  would  go  inside  the  2-in.  casing)  was  fitted 
with  an  eye  at  one  end  so  that  the  extension  rods  could  be 
hooked  in.  This  pipe  was  churned  up  and  down  in  the  hole 
until  the  gravel  had  become  wedged  in  the  pipe.  In  this  way  any 
stone  that  would  go  in  that  pipe  could  be  removed.  At  times 
the  stones  were  too  large  to  be  removed  in  that  way,  and  it 
was  necessary  to  drive  the  casing  down  until  the  stone  was 
wedged  in  it.  The  casing  was  then  pulled  and  cleaned.  In  some 
holes  it  was  possible  to  replace  the  casing  without  losing  any 
of  the  hole,  but  at  other  times  it  was  found  that  from  5  to  50% 
of  the  hole  had  filled  and  would  have  to  be  bored  out  again. 

Auger  Borings   on   Sewer   Construction.     In   Engineering   and 


70 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Contracting,  March  23,  1910,  Roger  DeL.  French  describes  test 
borings  for  sewer  construction  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  where  wash 
borings  were  taken  on  the  line  of  proposed  sewers  by  a  superin- 
tendent and  (usually)  four  men.  Oftentimes  a  bore  hole  could 
be  put  down  to  its  full  depth  with  a  post-hole  auger,  but  small 
holes  required  to  be  cased  with  4-in.  pipe  and  sunk  with  a  sand 
pump.  The  cost  of  these  holes  ran  from  2  ct.  to  as  high  as  20  ct. 
per  ft.,  according  to  location,  material  penetrated  and  number 
of  holes  in  one  group.  Four  men  and  a  superintendent  could 
put  down  an  average  of  180  ft.  per  day  of  8  hr.  in  the  clay, 
sand  and  gravel  underlying  Louisville. 

Cost  of  Test  Borings  for  the  Winnipeg  Shoal  Lake  Aqueduct. 
Much  test  boring  was  done  during  the  winter  of  1913-14  in  ex- 
amining the  proposed  location  of  the  aqueduct  from  Shoal  Lake 
to  Winnipeg.  A  description  of  this  work  and  cost  data  are 


Fig. 


May 


16.    Ice  Thickness  and  Temperature  Curves  for  Indian  Bay, 
Shoal  Lake/Greater  Winnipeg  Water  District,  1913-14. 


given  by   Douglas   L.   McLean    in   Engineering   and   Contracting, 
April  7,  1915. 

This  work  was  carried  on  under  the  severe  climatic  condi- 
tions of  a  Manitoba  winter.  Maximum  ice  conditions  on  Shoal 
Lake  from  December,  1913,  to  June,  1914,  are  shown  graphically 


BOKING  AND  SOUNDING  71 

on  Fig.  16.  This  chart  shows  the  growth  of  the  ice  from  day  to 
day  on  an  ice  space  kept  clear  of  all  snow.  Corresponding  to 
the  curve  of  ice  thickness  is  a  temperature  curve  to  show  the 
amount  of  cold  which  produced  this  ice.  In  order  to  measure 
this  in  degrees  below  freezing  over  a  stated  period,  the  ordinates 
for  the  curve  were  taken  as  "  degrees  Fahrenheit  below  freezing 
times  one  day."  The  maximum  depth  of  ice  on  snow  covered 
portions  of  the  lake  was  2.3  ft.  thick  as  compared  to  3.2  ft.  on 
clear  space.  On  the  peat  bogs  the  depth  of  frost  averaged  about 
2  ft.  The  maximum  depth  of  frost  encountered  was  3.7  ft.  in 
sandy  soil  while  the  minimum  in  sheltered  snow  covered  places 
was  1.5  ft. 

The  located  line  for  the  section  of  the  aqueduct  on  which 
Party  No.  3  made  borings  ran  for  the  most  part  through  a 
clay  country  covered  with  peat  bogs.  For  the  seven  miles  from 
Snake  Lake  to  the  Boggy  River  the  peat  bog  averaged  about  8 
ft.  in  depth. 

Cost  data  relating  to  a  portion  of  the  test  boring  work  are 
given  under  the  following  headings :  ( 1 )  Salaries  and  board  al- 
lowance. (2)  Empire  drill  costs.  (3)  Hand  auger  costs.  (4) 
Wash  boring  costs. 

Salaries  and  Board  Allowance.  The  following  were  the  stand- 
ard rates  paid  by  the  Greater  Winnipeg  Water  District: 

Instrumentman,  per  month  $100* 

Leveler,   per  month    90 

Topographer,  per  month  75  to  $80 

Field  draughtsman,  per  month  60  to    70 

Rodman,   per  month    40  to    45 

Head  chainman,  per  month   40  to    45 

Rear  chainman,  per  month   35 

Head  picketman,  per  month  40  to    45 

Cook,  per  month   60  to    75 

Cookee,  per  month 35 

Leader,  per  day  1.75 

Laborer,   per  day    1.50 

*  All  grades  were  boarded  free  while  in  the  field.  An  additional  allow- 
ance of  15  ct.  per  day  per  laborer  while  on  boring  was  given  to  make  up 
for  extra  wear  and  tear  on  mitts  and  clothing. 

For  the  boring  costs  given  in  this  article  a  board  allowance 
of  $1.05  per  working  day  has  been  charged.  . 

Empire  Drill  Costs.  Total  and  average  costs  for  645  ft.  of 
boring  using  the  small  auger  drill  spoon  with  necessary  drill 
rods,  wrenches  and  handles  of  a  Junior  Empire  Drill  Set,  are- 
given  in  Table  I.  The  Junior  Empire  Drill  Set  ordered  by  the 
district  cost  $260  delivered  at  Winnipeg.  It  was  supplied  by 
the  New  York  Engineering  Co.,  whose  catalog  gives  a  complete 
description  of  its  various  parts.  The  test  holes  put  down.  wer& 


72  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

at  2,000-ft.  intervals,  averaged  22.2  ft.  in  depth  and  cost  32.4  ct. 
per  ft.  run,  including  the  peat  in  the  depth. 

In  opening  up  the  holes  through  the  frozen  material  axes  were 
used  on  all  hand  auger  work,  as  the  axe  was  found  more  efficient 
than  a  chisel,  crowbar  or  pick. 

TABLE    I.     HAND    AUGER    TEST   BORING    COST    DATA,    WINNIPEG 
AQUEDUCT 

(Small   "  Empire   Drill  "   earth   auger   used  without  casing  as   hand  auger) 

Totals 

Number  of  holes  29.0 

Frost  depth  in  feet,  1 55.9 

Peat  depth  in  feet,  2   234.1 

Sand  and  gravel  depth  in  feet,  3  09 

Clay  depth  in  feet.  4   409.7 

Total  depth  in  feet  of  1,  3,  4   465.5 

Total  depth  in  feet  of  2,  3,  4  644.7 

No.  of  men  per  day  or  man-days  65.8 

Cost  per   day   $208.66 

Work  done  from  Feb.  4-:8  —  Feet 

Average  depth  frost  per  hole 1.93 

(This  is  frozen  peat  and  water.) 

Average  depth  peat  per  hole   8.07 

Average  depth  sand  and  gravel  per  hole .03 

Average  depth  clay  per  hole   14.10 

Average  total  depth  22.20 

Average  cost  per  foot  run,  1,  3,  4,  ct 44.8 

Average  cost  per  foot  run,  2,  3,  4,  ct 32.4 

Average  cost  per  man-day   .;. $3,175 

Average  man-days  per  hole   2.27 

Average  man-days  per  foot  run,  1,  3,  4   0.141 

Average  man-days  per  foot  run,  2,  3,  4  0.102 

4- men   gang  — 

Average  cost  per  day    $12.70 

Average  bored,  1,  3,  4,  f<  et  per  day  28.4 

Average  bored,  2,  3,  4,  feet  per  day  39.2 

Note. —  Cost  of  auger,   axes,   etc.,   not  included   in  table. 
These  holes  were  about  2,000  ft.  apart  and  considerable  time  was  required 
transporting  outfit  and  traveling  to  cam]). 

Hand  Anger  Costs.  Table  II  gives  the  cost  of  some  6,200  ft. 
of  boring  for  which  was  used  the  hand  augers  shown  in  Figs. 
17  and  1H.  These  hand  augers  give  practically  the  same  effi- 
ciencies for  depths  of  15  to  20  ft.,  but  for  depths  under  15  ft. 
the  pipe  auger  is  the  faster.  The  rod  auger,  Fig.  17,  consisting 
of  1  auger  piece,  1  handle,  5  extension  rods  with  12  extra  bolts 
%-in  x  114-in.,  cost  $10.70.  To  this  should  be  added  cost  of  a 
couple  of  spanners  and  a  handle  for  lifting. 

The  pipe  auger,  Fig.  18,  consisting  of  1  auger  piece,  5  rods 
with  couplings  and  bolts,  1  handle,  1  extra  set  of  bolts  and  2 
spanners,  together  with  2  only  %-in.  steel  chains  4  ft.  long,  with 
one  grab  and  one  slide  hook  attached  to  each,  cost  $15. 


Al\D  SOUiNUliNG 


73 


' 


TJ 

t 


Elevohon  of  Hondle  of 

Cuthng  Edge 

-" 

" 


End  View 

Fig.    17.     Hand  Operated  Rod   Auger  Used  on  Wippipeg  Shoal 
Lake  Aqueduct. 


TABLE  II.  HAND  AUGER  TEST  BORING  COST  DATA,  WINNIPEG 
AQUEDUCT 

Totals  to  April  22 

Number   of  holes    370.0 

Frost  depth  in  feet,  1   759.6 

Peat  depth  in  feet,  2   2,490.9 

Sand  and  gravel  depth  in  feet,  3   59.3 

Clay  depth  in  fett,   4   3.352.3 

Total  dtpth  in  feet,  1,  3,  4  4,171.2 

Total  depth  in  fc et,  2,  3,  4  5,902.5 

No.  of  men  per  day,  man-days   236.9 

Cost  per  day  $662.70 

^_$    ]_,  '  -  :          t     ' ,  1      \f 

Summary  of  results  to  April  22  — 

Average  depth  frost  per  hole,  feet  2.05 

Average  depth  of  peat  per  hole,  feet  6.73 

Average  depth  of  sand  and  gravel  per  hole,  feet...  0.16 

Average  depth  of  clay  per  hole,   feet   9.06 


Average  total  depth,  feet 

Average  cost  per  foot  run  of  1,  3,  4,  ct 15.9 

Average  cost  per  foot  run  of  2,  3,  4,  ct -11.2 

Average  cost  per  man-day $2.80 

Average  man-days  per  Hole 0.64 


74 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Average  man  days  per  foot  run,  1,  3,  4   0.057 

Average  nian-da.\s  per  foot  run,  2,  3,  4  0.040 

3-man  gang  — 

Avei  age  cost  ptr  day   $8.40 

Average  bored,  1,  3,  4,  feet  per  day  52.8 

Average  bored.  2,  3,  4,  feet  per  day  75.0 

Cost  of  equipment  — 

3  rod   augers   at  $10.70    $32.10 

6  spanners  at  20  ct 1.20 

3  monkey  wrenches  at  70  ct 2.10 

1  pipe  auger  at  $15  15.00 

4  10-qt.  galy.  pails  at  21  ct 84 

1  doz.  3i/2-lb.  axes  at  $1    12.00 


Total 


$63.24 


This  equipment  cost  is  not  included  in  table. 


Handle  -Round 
steel  of  di men 
shown  with  welded 
joint 


.-'Square  Shoulder 


.F  N* 

CM| 

u_ 

Fig.  18.    Hand  Operated  Pipe  Auger. 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING 


75 


Boring  with  Hollow  Pipe.  In  order  to  sample  the  material 
along  the  route  of  the  proposed  Boston  subway  according  to 
Engineering  News,  Mar.  29,  1894,  a  pipe  was  driven  down  and 
then  pulled  up  and  the  soil  retained  in  the  interior  was  removed. 
The  depths  reached  averaged  25  ft.;  a  maximum  depth  of  38  ft. 
was  obtained.  A  small  derrick  was  used  for  pulling  out  the 
pipe  and  also  for  lifting  the  weight  used  to  drive  it.  The 
earth  which  was  forced  into  the  pipe  during  the  driving  was  in 
turn  forced  out  by  water,  and  a  small  tube  was  inserted  into  the 
pipe  for  the  purpose  of  taking  out  samples. 


Hi 
mm 


Line  or  nnishea  Basement 


mpi 

9  b   b  b 

;      •!  II 

Ml! 


i  i j — % 


Pea 

MVarer  Level 


Gumbo  - 
-•:  water  --t 
and  -'z 
r  Quicksand  z 


.It 

))»}« 


SOU 


-GumbqLumpsor 
%  Hardpan 


<•  Qutcksano 


r  inesi 'oona,  Grading  rover y 
coarse  Sand  and  Gravel 


Fig.  19.    Depth  of  Test  Holes  and  Character  of  Sub-Soil. 

Cost  of  Auger  Holes  in  Oklahoma.  Mr.  F.  O.  Kirby,  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Jan.  14,  1914,  gives  the  method  and 
cost  of  determining  the  soil  conditions  beneath  a  proposed  five- 
story  office  building  at  Chickasha,  Okla. 

At  one  time  there  was  a  slough  where  this  building  stands, 
and  as  the  town  grew  and  the  street  was  built  up,  the  ground 
was  filled  in.  In  general,  the  soil  on  top  of  the  ground  to  a 
depth  of  about  10  ft.  was  red  sandy  clay,  with  strata  of  gumbo 
and  hardpan  every  few  feet.  Below  a  depth  of  10  ft.  the  sand 
in  the  soil  increased.  The  high-water  mark  during  the  wet 


76  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

season  was  about  6  ft.  below  the  street  level,  and  the  low  point, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  19,  was  about  17.5  ft. 

The  same  strata  were  found  in  each  of  the  three  test  holes. 
The  first  test  hole  was  taken  in  the  center  of  the  basement,  and 
the  other  two  were  taken  at  each  side  of  it. 

Holes  Nos.  2  and  3  were  made  by  a  post  auger,  using  pipe 
to  lengthen  the  handle.  No.  1  was  started  by  driving  a  galvan- 
ized iron  pipe  in  sections  by  leverage.  At  a  depth  of  25  ft. 
this  pipe  closed  up  so  that  it  was  impossible  to  get  a  3-in.  auger 
through  it,  nor  could  a  sand  bucket  be  used  to  clean  out  the 
pipe.  A  driver  was  then  rigged  up  by  using  a  set  of  leads  with 
a  railroad  tie  for  a  hammer.  Laborers  were  employed  to  lift 
and  drop  the  hammer,  to  drive  a  4-in.  pipe  in  10-ft.  sections,  and 
to  take  out  the  soil  with  an  auger  and  sand  bucket. 

The  cost  of  the  three  test  holes  shown  in  Fig.  2  (totaling  91 
ft.)  is  given  below.  This  cost  is  based  on  1912  prices  for  ma- 
terials, the  local  union  scale  of  45  ct.  an  hr.  for  carpenters,  20 
to  25  ct.  for  laborers,  and  62.5  ct.  for  the  foreman.  The  lumber 
in  the  derrick  is  not  included  in  the  cost,  as  it  was  used  in  the 
building. 

>$  Cost 
Driving  test   holes   and   removing  wrought  iron   pipe, 

labor    only    $34.45 

Carpenters,    building  derrick    ,  7.20 

Carpenter,    rigging    3.60 

Post    auger    2.00 

15  ft.  of  1-in.  black  pipe 1.05 

15  ft.  of  1  in.  No.  22  well  casing 2.70 

1  sand  bucket    4.75 

12  ft.  of  1-in.  black  pipe   0.78 

27  ft.  of  9  in.  galvanized  iron  casing  6  75 

2%-in.  sand  bucket 3.75 

62  ft.  of  3l/2-in.  black  pipe   28.52 

2  couplings    0  80 

2    caps 0.90 

1  B.  coupling   0.40 

4  cuts  and  threading  1.60 

15V2-ft.  of  %-in.  black  pipe '  0.78 

2%-in.    couplings    0.15 

Cutting    and    threading    0.?5 

Ring  in   pipe 0.15 

4  guides  for  derrick  1.00 

2  braces   0.50 

Clamp  to  pull  pipe  ; JK9. . ; V. .  &!<%£  ."WS^' A  2.00 

24  ft.  of  9-in.  casing  6.00 

Total  cost  of  3  test  holes   ;?.S?,JStt?...9.^/..Jtfl }?.'/!     $110.03 

Auger  Boring  with  an  Empire  Drill.  (Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Jan.  29,  1908.)  The  drilling  is  done  with  one  of 
several  tools,  adapted  to  the  particular  kind  of  material  being 
drilled  —  attached  to  the  drilling  rod.  The  tool  and  rod  are 
operated  inside  the  casing  by  the  men  on  the  platform,  who 
raise  and  drop  them  like  a  "  churn "  drill.  The  men  on  the 


BOEING  AND  SOUND1KG 


HHRHBIi 


Fig.  20.     Sectional  View  of  Empire  Drill,  Made  by  the  New  York 
Engineering  Co.,  2  Rector  St.,  N.  Y. 


78  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ground  rotate  the  casing,  which  has  a  sharp  cutting  shoe  on  the 
lower  end.  The  casing,  with  its  burden  of  platform  and  men, 
thus  keeps  cutting  and  sinking  into  the  ground  several  inches 
ahead  of  the  tool.  A  horse  may  be  substituted  for  the  men  who 
rotate  the  casing. 

The  material  which  enters  the  casing  is  drilled  and  forced 
into  a  sand  pump  at  the  same  time:  The  pump  is  occasionally 
lifted  out  of  the  casing,  emptied  and  the  contents  noted. 

Four-in.  pipe  is  generally  used,  with  a  special  coupling  that 
makes  a  flush  joint;  that  is,  all  of  the  couplings  have  the  same 
outside  diameter  as  the  pipe,  which  makes  it  very  easy  either 
to  sink  or  remove  this  casing.  Instead  of  the  4-in.  pipe  or 
casing,  3-in.  or  even  2^-in.  casing  can  be  used  if  desired,  and 
it  will  make  more  rapid  work,  but  of  course  would  give  a  smaller 
core. 

After  the  hole  is  finished,  the  pipe  is  easily  withdrawn  be- 
cause the  casing,  having  been  constantly  rotated,  is  always  loose, 
both  while  sinking  and1  removing. 

In  estimating  the  cost  of  operating  this  drill  there  is  little 
else  to  be  calculated  besides  the  labor,  as  the  repairs  constitute 
a  small  part  of  the  operating  expense.  Of  the  laborers  employed, 
one  must  be  a  foreman  or  driller,  another  an  ordinary  pipeman, 
and  the  balance  of  the  crew  common  laborers.  When  the  casing 
or  piping  with  its  platform  is  rotated  with  a  horse,  instead  of 
the  men  on  the  ground,  it  effects  quite  a  saving  in  the  cost  by 
dispensing  with  three  or  four  men.  If  the  ground  does  not 
contain  heavy  boulders,  and  the  holes  are  not  over  35  to  40  ft. 
deep,  six  men  will  be  sufficient,  or  three  or  four  men  and  a  horse. 

With  the  4-in.  size  hole  50  ft.  of  hole  per  day  have  been 
drilled  at  a  cost  of  3.0  ct.  per  ft.  Twenty-five  to  30  ft.  of  hole 
per  day  will  be  averaged  through  hard  cemented  gravel  con- 
taining boulders. 

Mr.  Thos.  G.  Ryan  used  one  of  these  Empire  hand  drills  on 
Long  Island  putting  down  a  number  of  holes  through  sand  and 
gravel,  with  occasional  strata  of  clay,  and  in  some  cases  en- 
countering large  boulders.  About  40  test  borings  were  made, 
each  hole  averaging  59  ft.,  the  total  being  2,454  ft.  The  time 
consumed  in  this  work  was  73  days,  working  9  hr.  per  day.  The 
cost  given  below  includes  the  drilling,  drawing  the  casing,  and 
moving  and  setting  up  drill,  thus  covering  a  number  of  re- 
movals over  a  considerable  period  of  time. 

The  total  cost  of  the  work  was: 

1  foreman  73  days  at  $4  $292.00 

1  pipeman  73  days  at  $3 , 219,00 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  79 

3  laborers  73  days  at  $1.50  each $328.50 

1  horse  73  days  at  $1   73.00 

Depreciation,   interest,    renewals  and  incidentals 81.76 

Total    cost    $994.26 

An  Empire  drill  was  used  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Clarence 
R.  Snow,  during  the  autumn  of  1908,  in  Colombia,  South  America. 
An  account  of  this  work  appears  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
June  8,  1909. 

The  work  was  done  with  native  peons  or  Indians,  who  had 
never  seen  machinery  of  any  kind.  The  country  in  which  the 
holes  were  being  sunk  was  covered  with  forest,  the  bush  and 
undergrowth  in  many  places  being  very  heavy.  To  move  the 
drill  from  hole  to  hole  a  narrow  path  was  cut  through  the  un- 
dergrowth 6  or  7  ft.  high.  A  small  flat  bottom  boat  was  used  to 
carry  the  drill  across  the  river,  there  being  consumed  about  half 
an  hour  to  do  this.  As  there  are  no  roads  in  Colombia  it  would 
be  almost  impossible  to  work  a  steam  drill,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  moving  it  from  place  to  place.  • 

Four  men  were  used  to  turn  the  casing,  and  four  men  did 
the  drilling,  an  additional  man  being  used  for  cutting  trails. 
The  entire  crew  was  used  to  draw  the  casing  and  move  the  drill 
from  hole  to  hole.  The  following  is  a  record  of  seven  days' 
work: 

First  day, —  Carried  outfit  across  river  in  boat  and  began  hole 
No.  1.  Made  14  ft.  in  top  soil  and  11  ft.  in  gravel  by  5  P.  M. 

Second  day, —  Finished  hole  No.  1,  2.5  ft.  more  to  bed  rock, 
total,  27.5  ft.  Pulled  casing. and  began  hole  No.  2,  100  ft.  distant 
before  noon,  and  sunk  the  hole  17  ft.  deep  to  bed  rock  before  4 
p.  M.  Pulled  casing  and  moved  to  hole  No.  3,  drilling  9  ft.  in 
overburden. 

Third  day, —  Finished  hole  No.  3,  24  ft.  deep.  Pulled  casing 
and  started  hole  No.  4  by  2  P.  M.  Passed  through  12  ft.  of  over- 
burden and  10  ft.  of  sand  and  gravel  by  5  P.  M. 

Fourth  day, —  Finished  hole  No.  4,  which  was  28  ft.  deep  to 
bed  rock.  Pulled  casing,  cut  trail  and  moved  to  hole  No.  5,  300 
ft.  northeast  of  hole  No.  4,  and  started  new  hole  by  noon.  After 
drilling  17  ft.  through  overburden  an  old  buried  tree  was  struck, 
but  the  drill  went  through  it  easily.  By  5  P.  M.  22  ft.  were  made 
in  this  hole. 

Fifth  day, —  Finished  hole  No.  5,  28  ft.,  and  after  pulling  cas- 
ing began  hole  No.  6.  Got  down  14  ft.  in  overburden  and  9  ft. 
in  gravel  by  5  p.  M. 

Sixth  day, —  Finished  hole  No.  6,  going  down  9  ft.  more  to  bed 
rock.  Moved  outfit  across  the  river  and  about  a  mile  up  the 


80  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

river,  and  at  2:45  started  hole  No.  7.  Made  G  ft.  in  overburden 
and  9  ft.  in  gravel  by  5  P.  M. 

Seventh  day, —  Finished  hole  No.  7,  29  ft.,  to  bed  rock,  and 
moved  50  ft.  north  and  sunk  hole  No.  8,  22  ft.,  to  rock.  Started 
hole  No.  9,  50  ft.  north,  and  made  G  it.  in  top  soil  by  5  P.  M. 

Thus  in  seven  days  of  drilling  213  ft.  were  drilled,  an  average 
of  30.5  ft.  per  day.  It  will  be  noticed  that  as  the  men  became 
accustomed  to  the  work,  they  improved  a  little  each  day. 

With  the  Empire  drill  an  auger  drill  spoon  is  used  that  will 
cut  through  hard  soils,  roots  and  sunken  logs  and  easily  pene- 
trates gravel.  It  picks  up  any  material  and  brings  it  as  a  core  to 
the  surface  with  a  minimum  amount  of  disturbance  of  the  ma- 
terial as  it  actually  lies  in  the  ground.  Water,  as  a  rule,  is 
not  used  to  assist  in  drilling,  so  the  at  ger  will  pick  up  the  finest 
particles  of  gold.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  water  in  drilling  it  can 
be  done.  The  casing  is  pulled  by  levers  with  a  very  simple 
device. 

With  wages  at  $1  per  day  for  the  men  the  expenses  were  about 
$10  per  day,  allowing  $1  for  incidentals,  the  cost  per  ft.  was 
about  33  ct.  At  American  wages  the  cost  would  have  been  about 
47  ct.  per  ft. 

Post  Hole  Diggers  are  not  true  augers,  but  consist  of  a  scoop 
or  screw  which  fills  itself  as  forced  into  the  earth;  when  filled  it 
must  be  lifted  out  of  the  hole  and  dumped.  As  this  must  be 
repeated  for  every  few  inches  of  hole  the  process  is  too  slow  for 
use  on  any  but  shallow  holes. 


Fig.  21.     Post  Hole  Auger. 

A  useful  type  of  post  hole  auger  is  shown  in  Fig.  21,  which  is 
taken  from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  30,  1907. 

The  handle  on  the  small  sizes  is  4  ft.  long,  while  a  6-ft.  handle 
is  used  on  the  larger  sizes.  For  ordinary  purposes  these  lengths 
are  sufficient,  but  for  boring  test  holes  the  handle  is  readily 
lengthened  by  attaching  additional  pipe  of  the  same  size  as  the 
handle. 

With  a  10-in.  auger,  holes  35  ft.  deep  have  been  bored,  while 
with  a  4-in.  auger  a  depth  of  75  ft.  has  been  obtained.  Where  a 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  ,  81 

large  number  of  shallow  boles,  from  which  specimens  are  to  be 
taken  are  needed,  this  auger  should  give  excellent  results. 

In  the  issue  of  Aug  28,  1907,  page  133,  the  cost  of  digging  post 
holes  for  a  fence  with  an  auger  is  given.  With  wages  at  $1.50 
per  10  hrs.,  84  holes  being  dug  with  a  6-in.  auger,  the  cost  per 
hole  was  1.8  ct.,  or  .7  ct.  per  lin.  ft.,  which  gives  a  cost  of 
98  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  style  of  auger  shown  in  the  cut  is  made  of  two  steel  blades, 
each  blade  with  two  cutting  edges.  The  blades  interlock  at  the 
bottom  in  the  notches  made  for  that  purpose,  thus  holding  the 
dirt,  which  is  released  by  rapping  the  flat  side  of  the  blade  on 
the  ground.  The  auger  is  made  in  ten  sizes  from  3  in.  to  14 
in. 

Boring  with  Post  Hole  Diggers  on  Long  Island.  In  tests  for 
the  adlitional  water  supply  of  the  city  of  New  York,  as  reported 
in  1903,  some  22  test  pits  were  dug  near  the  South  shore  of 
Long  Island  with  4^-in.  and  6-in.  post  augers,  at  a  total  cost  of 
about  $14.50,  or  60  ct.  per  hole.  The  total  number  of  feet  was 
102  and  the  cost  per  ft.  therefore  amounted  to  14  ct. 

Cost  of  Post  Hole  Digger  Boring.  Emile  Low  in  Engineering 
News,  March  21,  1907,  describes  the  work  of  making  earth  auger 
borings  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  The  tools  used  con- 
sisted of  a  light  steel  cylindrical  pod  (6  in.  in  diameter  and 
having  a  length,  including  the  serrated  bottom  edge,  of  5  in.) 
composed  of  5  saw-shaped  teeth  2  in.  long.  These  teeth  were 
bent  inward  more  or  less  according  to  the  character  of  material 
penetrated.  The  rods  were  made  so  that  they  could  be  screwed 
into  a  standard  section  of  gas  pipe  8  ft.  long.  A  suitable  handle 
was  provided  to  grasp  the  pipe  with  which  the  earth  auger  was 
turned.  The  work  of  boring  the  holes  6  in.  in  diameter  was  ac- 
complished by  turning  the  ai'ger  until  the  pod  was  full  of  earth, 
then  lifting  it  out  and  emptying  it.  In  suitable  soils  holes  16 
ft.  long  were  readily  bored.  In  the  work  described  450  holes  were 
driven  an  average  depth  of  13.26  ft.  The  cost  of  these  borings 
was  18.3  ct.  per  ft. 

Material,  muck,  sand,  clay  and  gravel. 

Force  employed  per  day :  three  laborers  at  $2.00 ;  at  times  1 
horse  and  buggy  for  transportation  of  men  and  tools,  $2.00. 
Daily  progress-,  3  holes  or  40  ft. 

See  my  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data  "  for  further  information. 

Cable  Drills.  In  my  "  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation,"  pp. 
252-295,  methods  and  costs  of  using  cable  drills  are  given.  This 
method  of  drilling  consists  in  alternately  raising  a  suing  of  tools 
which  terminate  in  a  chisel  cutting  edge  and  letting  them  fall. 
The  chopping  motion  imparted  to  the  cutting  tools  enables  them 


82  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

to  penetrate  through  coarse  gravel  and  boulders  that  could  not 
be  passed  by  the  wash  boring  method  without  blasting. 

Diamond  Drills  are  used  for  prospecting  rock  rather  than  earth. 
Their  chief  interest  from  a  standpoint  of  earth  exploration  is 
their  use  to  distinguish  large  boulders  from  ledge  rock. 

Cost  of  Test  Wells  for  a  Bridge  Foundation.  P.  J.  Robinson 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  5,  1910,  gives  the  following: 

Test  wells  were  bored  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  founda- 
tions for  the  piers  of  a  bridge  over  the  American  River,  Cali- 
fornia. Stagings  were  erected  from  the  side  of  an  old  bridge  and 
equipment,  which  consisted  of  a  gasoline  hoist  and  drill  machine, 
was  rented  from  a  local  well  borer,  who  also  supervised  the  work. 
Three  crews  prosecuted  the  work  at  the  start,  ending  with  one, 
with  wages  as  follows: 

Engineman     $4.75 

Foreman    4.00 

Sub-foreman 3.75 

Sub-foreman    3.50 

Sub-foreman    3.25 

Laborers    3.00 

Laborers    2.75 

Laborers    2.50 

Laborers    2.25 

A  suction  sand  pump,  a  design  of  the  local  shops,  was  used 
through  the  gravel  and  cobbles  and  an  earth  auger  in  the  clay. 
The  wells  were  encased  with  sheet  iron  and  when  possible  the 
pipe  was  pulled  and  used  again.  The  prices  charged  for  this  ma- 
terial are  shown  in  the  cost  statement.  The  wide  range  in  cost 
of  the  different  sizes  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  14-in.  and  12-in. 
pipe  were  new,  while  the  10-in.  and  8-in.  were  second  hand. 

The  work  was  twice  interrupted  by  high  water,  necessitating 
the  dismantling  of  the  equipment,  and  thereby  adding  quite  ma- 
terially to  the  cost. 

The  cost  of  this  work  was  as  follows: 

Labor  — 

Loading  and  unloading  material,  63%  days  $    197.00 

Hauling  material,  2  days  6.50 

Boring  well  No.  1,  107  days  324.25 

Boring  well  No.  2,  52  days 165.75 

Boring  well  No.  3,  131V2  days   417.62 

Boring  well  No.  4,  51%  days  171.50 

Boring  well  No.  6,  117V2  days  1 360.00 

Erecting  staging,  68%  days    236.81 

Repairing  derrick,  2  days   7.00 

Making  boxes  of  test  well  soils,  4  days  ..:.  15.00 

Rental  of  well  boring  apparatus   118.00 

$2  019  43 
Material  — 

Lumber,  9,073  ft.  B  .M.  at  $13.83  per  M $125.47 

Sheet  iron  casing,  14-in.,  new,  52  lin.  ft.  at  $2.75 143.00 


BORING  AND  SOUNDING  83 

Sheet  iron  casing,  12-in.,   new,  172  lin.  ft.  at  $2.25   $387.00 

Sheet  iron  casing,  10-in.,  second-hand,  49  lin.  ft.,  at  $0.60 29.40 

Sheet  iron  casing,  8-in.,  second-hand,  36  lin.  ft.  at  $0.51 18.36 

Store    department   expense    40.55 

2%  of  labor  for  use  of  tools   40.40         784.18 


Of  the  five  wells  bored,  No.  1  and  No.  6  were  on  the  bank  and 
Nos.  2,  3  and  4  were  located  in  the  channel  of  the  stream.  It  is 
noted  that  well  No.  3  was  the  most  expensive  to  bore,  due  to  the 
nature  of  the  substance  penetrated.  . 

Cost  of  Test  Pitting.  The  following  are  costs  given  in  the 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  of  test  pitting  in  hard  clay  and 
hardpan  with  many  .large  boulders,  where  the  ground  dulls  the 
picks  rapidly.  Foreman's  wages  were  $3;  laborers,  $2.  Two- 
inch  hardwood  plank  was  used  for  cribbing  when  necessary.  No 
superintendence  or  office  expense  charged. 

Depth,  Hours,  Per 

Pit                               feet  labor  Cost  foot 

1   17                   80  $18.00  $1.06 

2    24                  140  29.00  1.21 

3    7  15  3.50  0.50 

4    22  75  16750  0.75 

5    23  100  24.00  1.04 

6    26  240  48.00  1.84 

7    41  270  56.00  1.366 

8    46  335  72.50  1.58 

9    38  255  64.00  1.70 

10    33  240  54.00  -     1.67 

11     10  60  12.00  1.20 

12    9  100  22.00  2.44 

13    9  20  4.00  0.44 

14    17  60  12.00  0.70 

15    12  55  12.50  1.00 

Filling  pits  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4  6.00 

Filling  pits  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10  35.00 

Filling  pits  Nos.  11,  12,   13,  14   7.00 

The  contract  price  for  sinking  a  test  pit  in  sandy  soil  and  doing 
all  necessary  cribbing,  all  supplies  to  be  furnished  and  tools 
sharpened  free  of  charge,  to  20  ft.  in  depth  is  $1  per  ft.;  from 
20  to  30  ft.,  $1.25  per  ft. 

Test  Trenches.  Trenches  used  in  prospecting  a  mining  prop- 
erty are  described  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  21, 
1911.  A  trench  60  ft.  long,  6  ft.  wide  and  7  ft.  deep  was  exca- 
vated by  6  men  with  picks  and  shovels  in  3.2  days.  A  staging 
was  then  put  in,  three  additional  men  were  hired  to  re-handle  the 
earth,  and  the  trench  was  deepened  8  ft.  to  rock. 

The  cost  of  excavating  146.7  cu.  yd.  of  earth  from  the  trench 
was  as  follows: 

Six  men  3  days  at  $3 $  54.00 

Nine  men  2  days  at  $3  54.00 


84  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Six  round-point   long-handled   shovels    $    9.75 

Three  square-point  D-handled  shovels   4.00 

Six  5-lb.  drift  picks   8.00 

Six  36-in.  drift  pick  handles 1.90 

172  ft.  lumber  for  staging   3.10 

$134.75 
Cost  per  cu.  yd.,  $0.918. 

Bibliography.  "Hand  Book  of  Rock  Excavation,"  H.  P.  Gil- 
lette. "  Cost  Data,"  H.  P.  Gillette. 

"  Boring  Test  Holes  with  an  Auger,"  Charles  Catlett,  Trans. 
Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  Vol.  27,  1897. 

"  Methods  and  Costs  of  Wash  Borings,  Great  Lakes  and  Atlantic 
Ship  Canal  Survey,  1897-1900,"  Eng.  and  Con.,  Mar.  27,  1907. 
"  Comparison  of  Cost  with  Two  Light  Wash  Boring  Rigs,"  A.  W. 
Saunders,  Eng.  and  Con.,  Dec.  9,  1908.  "  Cost  of  Making  Test 
Borings  with  Wood  Augers,"  A.  C.  D.  Blanchard,  Eng.  and  Con., 
Aug.  11,  1909. 


H  TtfAM  ^0 

CHAPTER  IV 
x&mvif  i<rs»i$< 

CLEARING  AND  GRUBBING 

.SF'iocrt  io  *K|v'P  .7 

The  removal  of  trees,  brush,  and  stumps,  from  areas  to  be 
excavated  or  on  which  embankments  are  to  be  built  is  a  subject 
of  importance  too  little  considered  by  excavating  engineers. 
Often  where  cuts  are  shallow  it  costs  more  than  the  excavation. 
In  spite  of  this  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  costs  of  excavation  figured 
to  hundredth^  of  a  cent  per  cu.  yd.  and  the  cost  of  clearing  and 
grubbing  merely  guessed  at,  or  at  the  best,  so  stated  as  to  be 
valueless.  The  reader  is  referred  to  "  Clearing  and  Grubbing,"  a 
250-page  book  by  the  author  of  this  work,  from  the  first  chapter 
of  which  the  following  discussion  is  largely  taken. 

Factors  in  Clearing  and  Grubbing  Cost.  Clearing  consists  in 
cutting  down  and  removing  or  burning  trees  and  brush,  except 
the  stumps.  Grubbing,  or  stumping,  consists  in  excavating  and 
removing  stumps.  The  unit  of  measure  is  usually  the  acre,  but 
occasionally  the  square  rod  (160  per  acre),  and  at  other  times 
the  "great  square"  (100x100  ft.),  is  the  unit  of  measure  for 
grubbing.  In  railroad  work,  a  "station"  of  100  ft.  in  length 
and  a  width  equal  to  that  of  the  right  of  way  is  usually  the 
unit  of  clearing. 

In  clearing  trees,  the  following  are  important  elements  affecting 

the  cost  per  acre: 

-ton    *i    hi- 


1.  Number  of  trees  per  acre. 

2.  Average  diameter. 

3.  Average  height. 

4.  Kind  of  tree. 

5.  Density  of  wood. 

6.  Whether  the  logs  and  limbs  are  cut  up  and  hauled  off,  or 
are  chopped  into  cordwood,  or  are  burned. 

7.  Weather  conditions. 

8.  Efficiency  of  workmen  and  wage  rate. 

9.  Size  of  job. 

Unfortunately  no  published  record  of  the  cost  of  clearing  gives 
all  these  factors,  but  many  give  a  sufficient  number  of  the  factors 
to  guide  the  reader  sufficiently  well. 

In  grubbing  stumps,  the  following  are  important  elements  af- 
fecting the  cost  per  acre: 

1.  Number  of  stumps  per  acre. 
2  Average  diameter  at  cut-off. 
o  TC-inri  of  trpp 

3.  Kind  of  tree  ,o-«tocO  aniJiimlwar  o*  g« 

4.  Green  or  dead. 

85 


86       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

5.  Kind  of  earth  and  degree  of  wetness. 

6.  Pulled  or  blasted. 

7.  Type  of  roots. 

8.  Burned  or  hauled  away. 

9.  Weather. 

10.  Ground  frozen  or  not. 

11.  Efficiency  of  men  and  wage  rate. 

12.  Size  of  job. 

In  addition  to  the  above  factors  the  cost  of  excess  excavation 
required  to  fill  stump  holes  under  embankments  must  be  taken 
into  consideration. 

Types  of  Hoots.  Tap  roots  are  the  most  difficult  to  pull  or 
blast.  The  long-leaf  yellow  pine  of  the  South  is  typical  of  this 
class.  Hickory,  white  oak  and  black  gum  also  have  tap  roots. 

Semi  tap  roots  are  the  most  common  variety.  The  class  in- 
cludes white  pine,  poplar,  chestnut,  ash,  walnut,  persimmon, 
sassafras,  various  varieties  of  oak  and  most  fruit  trees. 

Lateral  root  trees  are  less  numerous  than  other  kinds.  This 
class  includes  elm,  soft  maple,  locust,  hemlock,  dogwood  and  elder. 
These  three  types  of  roots  merge  into  each  other.  Soil  condi- 
tions also  affect  the  form  of  root  growth  so  that  an  absolute 
classification  is  not  possible. 

Some  stumps  are  durable  and  others  will  rot  very  fast.  A 
stump  that  does  not  sprout  is  not  getting  any  worse  as  time 
passes,  but  one  that  does  sprout  is  likely  to  be  harder  to  take 
out  each  succeeding  season. 

For  accurate  estimates  of  the  cost  of  either  clearing  or  grub- 
bing, the  number  of  trees  per  acre  should  be  known  approxi- 
mately. If  the  trees  are  classified  according  to  size,  more  accurate 
estimating  becomes  possible.  Much  yet  remains  to  be  printed 
relative  to  clearing  and  grubbing  costs  per  tree  of  different 
kinds  before  an  entirely  inexperienced  man  can  make  a  very 
close  estimate  of  costs  per  acre. 

In  chopping  or  sawing  trees  the  account  of  work  varies  about 
as  the  square  of  the  diameter.  Therefore  the  work  done  in  cut- 
ting down  a  48-in.  tree  is  16  times  as  great  as  that  on  a  12-in. 
tree  of  the  same  kind.  If  done  entirely  by  hand,  the  total  labor 
of  clearing  away  a  48-in.  tree  will  be  more  than  16  times  that 
required  by  a  12-in.  tree,  for  the  trunk  will  be  longer,  requiring 
to  be  cut  into  more  sections  before  it  can  be  moved.  Also  trees 
of  such  large  diameter  are  difficult  to  handle  with  a  cross-cut 
saw  so  that  even  the  difficulty  of  falling  increases  at  a  greater 
rate  than  the  square  of  the  diameter. 

Suggestions  as  to  Estimating  Costs  of  Clearing  and  Grubbing. 


CLEARING  AND  GRUBBING  87 

In   Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  6,   1911,  the  author  pub- 
lished  the   following: 

Any  one  who  has  not  seen  the  trees  of  western  Washington 
and  Oregon  may  find  it  difficult  to  believe  that  clearing  and 
grubbing  has  often  cost  more  than  $500  an  acre  in  that  section 
of  the  country.  Yet  on  a  recently  built  electric  railway  along 
Puget  Sound  the  cutting  of  trees  and  yarding  the  logs  on  the 
right  of  way  ready  for  -loading  cost  $280  per  acre,  and  the  sub- 
sequent pulling  of  stumps,  stacking  and  burning  of  all  refuse  on 
the  right  of  way  cost  $300  per  acre,  making  a  total  of  $580  per 
acre  for  logging,  clearing  and  grubbing. 

It  is  clear  that  no  accurate  estimate  of  the  acre  cost  of  remov- 
ing stumps  can  be  made  until  at  least  two  elements  are  known: 
( 1 )  the  number  of  stumps  per  acre,  and  ( 2 )  the  weighted  diam- 
eter of  the  stumps.  By  "  weighted  diameter "  we  do  not  mean 
the  average  diameter,  but  the  weighted  average  for  cost  esti- 
mating purposes.  To  illustrate,  suppose  there  are  30  stumps 
per  acre,  20  of  which  measure  12  in.  in  diameter  at  the  cut-off 
(all  diameters  should  be  given  at  the  cut-off  and  not  at  the 
ground  level),  and  10  30  in.  in  diameter.  Then  the  average 
diameter  would  be  calculated  thus: 

Total  diam. 

20  at  12  in =  240  in.  ol>  ut 

10  at  30  in =  300  in. 

30  at  18  in =  540  in. 

If  we  assume  that  the  cost  of  blasting  stumps  varies  as  the 
square  of  the  diameter,  the  weighted  diameter  for  cost  estimating 
purposes  is  calculated  thus: 

Total  squared 
diam. 

20  at  (12  in.  X  12  in.)  =    2,880 

10  at  (30  in.  X  30  in.)  =    9,000 

30  at  nearly   (20  in.  X  20  in.)  = 11,880 

This  gives  nearly  20  in.  as  the  weighted  diameter  for  cost 
estimating  purposes. 

Having  estimated  the  number  of  stumps  per  acre  and  their 
weighted  diameter,  it  is  possible  to  approximate  the  cost  of 
blasting  them  out.  To  this  must  be  added  the  cost  of  piling  and 
burning  them,  which,  it  is  altogether  probable,  can  be  reduced 
to  a  unit  cost  per  stump  of  given  size  that  will  make  accurate 
estimating  possible.  Fallen  logs  may  be  estimated  in  cords  of 
wood  per  acre,  and  the  cost  of  piling  and  burning  them  may  then 
become  a  matter  of  quite  accurate  forecast. 

In   estimating   clearing    and    grubbing,   as    in    estimating   any 


88  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

other  costs,  the  primary  object  should  be  to  measure  the  work  in 
units  that  are  true  functions  of  the  cost.  By  itself  the  acre  of 
clearing  and  grubbing  is  not  a  satisfactory  unit  for  measuring 
costs.  The  thousand  ft.  board  measure  is  a  suitable  unit  in 
which  to  express  the  cost  of  felling  trees,  making  them  into  logs 
and  loading  onto  cars,  wagons,  etc.  The  stump  of  a  given  size 
is  the  proper  unit  in  which  to  express  the  cost  of  grubbing 
stumps.  The  cord  or  cubic  foot  of  wood,  may  be  a  suitable  unit 
in  which  to  express  the  cost  of  piling  and  burning.  Other  units 
may  be  desirable.  It  is  clear  that  existing  cost  data  on  clearing 
and  grubbing  are  .defective,  for  the  most  part,  because  they  are 
not  recorded  in  proper  units. 

Effect  of  Method  of  Excavation  on  Cost  of  Grubbing.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Dec.  25,  1907,  gives  the  following: 
One  of  the  items  of  work  to  be  done  in  grading  a  railroad  is 
generally  the  clearing  and  grubbing  of  the  land.  Under  some 
contracts  and  specifications  this  work  is  paid  for  as  one  item, 
under  others  as  two  items  as  clearing  and  as  grubbing,  while 
under  other  forms  of  contracts  this  work  is  included  in  that  of 
excavation. 

The  method  of  paying  for  clearing  by  the  acre  as  one  item 
and  grubbing  as  another  item  is  to  be  commended.  In  order 
to  do  the  excavation  all  the  land  must  be  cleared,  but  in  addition 
to  the  area  used  for  the  cuts  and  embankments,  the  entire  width 
of  the  right  of  way  must  be  cleared,  and  overhanging  trees  and 
branches  must  be  cut  away.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  no  need 
of  grubbing  the  area  occupied  by  the  embankments,  nor  that 
on  the  right  of  way  not  included  in  the  cuts,  hence  there  should 
be  no  reason  why  this  area  should  be  included  in  the  payment. 
Likewise  the  method  of  doing  the  excavation  will  very  materially 
effect  the  cost  of  the  grubbing,  while  it  does  not  play  any  part 
in  the  cost  of  clearing. 

When  steam  shovels  are  used  the  grubbing  cost  is  small,  as 
these  machines  will  undermine  the  stumps,  causing  them  to  fall 
into  the  pit,  where  they  can  be  loaded  onto  the  cars  by  means 
of  chains,  attached  to  the  dipper  teeth.  This  work  retards  the 
progress  made  by  the  shovel,  but  the  cost  of  grubbing  is  greatly 
reduced,  and  a  contractor  could  afford  to  bid  a  low  price  on 
the  grubbing  when  done  with  a  steam  shovel,  if  it  is  not  lumped 
in  with  the  clearing  or  other  work. 

When  grubbing  is  done  in  connection  with  rock  excavation,  its 
cost  is  small  as  the  stumps  are  shot  out  with  the  blasting  of  the 
rock,  and  the  only  additional  expense  is  to  dispose  of  the  stump. 
This  will  have  to  be  done  by  hand  and  will  be  work  that  the 
contractor  will  charge  for  under  grubbing. 


CLEARING  AND  GRUBBING  89 

When  grubbing  is  done  for  scraper  work  the  stumps  and 
largest  roots  must  be  blasted  and  dug  out,  and  the  work  is  much 
more  expensive  than  with  rock  excavation  and  steam  shovel 
work,  although  a  large  railroad  plow  in  loosening  the  ground 
will  cut  and  break  up  many  of  the  roots,  so  that  they  do  not 
have  to  be  grubbed. 

The  grubbing  for  elevating  grader  excavation  must  be  done 
much  more  thoroughly  than  that  for  scraper  work.  The  stumps 
and  large  roots  must  not  only  be  grubbed,  but  all  the  small  bush 
stubs  and  roots  must  also  be  cut  out.  This  is  necessary  as  the 
grader  plow  will  not  cut  these  roots,  as  the  pull  on  the  plow 
is  a  steady  one,  unlike  that  of  a  breaking  plow,  which  can  be 
run  in  jerks,  while  the  plowman  can  shake  up  the  plow,  which 
is  a  considerable  help.  In  grubbing  for  a  grader  it  is  not  ad- 
visable to  blast  the  stumps,  as  this  makes  large  deep  holes,  which, 
after  rains,  become  full  of  water  and  soft,  thus  causing  the  trac- 
tion engine  and  grader  to  mire  in  these  holes.  For  this  reason 
where  there  are  many  stumps  of  6  in.  or  more  in  size  a  stump 
puller  should  be  used.  For  elevating  grader  work  the  stump 
puller  does  its  work  much  better  than  blasting,  as  it  will  not 
only  pull  up  the  stump,  but  also  all  the  large  roots  and  many 
of  the  small  ones.  Nor  does  it  leave  as  large  a  hole  as  a  blast 
does.  Its  work  is  as  economical  as  blasting,  and  at  times  is 
much  cheaper.  The  small  stubs  and  roots  must  all  be  grubbed 
by  hand.  To  do  efficient  work  of  grubbing  for  a  grader,  after 
the  large  strmps  have  been  pulled,  men  should  be  spaced  a  few 
feet  apart  and  the  entire  area  gone  over,  the  men  working  in 
rows  grubbing  up  everything  that  may  affect  the  working  of 
the  grader.  This  makes  grader  grubbing  more  expensive  than 
that  of  any  other  grubbing  for  ordinary  excavation  work. 

Loss  of  Material  Due  to  Grubbing.  Mr.  F.  W.  Harris,  in  En- 
gineering Xews,  Dec.  17,  1914,  says  that  in  timber  country  10% 
of  the  total  excavation  can  be  considered  as  worthless,  as  it  con- 
sists of  humus,  rock,  logs,  roots,  etc.,  and  another  10%  should 
be  deducted  for  quantities  lost  in  blasting  stumps.  These  per- 
centages should  be  increased  to  15%  in  each  instance  where 
excavation  averages  less  than  a  3-ft.  cut.  Percentages  also  vary 
with  the  locality.  In  the  Bitter  Root  Mouiitains  in  Idaho,  they 
would  be  about  5%  ;  while  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cascades 
on  the  Washington  and  British  Columbia  Coast,  15%  would  not 
be  too  high  in  each  case. 

Estimating  Shrinkage  Due  to  Removal  of  Stumps.  F.  W. 
Harris,  in  Engineering  News,  Dec.  23,  1915,  gives  the  following 
data : 

The  method  of  obtaining  an  estimate  of  shrinkage  in  a  timber 


00  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

country  is  as  follows:  Plot  a  trial  grade  line  on  the  profile, 
seeing  that  the  quantities  balance  reasonably  close.  The  exca- 
vation should  exceed  embankment  at  least  10%.  The  profile  will 
give  the  center  cut  and  fill,  and  an  experienced  man  can  stand 
on  the  center  line  and  estimate  where  the  slopes  will  intersect 
the  ground  line. 

The  stumps  in  each  station  should  be  noted  and  recorded  ac- 
cording to  sizes  and  kinds  of  stump,  also  the  formation  of  soil, 
whether  rock,  gravel  or  swamp.  It  is  essential  to  note  the  kind 
of  stumps,  as  some  stumps  will  blow  out  much  easier  than  others. 
For  instance,  a  4-ft.  fir  stump  will  leave  a  smaller  hole  than  a 
4-ft.  cedar  stump.  This  should  be  borne  in  mind  merely  as  it 
would  be  a  useless  refinement  to  grade  the  loss  of  excavation 
by  the  kind  of  stump  shot  out.  In  the  office  the  stumps  should 
be  listed  according  to  cuts  and  fills. 

The  following  table  will  apply  on  the  Pacific  Northwest  Coast 
for  computing  loss  of  excavation  by  blowing  out  stumps.  Fir, 
cedar,  spruce,  hemlock  are  averaged  in  the  table. 

6  to  12  in.   ,. 1  cu.  yd.  each 

12  to  24  in 3  cu.  yd.  each 

24  to  36  in 5  cu.  yd.  each 

Above  36  in , 10  cu.  yd.  each 

In  swamps  where  the  growth  is  spruce,  hemlock,  cedar,  maple, 
50%  should  be  added  to  these  quantities,  as  it  requires  more 
dynamite  to  lift  a  stump  of  given  size,  owing  to  the  decreased 
resistance  of  the  swamp  soils.  To  get  shrinkage,  say  between 
Sta.  20  and  30,  this  would  average  a  4-ft.  cut  on  the  center  line 
for  the  entire  distance.  Assuming  the  record  shows  the  soil  to 
be  clay  and  hardpan,  the  list  of  stumps  for  this  section  would 
total  65,  divided  as  follows: 

6  to  12  in 20  20  cu.  yd. 

12  to  24  in 20  60  cu.  yd. 

24  to  36  in 20  100  cu.  yd. 

Above  36  in 5  50  cu.  yd. 

65      230  cu.  yd. 

In  this  cut  the  grade  line  would  have  to  be  lower  to  give  the 
additional  230  cu.  yd.  lost  in  blasting.  As  the  same  condition, 
however,  is  assumed  to  exist  in  the  adjacent  fill,  the  grade  line 
will  give  a  correct  balance. 

The  grubbing  clause  should  be  revised  to  inchide  the  following: 
All  stumps  and  roots  on  the  right-of-way  to  be  grubbed  will 
be  paid  for  according  to  the  list  of  sizes  shown  on  the  schedule 
of  quantities.  Stumps  6  to  24  in.  will  be  measured  4  ft.  above 
the  ground ;  stumps  over  24  in.  diameter  will  be  measured  at  the 
butt  log  or  on  top  of  stump. 


CLEARING  AND  GRUBBING 


91 


Clearing  and  Grubbing  Methods.  Trees  are  cut  down  with 
axes  and  saws,  cut  up  into  saw  logs, '  poles,  ties  or  cord  wood 
arid  removed.  The  remaining  debris  is  piled  and  burned.  Stumps 
can  be  dug  out  by  hand,  burned  in  place,  pulled  or  blasted. 

Digging  Out  Stumps  is  a  costly  operation.  It  is  sometimes 
unavoidable  but  whenever  possible  some  other  means  of  removal 
should  be  sought. 

Burning  in  Place,  while  often  economical,  is  too  slow  a  process 
for  general  use.  It  has  the  advantage  of  making  a  complete  dis- 
posal of  the  stump  at  once.  On  very  large  stumps  such  as  are 
encountered  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  the  saving  in  cost  of  dis- 
posal may  justify  the  use  of  this  method. 

Blasting  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  grubbing 
stumps  prior  to  excavation,  and  if  care  is  taken  not  to  use  too 
much  explosive  it  is  equally  suitable  for  removing  stumps  from 
the  base  of  embankments.  It  is  a  convenient  method  requiring 
no  extra  plant  and  no  special  skill  beyond  that  readily  acquired 
by  the  average  foreman. 

Amount  of  Dynamite  Used  in  Stump  Blasting.  The  following 
table  taken  from  records  of  blasting  in  Minnesota,  Pennsylvania, 
Oregon,  Kentucky,  Michigan  and  Florida  is  given  by  Mr.  J.  R. 
Mattern  in  a  bulletin  on  clearing  land  of  stumps,  prepared  for 
The  Institute  of  Makers  of  Explosives.  The  stumps  were  blown 
out  effectively  and  successfully  and  the  figures  should  serve  as  a 
guide.  The  grades  of  dynamite  used  are  not  given. 

TABLE 
AMOUNT  OF   DYNAMITE   USED   IN   SUCCESSFUL  BLASTING 


Dead  Pine  Stumps 


Diameter  and  soil 
10  in.,  Clay 


12 

Sand 

12 

Loam 

12 

Clay 

14 

Clay 

16 

Clay 

18 

Sand 

18 

Loam 

18 

Clay 

20 

Sand 

20 

Clay 

24 

Loam 

24 

Sand 

24 

Loam 

24 

Clay 

36 

Sand 

36 

Loam 

36 

Clay 

40 

Clay 

48 

Sand 

48 

Loam 

48 

Clay 

60 

Clay 

Sticks  of  1%  in.  dynamite  or  powder 

1 

1 
1 

P 
i* 

I 


10 

8% 


92  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Green  Pine  Stumps 
Diameter  and  soil  Sticks  of  1^4  in.  dynamite  or  powder 


15  in.,  Loam  4 


24    "      Sand  10 

Dead  Oak  Stumps 

8  in.,  Sand  V/z 

12   "     Sand  2 

12   "      Loam  1^ 

15  "      Loam  li& 

16  "      Clay  1% 
18    "      Loam  3 
20   "      Loam  3*& 
24   "      Clay  3 

26  "      Clay  2 

27  "      Sand  5 
27     '      Loam  4^ 
30     '     Clay  4% 
30   "      Sand  6 
34     •     Clay  4^ 
38     '      Clay  5% 

Green  Oak  Stumps 
16  in.,  Clay  ,na/|       3 

Dead  Fir  Stumps 

30  in.,  Loam  10 

36   "      Clay  12 

72   "'     cffv"1'     <I*IIJj  36 

Green  Fir  Stumps 

40  in.,  Loam  20 

Green  Spruce  Stumps 

60  in.,  Sand  32      ^ 

Dead  Hemlock  Stumps          , 

15  in.,  Sand  2 

Dead  Walnut  Stumps 

10  in.,  Loam  1 

Green  Gum  Stumps 

15  in.,  Clay  3% 

Dead  Gum  Stumps 

24  in.,  Sand  4 

Green  Black  Gum  Stumps 

16  in.,  Sand  5ft 

Green  Sugar  Maple  Stumps 

16  in.,  Sand  5^ 

Dead  Snag 

20  in.,  Sand  4% 

Tap-Root  Pine  (Charge  in  Wood) 
6  in.,  Sand  V2 

8    "      Sand  % 

10  "      Sand  1 

12   "      Sand  1% 

15  "      Sand  2 

18   "     Sand  2% 

Tap-Root  Pine  (Charge  Against  Wood) 

6  in.,  Sand  1 

8   "      Sand  l1/^ 

12   "     Sand  3 

15   "      Sand  4 

.18   "      Sand  5 


CLEARING  AND  GRUBBING  93 

To  blast  out  standing  trees  without  first  cutting  them  down, 
use  about  20%  more  explosive  than  you  would  for  the  stumps. 
It  is  better  to  blast  big  trees  with  several  charges,  firing  them 
electrically. 

Costs  of  clearing  and  grubbing  without  description  of  con- 
ditions encountered  and  methods  employed  are  of  doubtful  value. 
To  give  them  here  as  they  should  be  given  would  require  more 
space  than  the  subject  warrants  in  a  book  of  this  character. 
The  reader  is  referred  to  the  author's  book  on  "  Clearing  and 
Grubbing,"  in  which  will  be  found  many  examples  of  the  cost  of 
this  work  done  under  various  conditions  and  by  various  methods 
throughout  the  United  States.  ...+ 

Bibliography.  "  Handbook  of  Clearing  and  Grubbing "  by 
H.  P.  Gillette.—"  Cost  Data,"  H.  P.  Gillette. 

Bulletins  134  and  163  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. —  Bulletin  170,  Washington  State 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. —  Bulletin  154,  Kentucky  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station. —  Farmers'  Bulletin  600,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. — "  Clearing  Land  of  Stumps,"  by  J.  R. 
Mattern,  for  the  Institute  of  Makers  of  Explosives. 


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CHAPTER  V 
LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH 

Methods  of  Loosening  the  Soil.  There  are  three  methods  in 
common  use  for  loosening  earth:  (1)  picking,  (2)  plowing,  and 
(3)  by  explosives.  Many  materials  are  loosened  and  loaded  at 
the  same  time  with  the  hand  shovel,  but  it  is  almost  invariably 
cheaper  to  pick  or  plow  or  otherwise  thoroughly  loosen  any  kind 
of  earth  except  sand,  before  shoveling.  Clays,  when  wet  and 
tenacious,  may  be  effectively  cut  with  spades. 

Cost  of  Picking.  The  pick  is  ordinarily  not  as  economical  as 
the  plow,  but  it  must  be  used  in  digging  trenches  and  in  other 
confined  places.  'Trautwine  gives  the  average  output  per  man- 
hour  as  follows;  wages  assumed  at  20  ct.  per  hr. 

Material  Cu.  yd.  per  hr.  Per  cu.  yd. 

Stiff   clay   or    cemented    gravel 1.4  $0.146 

Strong   heavy   soils    2.5  .08 

Loam       4  .08 

Light    sandy    soil    6  .03 

Pure    sand 20  .01 

M.  Ancelin  states  that  a  man  with  a  pick  would  loosen  1.6  to 
2.3  cu.  yd.  of  earth,  0.7  to  1.1  cu.  yd.  of  gravel,  and  0.9  cu.  yd. 
of  hard  pan  per  hour. 

In  loading  from  a  high  bank  of  hard  sand  into  cars,  it  required 
one  pick  or  bar  man  to  each  pair  of  shovelmen.  Each  pair  of 
shovelmen  sent  out  30  loaded  cars,  equivalent  to  30  cu.  yd.  per 
hr.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  material  while 
hard,  was  located  in  a  high  bank,  and  much  of  it  was  undermined 
or  barred  down,  and  broke  by  force  of  the  fall,  thus  requiring 
very  little  actual  picking. 

High  clay  banks  are  sometimes  loosened  by  powder,  but  more 
often  by  "  undermining "  and  "  falling."  A  narrow  cut  is  dug 
into  the  base  of  a  bank  that  is  7  to  8  ft.  high,  and  a  line  of 
wedges  is  driven  on  top,  1  or  2  ft.  from  the  edge;  thus  wedging 
off  pieces  weighing  many  tons,  which  break  in  falling. 

Patton  in  "  Civil  Engineering  "  says  that  throwing  horizontally 
with  a  shovel  is  limited  to  about  12  ft.,  or  about  6  ft.  vertically. 

Comparison  of  Pick  and  Mattock.  In  trimming  ground,  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Jan.  15,  1908.  states  that  the  mattock 
is  much  better  adapted  than  the  pick.  This  is  so  of  parking 
work,  as  in  trimming  there  is  seldom  more  than  an  inch  or  two 
of  earth  to  be  dug  and  the  narrow  pick  will  not  cut  off  as  much 
earth  at  each  stroke  as  the  broader  blade  of  the  mattock.  In 
railroad  cuts,  the  pulling  down  and  dressing  up  of  slopes  is  done 
better  by  mattocks  than  by  picks.  Likewise  in  cellar  and  founda- 
tion work,  where  it  is  necessary  to  dress  down  a  perpendicular 

94 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  95 

side  of  a  bank  to  neat  dimensions  and  lines,  the  inattock  does 
better  and  more  economical  work  than  a  pick.  Thus  for  nearly 
all  cases  of  trimming  and  dressing  the  mattock  should  be  the 
tool  used. 

For  digging,  as  a  rule,  the  pick  should  be  given  the  preference. 
At  one  blow  with  a  pick  a  large  wedge  shaped  piece  of  earth  can 
be  loosened  from  a  bank,  when  the  face  of  the  wedge  is  free,  while 
with  a  mattock  a  single  blow  will  not  loosen  as  large  an  amount 
of  earth,  the  piece  being  a  truncated  wedge,  of  seldom  more  than 
half  the  altitude  of  the  wedge  the  pick  will  loosen,  and  only 
about  two-thirds  of  the  base.  This  should  always  be  remem- 
bered, as  the  most  important  misuse  of  the  mattock  is  to  use  it  in 
open  cut  work  for  digging. 

The  mattock  can  be  used  to  better  advantage  than  a  pick  for 
digging  some  few  materials.  This  is  so  of  very  plastic  clays. 
A  pick  will  make  but  little  more  than  a  hole  in  material  of  this 
kind,  and  when  it  is  used  as  a  lever,  this  hole  will  simply  be 
enlarged,  but  with  a  mattock  small  pieces  can  be  pried  out  and 
large  pieces  can  be  cut  out  by  the  cutting  blade.  A  more  eco- 
nomical and  satisfactory  way  of  digging  this  kind  of  material 
than  with  either  the  mattock  or  the  pick  is  with  a  spade.  One 
of  the  editors  of  this  paper  increased  the  output  of  a  gang  of 
men  nearly  30%  in  handling  such  material  in  a  railroad 
cut  some  years  ago  by  substituting  spades  for  mattocks  and 
shovels.  All  the  work  was  done  with  one  tool,  and  the  loosening 
or  digging  was  done  better  and  cheaper  with  the  spade. 

In  swampy  and  marshy  ground  the  mattock  is  superior  to  the 
pick  for  digging.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  there  are  generally 
roots  in  such  ground,  and  also  because  the  material  is  generally 
clay  of  more  or  less  plasticity.  The  comments  that  have  been 
made  regarding  grubbing  with  a  mattock  show  that  it  is  the  tool 
for  digging  and  loosening  whatever  roots  are  encountered.  It  is 
also  true  that  turf  and  peat  are  dug  better  with  a  mattock  than 
with  a  pick. 

In  digging  ditches  and  trenches  a  mattock  is  often  needed  until 
the  trench  is  a  foot  or  more  deep,  as  roots  are  encountered  and 
sometimes  old  logs  and  debris,  but  as  soon  as  this  kind  of  ma- 
terial is  gotten  rid  of,  only  picks  should  'be  used.  The  cost 
is  greatly  increased  by  using  mattocks.  The  sides  of  trenches 
can  be  dressed  well  with  a  pick,  so  that  sheeting  can  be  put  in 
place.  In  open  ditches  the  pick  should  be  used  for  digging,  but 
when  a  permanent  slope  is  to  be  put  on  the  ditch  a  mattock  should 
be  used. 

The  mattock  is  essentially  a  grubbing  and  dressing  tool,  and 
is  only  adapted  to  economical  digging  in  a  few  special  materials. 


96  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

It  may  be  termed  a  misuse  of  the  tool  to  make  it  do  digging  in 
ordinary  earth.  For  earth  work  a  supply  of  mattocks  and  picks 
should  always  be  provided,  so  that  as  occasions  arise  for  the  use 
of  each  they  will  be  on  hand  and  money  will  not  be  wasted  in 
making  a  tool  do  work  for  which  it  is  not  adapted. 
.  Cost  of  Picking  and  Shoveling.  The  cost  of  loosening  with  a 
pick,  and  shoveling  into  wagons  when  wages  are  20  ct.  per  hr.  is 
as  follows: 

Kinds  of  Earth  Cu.  yd.  per  hr.  Per  cu.  yd. 

Easy  earth,   light  sand  or  loam 1.25  $0.16 

Average    earth     1.00  0.20 

Tough    clay     0.75  0.27 

.     Hard    sand     0.375  0.53 

Shoveling.  By  vigorous  exertion  a  man  may  shovel  1  cu. 
yd.  ("place  measure")  of  light  loose  earth  into  a  wagon  in  12 
or  even  10  min.,  or  at  the  rate  of  50  or  60  cu.  yd.  in  a  10-hr, 
day,  using  the  ordinary  round-pointed  shovel.  A  man  can  sprint 
100  yd.  in  10  sec.  or  at  the  rate  of  20  miles  an  hour,  yet  no  one 
would  expect  a  continuance  of  the  performance  all  day  long. 
Short-time  observations,  where  a  man  is  working  vigorously, 
should  therefore  not  be  made  the  basis  of  an  estimate  of  average 
cost,  as  is  not  infrequently  done.  Trautwine  speaks  of  the 
"  lost  time  "  of  shovelers  as  being  ordinarily  about  4  hr.  out  of 
10.  The  expression  is  misleading,  for  time  spent  in  rests  between 
the  arrival  of  teams  is  not  time  lost,  provided  the  foreman  insists 
upon  vigorous  exertion  while  actually  working.  A  man  may 
shovel  only  20  min.  out  of  an  hour,  yet  accomplish  exactly  as 
much  in  a  day  as  another  man  shoveling  steadily.  Bear  in 
mind  that  men  need  not  be  kept  steadily  busy,  provided  that  when 
they  do  work  they  make  up  for  the  time  "lost"  in  resting;  and 
the  same  is  true  of  horses. 

In  this  connection  it  is  very  interesting  to  note  that  if  rea- 
soned out  "  theoretically,"  as  machine  work  frequently  is  by 
inventors  and  over-sanguine  manufacturers,  the  output  of  a  plow 
should  be  many  times  what  it  actually  is,  using  "  conservative 
figures  "  thus:  The  ordinary  plow  cuts  a  furrow  6  in.  deep  by  12 
in.  wide,  so  that  a  team  traveling  at  the  very  slow  speed  of  li& 
miles  an  hr.  (less  than  half  its  ordinary  walking  gait)  would 
loosen  110  cu.  yd.  an  hr.,  while  if  it  walked  right  along  at  its 
usual  gait  the  amount  would  be  220  cu.  yd.  loosened  per  hr. ! 
There  has  been  too  much  of  such  "  theory  "  used  in  estimating 
the  cost  of  earth  work. 

It  may  be  said  that,  roughly  speaking,  about  175  shovelfuls 
of  earth  thrown  into  a  wagon  box  form  1  cu.  yd.  If  we  assume 
average  earth  to  weigh  100  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.,  we  find  that  an 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  97 

TABLE    OF    COST    OF    DIGGING   AND    SHOVELING 
(Wages  20ct.  per  hr.) 

Cu.  yd.  per  Ct.  per 

man-hr.  cu.  yd. 

Mud   into  wheelbarrows    (1)    0.8  25.3 

Gravel   into   wheelbarrows    (1)     :  .  .  .  1.7-2.7  9.3 

Earth   into  wheelbarrows    (1) 1.6-4.8  6.7 

Earth   into  wheelbarrows  average    (1)     2.2  9.3 

Earth  into  wheelbarrows    (2)    (10  miles  Erie  Canal)...  2.8  7.0 

Earth    (all  kinds)    into  wagons    (3)    2.1  10.0 

Earth    (all  kinds)    into  wagons    (4) 2.0  10.0 

Sand    into    cars    from    high    face     (5;      '1.0,000    cu.    yds. 

place     measure)      1.8  11.0 

Gravelly   soil  into  wagons  after  plowing    (5)    (20,000  cu. 

yds.    in    embankment)     1.3  15.3 

Iowa   soil    (6) 1.5-2.0  11.3 

Iowa  soil    (A  rush  job)    (6)     2.8  7.1 

Clay    and  gravel    into  carts    (7)     1.0  20.0 

Loam    into  carts    (7)     1.2  16.7 

Sandy  earth   into  carts    (7) 1.4  14.3 

Lease   sand   into   carts    (8) 2.0  10.0 

Clay,  tenacious,  excavated  with  spade    (8)    (Spaded  out 

and   handled    with    forks 1.25  16.0 

Loosened  hardpan  into  low  dump  cars    (9)    1.5  13.3 

Loosened   average  earth   into  dump  cars    (9)    1.75  11.4 

Heavy  black  clay,  wet,  cast  5  to  10  ft.    (10)   0.33  60.0 

Loading  hardpan  into  carts  after  picking   (10)    (Picking 

done  at  rate  of  0.6  cu.  yds.  per  man  hr.    Not  enough 

pick    men)      0.5  40.0 

Excavating  sandy   gravel   and   stiff  clay;    wet    (10)    ....  0.33  60.0 
Excavating  dry  sandy  clay   (10)    (Earth  rehandled  3  and 

4   times.    Inefficient  foreman)     0.2  100.0   • 

Shoveling    quicksand    into    buckets     (11)     (Coffer    dam 

excavation,    2  men  to  a  bucket)    0.21  95.2 

Authorities  (1)  M.  Ancelin;  (2)  Gillespie;  (3)  Cole:  (4)  D.  K.  Clark; 
(5)  Gillette;  (6)  J.  M.  Brown;  (7)  E.  Morris;  (8)  G.  A.  Parker;  (9) 
Lyons;  (10)  Engineering  and  Contracting;  (11)  Eng.  Record. 

average  shovelful  contains  approximately  15.5  Ib.  At  a  good 
steady  gait,  7  shovelfuls  are  loaded  per  min.  where  the  vertical 
lift  is  about  5  ft.  In  casting  for  a  vertical  lift  of  10  ft.,  how- 
ever, only  about  5  shovelfuls  are  handled  per  min.  In  casting 
earth  horizontally,  we  may  count  on  9  shovelfuls  per  min.  for  a 
5  ft.  horizontal  cast,  and  about  half  as  many  for  an  18  or  20  ft. 
horizontal  cast.  With  wages  at  20  ct.  per  hr.,  it  will  cost  about 
6.67  ct.  to  carry  a  cu.  yd.  10  ft.  in  shovels. 

The  amount  of  earth  that  a  man  will  handle  per  lir.  with  a 
shovel  varies  not  only  with  the  character  of  the  soil,  but  with  the 
method  of  attack.  If  a  man  is  shoveling '  from  a  face  of  earth 
over  a  foot  high,  one  that  he  can  readily  undermine  with  a  pick* 
for  example,  he  can  load  into  wagons  1.8  cu.  yd.  an  hr.  on  an 
average;  while  if  he  is  shoveling  plowed  soil,  where  he  must 
use  more  time  to  force  the  shovel  down  into  the  soil,  his  output 
will  be  about  1.4  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  If  he  is  shoveling  loose  earth 
ofT  boards  upon  which  it  has  been  dumped,  his  outpvit  is  about 
2.5  cu.  yd.  per  hr. 


98  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Connecticut  Civil  Engineers'  and  Surveyors' 
Association,  Jan.  8,  1901,  Mr.  G.  A.  Parker,  Supt.  Keney  Park, 
Hartford,  Conn.,  gave  the  following  as  the  results  of  his  experi- 
ence: 

The  bank  was  loose  sand  requiring  neither  picking  nor  plow- 
ing. Material  was  shoveled  into  two-horse  carts  holding  1  cu. 
yd.  It  is  not  stated  whether  the  measurement  was  of  loose 
sand  in  carts  or  packed  sand  in  bank,  but  apparently  measure- 
ment was  made  in  carts.  It  required  150  shovelfuls  to  make 
a  cu.  yd.,  and  a  man  by  shoveling  25  sec.,  then  resting  25  sec., 
would  average  5  shovelfuls  loaded  in  50  sec.,  or  22.8  cu.  yd.  in  10 
hr.,  after  deducting  5%  for  waste  time.  Each  man  counted  his 
shovelfuls,  and  was  allowed  to  cast  only  5  shovelfuls  before  the 
team  moved  on.  There  were  15  shovelers  in  a  gang  and  two 
gangs  in  the  pit. 

Mr.  Parker  claims  that  the  results  justify  his  statement  that 
this  is  the  best  known  method  of  working  men,  as  it  gives  them 
needed  rests,  and  keeps  their  minds  active.  It  may  be  observed 
that  it  might  not  work  so  well  where  soil  is  tough,  and  that  just 
as  high  outputs  have  been  obtained  by  the  common  methods 
where  sand  was  loaded. 

Size  of  Hand  Shovels.  This  is  an  important  subject  and  the 
one  which  has  received  almost  no  attention  from  contractors  and 
engineers.  It  seems  to  be  the  custom,  sanctioned  by  long  usage, 
to  use  a  shovel  of  the  size  known  as  No.  2  or  No.  3.  From  data 
presented  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Hartley,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Mar.  31,  1915,  Mr.  Hartley  finds  that  a  No.  2  shovel  holds  but 
13  Ib.  of  earth  and  14.5  Ib.  of  sand;  and  a  No.  3  shovel,  15.5  Ib. 
of  earth  and  17  Ib.  of  sand.  Observations  of  Mr.  F.  W.  Taylor 
show  that  the  proper  sized  shovel  for  the  average  man  contains 
21  Ib.,  and,  on  that  basis,  Mr.  C.  W.  Hartley  made  some  inter- 
esting experiments,  working  with  shovels  as  follows: 

In  a  gang  of  38  men  working  in  a  trench,  with  shovels  fur- 
nished by  themselves,  it  was  found  that  92%  were  using  the 
smallest  sized  shovel  on  the  market,  No.  2,  while  the  remainder 
were  using  the  next  size  larger,  No.  3.  These  shovels  are  in- 
capable of  holding  the  amount  of  material  that  should  consti- 
tute a  shovelful.  It  was  further  observed  that  50%  of  these  men 
were  using  shovels  which  were  worn  down  at  the  bottom,  within 
3  in.  of  the  point,  or  until  only  half  of  the  original  blade  re- 
mained. The  loss  for  each  shovel  was  estimated.  By  careful 
time  observations  it  was  demonstrated  that  the  men  using  the 
worn  shovels  worked  no  faster  than  those  using  the  good;  further 
that  men  will  shovel  at  approximately  the  same  speed,  whether 
they  are  working  with  a  No.  2  shovel  or  a  No.  4,  and,  as  a  gen- 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  99 

era!  rule,  will  fill  the  blade  full  whenever  possible  to  do  so. 
This  being  the  case,  it  is  self-evident  that  the  use  of  small  or 
worn  shovels  will  entail  the  handling  of  less  material. 

A  No.  2  shovel  in  good  condition  was  found  after  many  trials 
to  hold,  as  an  average  load,  13  lb.,  the  material  being  common 
loam,  loose  and  dry.  The  same  size  shovel,  worn  down  such  as 
were  used  by  half  of  this  gang  of  38  men,  were  found  to  hold 
but  7  lb.  of  earth  or  loam,  which  is,  as  will  be  noticed,  only 
one-third  of  the  amount  Taylor  has  shown  to  be  productive  of  the 
greatest  shoveling  efficiency. 

Now  let  v.a  assume  that  these  38  men  were  paid  at  the  rate  of 
20  ct.  per  hr.,  or  $1.80  per  day,  and  that  13  lb.  represents  the 
unit  basis  from  which  their  output  is  figured.  Fifty  per  cent,  or 
19  of  the  men  were  using  worn  shovels,  and  were  doing  but  %3 
of  the  amount  of  work  done  by  the  remainder.  Figured  in  terms 
of  money,  this  would  give  a  loss  of  82  ct.  per  day  per  man,  or 
$15.77  per  day  for  the  entire  gang,  or  41.5  ct.  per  day  for  each 
shoveler  in  the  gang  of  38  men.  It  is  easily  seen  how  these  fig- 
ures would  be  increased  if  figured  with  21  lb.  as  the  unit.  For 
instance,  if  a  man  is  shoveling  with  a  shovel  holding  but  7  lb. 
of  earth,  when  he  might  use  one  holding  21  lb.,  he  is  therefore 
performing  but  one-third  of  the  amount  of  work  that  might  be 
accomplished  by  him,  were  he  provided  with  the  proper  tool.  If 
he  is  a  $1.80  man,  engaged  in  shoveling  all  day,  this  means  a  loss 
to  his  employer  of  $1.20  per  day. 

These  same  data  were  obtained  for  shovels  of  other  sizes,  No. 
3,  No.  4  and  No.  5,  and  from  these  foregoing  described  experi- 
ences Mr.  Hartley  determined  to  use  No.  4  shovels. 

It  has  also  been  the  custom,  particularly  in  eastern  states,  for 
the  contractor  to  allow  the  laborers  to  furnish  their  own  shovels. 
This  is  a  grave  mistake,  as  laborers  are  naturally  inclined  to 
use  the  smallest  sized  shovel,  and  each  will  furnish  a  shovel  of 
but  one  shape;  whereas  it  is  generally  economical  to  use  a  shovel 
of  different  shape  for  each  kind  of  work,  and  of  different  size  for 
each  kind  of  material.  The  argument  against  furnishing  shovels 
for  the  men  has  been  that  many  are  lost  or  stolen.  Mr.  Hartley 
presents  a  report  showing  the  number  of  shovels  in  use,  and  those 
lost  and  worn  out  during  the  season  starting  Apr.  15,  1914,  and 
ending  Nov.  10,  1914.  In  this  season  of  168  working  days,  756 
shovels  were  furnished  the  men  and  353  shovels  were  used  up,  an 
average  of  2.1  per  day.  These  shovels  were  of  two  different 
grades,  costing  $8.60  and  $5.25  per  dozen.  Assuming  that  each 
shovel  cost  72  ct.  apiece,  or  at  the  rate  of  $8.60  per  dozen,  the 
cost  for  supplying  No.  4  shovels  for  laborers  was  $1.51  per  day. 
The  average  number  of  laborers  at  work  daily  was  178,  and  the 


100    '  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

cost  of  the  shovels  was  less  than  1  ct.  per  man  per  day.  Of  the 
353  shovels  used  up,  308  were  worn  out,  and  45  were  unaccounted 
for,  being  lost,  stolen  or  broken.  It  would  seem  that  this  small 
percentage  of  12.7  unaccounted  for  would  tend  to  refute  the v ar- 
gument that  many  shovels  are  lost  and  stolen. 

From  the  foregoing  the  reader  must  not  infer  that  a  No.  4  or 
No.  5  shovel  is  best  for  all  work.  On  the  contrary,  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  shovel  must  be  suited  to  the  hardness  and  tenacity 
of  the  soil,  as  well  as  its  weight  and  other  characteristics;  for 
example,  in  tough  soils  a  round-pointed  shovel  that  will  easily 
penetrate  must  be  used,  while  for  handling  loose  earth  or  in 
shoveling  sand,  unless  it  is  to  be  cast  some  distance,  it  is  folly 
to  permit  the  shovelers  to  use  any  but  large,  square-pointed 
scoops.  With  a  large  square-pointed  scoop,  a  strong  man  can, 
for  a  short  time,  load  sand  into  a  wheel-barrow  at  the  marvelous 
rate  of  5  min.  per  cu.  yd.  On  any  work  where  various  kinds  of 
material  are  handled,  several  sizes  and  shapes  of  shovels  should 
be  supplied.  This  is  contrary  to  the  usual  practice  as  evi- 
denced by  an  interesting  example  noted  in  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Apr.  7,  1915.  At  a  point  where  steam  railway  tracks 
were  being  elevated  over  a  street,  carrying  a  double  track  trolley 
line,  three  different  gangs  of  laborers,  representing  three  different 
interests,  were  engaged  in  excavating  hard  yellow  clay  with  hand 
tools.  The  steam  railway  gang  excavated  for  a  bridge  abutment, 
the  water  pipe  extension  gang  excavated  for  the  lowering  of  a 
large  main,  and  the  street  railway  gang  excavated  for  track  de- 
pression. Each  gang  used  the  ordinary  square-pointed  shovel, 
commonly  used  in  mixing  concrete  by  hand.  It  was  not  at  all 
uncommon  for  a  laborer  to  work  diligently  for  at  least  a  minute 
in  sinking  his  shovel  into  the  clay  the  full  length  of  the  blade. 
To  do  this,  much  "pumping"  of  the  shovel  handle  and  much 
pushing  with  the  foot  was  necessary.  This  black  clay  was  the 
same  as  that  lying  under  the  black  top  soil  of  the  Illinois  prairie. 
In  digging  ditches  used  for  tile  draining,  farmers  uniformly  use 
'  a  long  narrow  bladed  spade,  locally  known  as  a  "  tiling  spade." 
This  spade  is  referred  to  in  some  localities  as  a  "  sharp  shooter." 
In  the  soil  mentioned,  one  or  two  thrusts  by  the  foot  will  stick 
it  in  to  its  full  length.  Spades  of  this  type  should  have  been 
used  on  the  excavating  operations  above  mentioned. 

Scientific  Management  in  Trenching.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Nov.  29,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

The  laying  of  mains  and  services  for  a  gas  works  offered  the 
most  prolific  field  of  investigation  to  begin  with,  since  more 
than  400  men  were  engaged  in  this  kind  of  work.  With  the  aid 
of  a  stop  watch  and  note  book  the  following  data  were  gathered: 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  £AIITO  K)l 

Laborers  digging  9  ft.  sections  of  3.23  cu.  yd.  each.   " 

Laborer  Min.  per  cu.  yd. 

No. 

1  75.8 

|       >lf'm  83'<J    '  H(~    '• 

4  12.7      j    ii-iif//    , 

5  72'7     !<|<<ti     9IJ|»>8 

The  time  for  removing  this  dirt  was  much  too  slow,  and  this 
for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  The  working  capacity   of   the  different  men  varies   greatly 
due  to  lack  of  experience,  old  age,  and  a  slow  natural  gait  ac- 
quired by  years  of  such  work. 

2.  Good  men,  natural-born  workers,  and  capable  of  much  work, 
are  slowed  clown  or  work  at  the  pace  set  by  the  men  next  to  them. 

3.  Men  will  "  soldier  "  at  every  opportunity.     They  will  work  at 
a  reasonable  gait  while  the  foreman  stands  over  them  and  watches 
them,  but  just  as  soon  as  he  turns  his  back  and  leaves  the  gang, 
the  men  will  "  soldier."     The  foreman  purposely  picks  a  crew  of 
mixed  nationalities  so  as  to  avoid  "  soldiering  "  and  waiting  for 
each  other  as  much  as  possible. 

Two  days  later,  after  spending  most  of  the  time  with  the 
gang,  14  10-ft.  sections  were  laid  off,  and  the  men  timed  on  each 
section,  with  the  results  given  below: 

Laborer  Time  per  cu.  yd. 
No. 

1  55.1 

2  69.3 

3  66.5 

4  42  2 

5  -'bnuT  >  I9J&OSM 


'to  an<>U 

7  625 

8  62.5 

9  62.5 

10  63.7 

11  63.7 

12  72.2 

13  75.0 

14  ,.ft{jT  71.0 

The  average  time  waa  60  min.  per  cu.  yd..  The  two  men  dig- 
ging sections  4  and  5  are  good  men  and  work  fast.  They  could 
easily  earn  $2.50  per  day  on  the  basis  of  $2  for  the  average  man. 
All  the  men  knew  they  were  being  watched  closely,  and  worked 
more  steadily  than  they  otherwise  would.  Of  course,  there  is 
always  some  variation  in  soil,  and  temperature  conditions  have 
a  good  deal  to  do  with  the  manner  in  which  the  men  work.  It 
grew  hotter  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  men  naturally  weakened 
a  little. 


102          HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Similar  observations  were  made  with  another  gang  working 
on  the  laying  of  a  4-in.  main  on  Cameron  Ave.,  north  of  Wood- 
land. 

Number  of  hr.  digging:  84.  Yd.  of  dirt  removed:  86.85  =  .967 
hr.  or  58  min.  per  yd.  as  the  average  of  17  men  digging. 

When  I  came  to  this  job  I  told  the  foreman  that  I  was  doing 
some  inspecting  for  the  Street  Department.  When  he  saw  me 
taking  notes  in  my  book  and  frequently  looking  at  my  watch, 
he  began  to  push  the  men  along,  muttering  to  them  in  their 
own  language,  most  of  them  being  Polish.  He  complained  about 
the  short  run  jobs,  and  said  it  was  difficult  to  know  how  to  place 
his  men.  The  soil  here  is  softer  than  that  on  Jefferson  Ave., 
but  wet  and  heavier  below  the  first  foot  or  two.  In  two  different 
places  the  banks  caved  in  in  the  same  half  block,  while  nothing 
like  this  happened  on  Jefferson  Ave.  in  about  four  blocks  or 
more. 

Ratio  of  Time  Required  to  Dig  and  Throw  One  Shovelful  of  Dirt 
to  the  Time  Required  to  Backfill  One  Shovel  of  Dirt.  Allowing 
for  variation  in  soil  of  section  by  considering  the  section  as  com- 
posed of  %  soft  soil  and  %  harder  soil,  and  multiplying  observed 
times  by  this  ratio: 

On  Jefferson  Avenue,   1   ft.  below  surface: 

Mean   time   per   shovel    11.5    sec. 

Do.,   3  ft.  below  surface: 

Mean   time    per   shovel    16.41  sec. 

11.5    X  %  =    3.83 
16.41  X  %  =  10.95 

14.78  sec.  per  shovel 

Mean  of  51  other  observations  taken  at  random,  13  sec.  per 
shovel.  Average  of  the  two  (about),  14  sec.: 

Time  per  shovel  on  backfilling: 

8-in.  main   gang    (mean   of  180  observations),   5  sec. 
4-in.  main  gang    (mean  of  190  observations),  4.8  sec. 

Time    required    to    dig 14 

—  2.8 

Time   required   to   backfill 5 

or  a  yard  of  dirt  should  be  thrown  back  in  .357  times  required  to 
dig  it. 

Taking  the  following  as  the  average  cross- section :  One  cu. 
yd.=  33.4  lin.  in.  or  .928  lin.  yd.  Total  time  required  to  dig 
and  backfill  .928  yd.  of  ditch  of  the  above  section  =  59  min.  dig- 
ging +  16.5  min.  backfilling,  or  75.5  min.  per  cu.  yd. 

Digging  of  the  Average  Man  Under  Close  Supervision.  Soil 
rather  hard,  and  ditch  located  about  5  ft.  from  row  of  trees. 
Digging  in  the  morning: 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  103 

(1)  Average  time  per  yd.  for  good  men,   47.3  min. 

(2)  Average  time  per  yd.  for  average  men,  57.4  min. 

(3)  Average  time  per  yd.  for  good  men  with  bonus,  38.3  min. 

(4)  Average  time  per  yd.  for  good  men  without  bonus,  59.3  min. 

(No.  1  is  the  average  of  No.  3  and  No.  4.) 

Amount  of  work  done  by  bonus  men  was  1 :51  times  work  done 
by  average  man.  This  is  equivalent  to  $3.03  on  a  basis  of  $2 
per  day.  The  bonus  allowed  was  three  hours'  overtime,  making 
the  day's  pay  $2.60  instead  of  $2.  On  the  basis  of  60  min.  for 
the  average  man  and  40  min.  per  yd.  for  the  bonus  man,  the  men 
would  be  doing  an  excellent  day's  work.  Even  allowing  this 
bonus  for  work  at  the  rate  of  45  min.  per  yd.  ($2.66  on  the  basis 
of  $2)  would  pay  because  of  the  influence  of  the  good  men  on  the 
other  men. 

The  Design  of  Shovels.  Fig.  1,  given  in  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Aug.  18,  1909,  shows  a  method  of  testing  shovels.  A 
cord  was  suspended  from  a  spring  scale  to  the  handle  at  the  point 


Fig.  1.     Sketch  Showing  Method  of  Determining  Efficiency  of 
Shovels. 


104  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  workman  usually  grasps  in  lifting.  The  distance  from  the 
end  of  the  handle  to  the  point  of  suspension  was  the  same  in 
all  cases.  This  then  brought  the  hand  some  distance  from  the 
bowl  with  long  handles  and  very  close  to  the  bowl  with  short 
handles.  The  bowls  were  loaded  and  the  spring  scale  showed  that 
the  shorter  the  handle  the  greater  the  load  on  the  bowl  with  a 
certain  weight  read  on  the  dial  which  meant  the  shorter  the 
handle  the  greater  the  load  with  the  same  effort.  The  inclination 
of  the  handle  to  the  bowl  a]so  cut  considerable  figure.  The  experi- 
ments would  indicate  that  for  lifting  and  turning,  the  shovel  to 
use  should  have  a  rather  short  handle  with  a  pretty  large  angle 
from  the  line  of  the  bowl. 

Such  a  shovel  should  be  good  for  handling  loose  coal,  broken 
stone,  gravel  and  for  concrete  mixing.  The  bowl  is  a  trifle  larger 
than  the  ordinary  No.  2  shovel,  is  flat  and  is  slightly  concave  on 
the  lower  side  for  half  its  length.  The  object  of  this  is  said  to 
be  to  furnish  stiffness  when  occasional  spading  is  done,  to  furnish 
an  angle  to  make  the  front  edge  self  sharpening  and  to  prevent 
the  suction  so  often  experienced  in  handling  soggy  earth. 

Types  of  Shovels.  Of  the  many  types  of  shovels  manufactured 
the  following  are  designed  for  use  on  earthwork.  Prices  given 
are  those  in  effect  prior  to  the  war. 

Nursery  Spades  cost  $11  per  doz.  Ditching  Spades  an'd  Con- 
cave Drain  Spades  14  to  18  in.  long,  cost  $9  per  doz.  Post  Spades 
cost  $12  per  doz.  and  Marl  Gouges,  10  to  14  in.  long,  cost  $5  to 
$7  per  doz. 

Hand  Shovels.  Net  prices  for  standard  railroad  contractors' 
and  mining  shovels,  at  Chicago,  in  quantities,  are  as  follows 
with  prices  for  four  grades:  (1)  Extra  grade  made  of  best 
crucible  steel,  finely  finished  with  best  white  ash  handles;  (2) 
first  grade  shovels,  also  made  of  crucible  steel,  and  grades  (3) 
and  ( 4 )  made  of  open  hearth  steel.  The  net  prices  in  Chicago 
on  these  four  grades  are  as  follows: 

PRICES  AND  SIZES  ON  HAND  SHOVELS 


21 


S£           gh5  « 

S           S               02  W  43  «  £ 

2  9%           11%  $8.91  $7.83  $6.48  $5.70 

3  9%           12%  9.18  8.10 

4  lO1/^           12%  9.45  8.37  

The  above  prices  are  for  black  finish;   for  polished  add  50  ct. 

per   doz.     Shovels  with  square  or   round   points,  "  D "    or   long 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH 


105 


Fig.  2.     Nursery  Spade. 


c 


Fig.  3.     Ditching  Spade. 

hmio/l   <>'l»frrT{  ^noJ 


Fig.  4.     Concave  Drain  Spade. 


IE 
u— 


Fig.  5.     Post  Spade. 


Fig:  6.     Marl  Gouge. 


Fig.  7.     D  Handle  Round  Point  Shovel. 


ihitt    }*tfO 
i'*i$i  \jiti 'ivvi* 


Fig.  8.     D  Handle  Square  Point  Shovel. 


106 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


handles  are  all  the  same  price.  The  size  No.  2  is  the  one  com- 
monly used.  For  sewer  or  brick  shovels  made  in  No.  2  size,  but 
having  a  shorter  and  heavier  blade  for  clay  and  other  heavier 
material,  net  prices  are  as  follows: 

Each  Per  Doz. 


Extra    grade 
Second    grade 


$1.00 


Fig.  9.     Long  Handle  Round  Point  Shovel. 

Fig.  10  shows  a  scoop  for  breaking  down  from  the  top  of  cars 
and  getting  to  the  bottom  when  a  square  point  scoop  will  not 
work. 


Fig.  10.     Diamond  Point  Scoop. 


Fig.  11.     Telegraph  Shovel  and  Spoon. 

Cost  Data  on  Hand  Excavation.  Mr.  John  F.  Ely,  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  June  19,  1907,  gives  some  observations 
on  the  cost  of  excavating  earth.  The  following  examples  were 
observed. 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  107 

1.  Six  men  excavated  a  square  hole  containing  15  cu.  yd.  in  6 
hr.,  or  at  the  rate  of  0.4  cu.  yd.  per  man  hr. 

2.  A  gang  averaging  4.5  men  dug  a  trench  3.5  by  5  ft.  deep, 
370  cu.  yd.,  in  25  hr.,  or  at  the  rate  of  0.42  cu.  yd.  per  man  hr. 

3.  A  gang  excavated  for  a  cellar  5  ft.  deep,  1,029  cu.  yd.,  5,840 
labor  hr.,  or  at  the  rate  of  0.69  cu.  yd.  per  man  hr. 

4.  Four  men  excavated  for  a  man-hole,  79  cu.  yd.  in  60  hr.,  or 
at  the  rate  of  0.33  cu.  yd.  per  man  hr. 

5.  Ten  men  excavated  for  a  sewer  111  cu.  yd.  in  36  hr.,  or  at  the 
rate  of  0.30  cu.  yd.  per  man  hr. 

6.  A  gang  excavated  a  trench,  8  ft.  wide  by  4  ft.  deep,  contain- 
ing 193  cu.  yd.  in  418  labor  hr.,  or  at  the  rate  of  0.47  cu.  yd.  per 
man  hr. 

7.  A  gang  excavated  for  a  cellar  containing  1,603  cu.  yd.  in 
6,400  labor  hr.,  or  at  the  rate  of  0  47  cu.  yd.  per  man  hr. 

8.  A  gang  excavated  for  a  sewer  trench,  3  ft.  wide  by  5  ft.  deep, 
containing  137  cu.  yd.  in  259  labor  hr.,  or  at  the  rate  of  0.53  cu. 
yd.  per  man  hr. 

Total  11,415  labor  hr.,  26,538  cu.  yd.,  or  at  the  rate  of  0.57  cu. 
yd.  per  man  hr. 

In  the  third  case,  the  earth  was  partially  loosened  by  plowing, 
and  partly  by  pick,  and  shoveled  directly  onto  wagons.  In  the 
fourth  and  fifth  cases  the  small  amount  was  due  to  the  depth  and 
narrowness  of  the  excavation,  some  shoring  being  necessary,  and 
a  part  of  the  earth  being  hauled  twice. 

Cost  of  Handing  Ore.  Mr.  H.  E.  Scott,  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute,  states  that  in  unloading  ore  at 
the  Lake  Erie  dock  the  shovelers  were  paid  by  the  ton,  and  that 
the  following  records  have  been  made: 

The  prices  paid  were  13  ct.  per  ton  on  straight  work,  and  a 
maximum  of  18  ct.  per  ton  for  cleaning  up,  after  80%  of  the 
cargo  had  been  removed  by  automatic  machines.  Men  working 
at  the  18  ct.  rate  have  earned  as  high  as  $12  per  day  of  10  hr., 
which  means  6.67  tons  of  ore  were  shoveled  in  one  hour.  Work- 
ing at  the  13  ct.  rate  with  eight  men  in  a  hold,  shoveling  into  one 
ton  bucket,  each  man  can  handle  5  to  6  tons  of  ore  per  hr. 

Loosening  and  Shoveling  Sticky  Clay.  Engineering  News, 
Sept.  27,  1890,  contains  an  interesting  note  on  'the  methods  used 
for  loosening  and  shoveling  clay  in  the  St.  Clair  Tunnel,  Chi- 
cago. The  clay  was  known  to  be  soft,  and  no  difficulty  was  an- 
ticipated in  digging  it,  but  in  this  very  soft  tenacious  clay  lay 
the  root  of  the  trouble.  Had  the  clay  been  stiff  and  dry,  it  could 
have  been  dug  with  pick;  but  it  was  permeated  with  water,  and 
in  tenacity  it  is  said  to  have  borne  some  resemblance  to  India 
rubber.  An  ordinary  shovel  was  bent  out  of  shape  prying  into  the 


108 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


sticky  mass,  and  even  spades  were  soon  doubled  up.  The  spade 
illustrated  in  Fig.  12  was  tried,  but  the  progress  made  with  this 
tool,  however,  was  discouragingly  slow,  for  the  clay  had  to  be 
pried  out  in  chunks.  On  the  average,  one  gang  of  26  men  could 
dig  out  about  enough  in  8  hr.  to  advance  the  shield  2  ft. ;  a 
creditable  enough  advance  perhaps,  and  yet  aggravatingly  slow. 
Before  the  tunnel  had  progressed  very  far,  a  carpenter,  or 
joiner,  secured  employment  as  a  laborer  in  the  excavating  gang. 
He  had  never  been  accustomed  to  working  with  a  shovel  or  spade, 
but  with  the  draw-knife.  The  next  time  he  reported  for  work  he 
carried  an  arch-shaped  draw-knife,  made  of  a  piece  of  heavy  band 
iron,  bent  to  a  half  circle  about  6  in.  across,  with  eyes  at  each 
end  in  which  wooden  handles  were  stuck.  The  lower  side  of  the 


Fig.  12.     Spade  and  Scraper  Used  in  Tunneling  in  Clay. 


band  was  brought  to  a  cutting  edge.  With  this  novel  styl?  of 
draw-knife  he  went  to  work  and  was  able  to  shave  the  clay  down 
twice  as  fast  as  it  could  be  chopped  out  with  the  spaJe.  All 
the  men  were  soon  supplied  with  the  new  tool,  and  from  that  time 
forward  the  rate  of  progress  of  the  excavation  was  materially 
increased. 

In  connection  with  work  in  this  kind  of  material,  it  is  well 
to  note  that  in  ordinary  Chicago  clay,  a  man  with  a  spade  should 
excavate  10  cu.  yd.  per  day  of  8  hr.  This  kind  of  clay  is  best 
rehandled  with  forks  after  it  has  been  spaded  out  of  place.  In 
shoveling  stiff  clay  with  shovels,  the  rate  of  progres  can  be  in- 
creased by  dipping  the  shovel  in  water  between  each  shovelful. 
In  shoveling  sticky  mud,  if  a  few  holes  are  drilled  in  the  blade 
of  the  shovel  so  as  to  allow  air  to  penetrate  between  the  mud 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  109 

^ 

and  the  shovel  blade,  the  suction  will  be  reduced,  and  the  mud 
will  slip  more  easily  off  the  bowl. 

The  Cost  of  Digging  a  Cess  Pool.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Oct.  28,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

The  hole  was  dug  on  Long  Island  in  a  clay  material  with  an 
occasional  boulder.  The  material  was  stiff  enough  to  stand  up 
without  shoring.  The  hole  was  8  ft.  in  diameter  and  24  ft.  deep. 
For  two  days  two  men  did  the  work,  but,  when  a  bucket  had 
to  be  used,  another  man  was  added  to  the  force.  A  three-legged 
derrick,  with  a  crank  on  it,  was  used  to  hoist  the  bucket  of  earth. 
The  excavation  was  made  entirely  with  picks  and  shovels.  There 
were  1,305  cu.  ft.  of  material  excavated,  or  about  48  cu.  yd. 
A  10-hr,  day  was  worked.  The  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows: 

2  men  2  days  at  $1.50    $  6.00 

3  men  5  days   at     1.50    22.60 


Total $28.50 

This  gives  a  cost  of  60  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  excavating  and  hoist- 
ing the  material  and  dumping  it  on  the  ground  by  the  side  of  the 
hole.  This  cost  is  quite  reasonable  for  this  sort  of  work. 

Cost  of  Picking  and  Shoveling  Hardpan.  (Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Dec.  16,  1908.)  In  a  clay  cut  on  some  railroad  work 
in  Ontario  Co.,  Ontario,  Canada,  some  cemented  gravel  or  hardpan 
was  encountered.  The  bed  of  gravel  lay  along  the  bottom  of  the 
cut,  and  the  part  to  be  excavated  was  from  0.8  ft.  to  4  ft.  in 
depth.  The  cemented  gravel  was  so  hard  that  a  pick,  handled 
by  an  experienced  man,  would  only  enter  it  about  1^  in.,  but  the 
extent  of  the  work  was  so  small  that  the  contractor  did  not  feel 
justified  in  purchasing  a  pick  pointed  or  rooter  plow. 

To  excavate  this  hardpan  with  picks  and  shovels  required  4 
pickers  to  5  shovelers,  and  1  man  was  used  on  the  dump.  Wages 
were  15  ct.  per  hr.  The  extreme  haul  on  the  excavated  material 
was  1,000  ft.  .  At  first  4  carts  were  used  but  the  hauling  was 
finished  with  6  carts,  at  18  ct.  per  hr. 

In  all  500  cu.  yd.  of  hardpan  were  moved  at  the  following 
cost  per  cu.  yd.: 

Shoveling     « $0.304 

Loosening       0.245 

Dumping     0.030 

Hauling      0.195 

Total   per    cu.    yd $0.744 

This  is  a  high  cost,  although  the  allowance  of  18  ct.  for  carts  per 
hr.  is  small.  The  pickers  loosened  about  6  cu.  yd.  per  day  of  10 
hr.,  while  the  shovelers  shoveled  5  cu.  yd.  per  day  per  man.  This 


110  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

is  a  low  record  for  shoveling,  but  as  the  layer  of  gravel  was  thin 
it  was  no  doubt  difficult  to  keep  enough  muck  loosened  to  allow 
the  men  to  get  a  good  shovelful  as  they  worked.  Although  the 
cost  of  loosening  is  nearly  one-third  of  the  total  cost,  yet  the  cost 
per  cu.  yd.  may  have  been  reduced  by  using  some  extra  pickers, 
thus  allowing  the  shovel  men  to  make  a  greater  output. 

A  Rating  Table  for  Excavating  with  Pick  and  Shovel.  Mr.  L. 
T.  Sherman,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  27,  1914,  pre- 
sented a  novel  method  of  rating  the  probable  amount  of  excava- 
tion that  can  be  done  with  pick  and  shovel  in  various  materials. 
This  article  follows  in  full: 

The  accompanying  diagram  and  tables  represent  the  amount  of 
excavation  of  various  materials  which  will  be  performed  in  a 
10-hr,  day  by  the  average  laborer  working  under  good  super- 
vision. In  making  this  compilation  the  writer  has  compared  a 
large  number  of  data  from  many  sources  with  figures  obtained  in 
his  own  experience  on  construction.  As  might  be  expected  there 
is  wide  divergence  in  such  published  data. 

The  curves  in  the  diagram  are  based  on  a  rational  relation  of 
one  class  of  material  to  another  as  regards  the  amount  of  work  or 
power  required  in  picking  or  shovel  cutting  and  the  power  re- 
quired in  casting  up  materials  of  different  weights.  The  output 
of  excavation  is  proportional  to  the  amount  of  power  or  work 
required  to  move  a  cubic  yard  of  the  material.  Let  the  amount  of 
work  or  power  to  cut  into  and  fill  the  shovel  with  sand  be  called 
unity.  Then  for  other  materials  the  relative  power  to  cut  out 
and  place  on  the  shovel  will  from  experience  be  as  in  Table  I. 

TABLE   I  — POWER  TO   PICK,   LOOSEN  AND  CUT  ONTO   SHOVEL 

Sand      P  —  1.0 

Gravel,     loose     P  =  1.5 

Earth,     medium     P  =  2.0 

Clay,    light    P  =  3.0 

Clay,    dry,    hard    P  =  4.5 

Clay,    wet,    heavy    P  =  5.0 

Hardpan P  =  6.0 

The  work  or  power  to  lift  or  cast  up  the  material  after  the 
shovel  is  filled  is  proportional  to  the  weight  of  material  and 
height  cast  or,  which  is  the  same,  the  depth  of  cut.  Then  if  W 
is  the  weight,  the  relative  power  to  cast  up  material  to  different 
heights  H  will  be  as  follows: 

Sand     W  H  where  W  =  1.0 

Gravel     W  H  where  W  =  1.0 

Earth,    medium    W  H  where  W  =  0.8 

Clay,    light    W  -H  where  W  =  1.1 

Clay,    dry     W  H«  where  W  =  1.1 

Clay,    wet    W  H  where  W  =  1.3 

Hardpan    W  H  where  W  =  1.12 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  111 

The  total  power  to  shovel  and  cast  any  material  is  P  -f  W  H. 
The  output  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  power  or  work  re- 
quired. The  output  of  any  material  by  hand  excavation  in  cu. 
yd.  per  man  per  10  hr.  is 

30 

Cubic  yd.  = 

P  +  .3  W  H 

The  constants  30  and  .3  are  empirical,  and  like  the  relative 
values  of  P  have  been  selected  to  correspond  with  the  best  data 
available  on  excavation  of  various  materials  at  different  depths  of 
cut. 

The  curves  in  the  diagram  Fig.  13  are  platted  according  to  the 
above  formula  with  coefficients  P  and  W  as  previously  noted. 
The  letters  represent  observations  from  various  published  state- 
ments and  are  not  equally  reliable  or  comparable.  The  curves  do 
not  attempt  to  average  the  data  but  correspond  with  the  writer's 
experience  and  some  of  the  most  definite  of  the  published  data. 

Table  II  shows  the  number  of  cu.  yd.  an  average  laborer  should 
excavate  and  cast  out,  at  various  depths  in  10  hr.  while  working 

TABLE  II.—  CUBIC  YD.  PER  MAN  PER  10  HR.  AT  STATED  DEPTHS 


d 

d 

J 

d 

d 

CO 

10 

op 

o 

13 

2 

2 

3 

0 

3 

+£ 

d 

^- 

d 

d 

0 

CO 

iO 

00 

8 

gands     

212 

14.5 

10.7 

8.5 

5.2 

Gravel     loose 

15  4 

11.8 

9.2 

7.7 

4.9 

Earth       

12  8 

10  5 

9  0 

75 

49 

Light    clay     

...      8.9 

7.3 

6.0 

5.2 

3.8 

Dry    clay        

64 

5.3 

4.7 

4.1 

3.2 

Wet    clav    

54 

4.7 

4.2 

3.5 

2.7 

Hardpan 

4  6 

4.2 

3.7 

3.3 

2.7 

Average     10.7  8.3  6.9  5.7  3.9 

at  the  depths  stated.  Table  III  shows  the  average  number  of  cu. 
yd.  per  10-hr,  day  that  an  average  laborer  should  excavate  work- 
ing from  the  surface  to  the  depth  stated.  This  figure  for  the  same 
material  is  naturally  somewhat  greater  than  given  in  Table  II. 
These  figures  may  be  increased  by  30%  for  rapid  workers  and 
may  be  decreased  30%  for  inefficient  workmen.  The  foregoing 
material  may  be  now  definitely  classified  as  follows: 

Band.  Weight,  3,000  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.  slightly  damp.  In  natural 
bed.  Not  over  15%  clay. 

Gravel.  Weight,  3,000  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.  Loose,  as  excavated  ma- 
terial. 


112 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  113 

TABLE  III.— AVERAGE  EXCAVATION  IN  CU.  YD.  PER  10  HR.  FOR 
CUTS  FROM  SURFACE  TO  STATED  DEPTHS 


ooooo 

Sand     21.2  18.1  15.1  13.6  10.7 

Gravel,    loose    15.4  13.7  '  11.8  10.8  8.8 

Earth      12.8  11.7  10.5  9.7  8.1 

Light     clay     89  8.1  7.3  6.7  5.8 

Dry    clay     6.4  5.9  5.4  5.1  4.5 

Wet    clay     5.4  5.1  4.7  4.4  3.8 

Hardpan     4.6  4.4  4.2  3.9  3.5 

Earth.  Weight,  2,400  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.  Slightly  damp,  in  natural 
bed,  easily  plowed,  little  or  no  pick  work  required.  Would  re- 
quire some  sheeting  in  trenches  over  6  ft.  deep. 

Clay  (light).  Weight,  3,300  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.  Slightly  damp, 
easily  plowed.  Not  stiff  or  very  cohesive,  corresponds  to  yellow 
clay  lying  below  the  black  soil  and  above  the  blue  clay  in  vicinity 
of  Chicago.  Would  require  some  sheeting  in  trenches  over  6  ft. 
deep  Little  pick  work  required. 

Clay  (dry,  hard).  Weight,  3,300  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.  Requires  pick 
work  equal  to  one-third  time  spent  in  shoveling  and  casting.  No 
sheeting  required  at  any  depth.  Corresponds  to  material  on  top 
of  ravines  along  the  lake  shore  in  Lake  County,  111.  Hard  plow- 
ing. Adobe  in  this  class. 

Clay  (wet).  Weight,  3,900  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.  Tough  and  cohesive, 
has  to  be  cut  out  in  pieces.  Slightly  sticky,  would  require  sub- 
stantial sheeting.  Corresponds  to  the  underlying  "  blue  clay  "  of 
Chicago.  Gumbo  in  this  class. 

Hardpan.  Weight,  3,360  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.  Requires  picking 
equal  to  one-half  the  time  spent  in  shoveling  and  casting. 

The  use  of  the  relative  coefficient  P  is  suggested  as  a  simple  and 
definite  means  of  describing  or  designating  any  class  of  earth  ex- 
cavation, t  *f 

The  jog  in  the  curves  (Fig.  13)  at  depth  of  9  ft.  represents 
an  allowance  of  P  =  1  on  account  of  extra  labor  of  shovel  cutting 
done  in  recasting  from  a  platform.  As  a  matter  of  fact  no  re- 
casting may  be  done  at  the  9-f  depth  or  even  1'4-ft.  depth,  but  the 
output  per  man  will  not  be  increased  over  the  quantity  shown 
by  the  diagram. 

The  recorded  data  platted  on  Fig.  13  are  designated  by  a  letter 
for  the  class  of  material.  The  number  following  the  letter  refers 
to  the  source  from  which  the  data  were  obtained,  as  follows :  ( 1 ) 
"American  Engineers'  Pocket  Book";  (2)  "Handbook  of  Cost 
Data,"  Gillette;  (3)  "  Earthwork,"  Gillette ;  (4)  L.K.Sherman; 


114  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

(5)  Windette,  Journal  West.  tfoc.  Engrs.;  (6)  "Concrete  Costs,'* 
Taylor  &  Thompson;  (7)  Orrock;  (H)  Prelim;  (9)  Engineering 
and  Contracting  (December,  1008),  "Atlantic,  Iowa,  Sewers," 
M.  A.  Hall;  "  Centerville,  Ta.,  Sewers,"  M.  A.  Hall;  (10)  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting;  (11)  Engineering  and  Contracting. 

From  the  output  recorded  by  Mr.  Sherman  in  the  foregoing 
statement,  we  have  deduced  the  outputs  in  average  material  at 
depths  of  from  0  to  6  ft.,  6  to  12  ft.,  12  to  18  ft.,  and  over  18  ft. 
These  averages  are  presented  in  Table  IV,  together  with  averages 
of  the  outputs  as  given  by  Mr.  Windette,  given  in  the  chapter  on 
trenching  and  with  those  of  the  author,  given  in  the  same  chap- 
ter. These  average  outputs,  recorded  by  different  engineers  in 
widely  separate  parts  of  the  country,  compare  very  well.  For  a 
depth  of  from  12  to  18  ft.  the  average  as  noted  by  the  author 
seems  to  be  too  high.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
this  work  was  done  under  first  class  supervision  and  under  other 
favoring  conditions. 

TABLE   IV,   CU.  YD.  EXCAVATED  PER  MAN  HR.  WITH  PICK  AND 
SHOVEL  IN   AVERAGE   MATERIAL 

Depth  in  ft.  Authority 

0-6                   6-12                  12-18  18  + 

0.923                  0.737                  0.638  Author 

1  050                  0.720                  0.370  0.260                  Windett 

0.950                  0.630                 0.390  Sherman 


In  average  materials  the  output  per  man-hour  may  be  expected 
to  be  as  follows: 

For  depths  of  from  0  to  6  ft.,  1  cu.  yd. 
For  depths  of  from  6  to  12  ft.,  0.7  cu.  yd. 
For  depths  of  from  12  to  18  ft.,  0.4  cu.  yd. 
For  depths  over  18  ft.,  0.26  cu.  yd.  and  less. 

Conclusions.  From  the  foregoing  data  we  may  draw  some  prac- 
tical conclusions;  for  example:  (1)  Men  should  be  close  enough 
fo  the  wagon  or  other  vehicle  being  loaded  not  to  be  required  to 
take  even  a  few  steps  before  casting.  (2)  The  farther  away  a 
man  is  from  a  wagon,  the  less  number  of  shovelfuls  he  can  cast 
in  a  given  time.  (3)  As  each  shovelful  is  also  smaller,  a  man 
12  or  15  ft.  away  from  a  wagon  will  load  about  half  as  much  as 
if  he  were  only  about  4  or  5  ft.  from  it.  Therefore,  in  loading 
wagons,  it  does  not  pay  to  crowd  men  around  it  ;  no  more  than 
six  should  be  allowed.  (4)  Large  shovels  should  be  used.  (5) 
Men  should  work  to  a  face  wherever  possible.  (6)  A  temporary 
floor  should  be  laid  down,  so  that  the  earth  will  fall  on  the  floor, 
from  which  it  can  be  more  easily  shoveled.  (7)  A  high  bank 
should  be  undermined  with  picks,  and  wedged  off  or  blasted  off 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  115 

the  top.  (8)  Picking  should  never  be  resorted  to  when  plowing 
can  be  used.  (9)  When  earth  is  loosened,  by  whatever  means,  it 
should  be  loosened  thoroughly. 

Cost  of  Casting  Clay  for  Filling  in  Behind  Retaining  Wall. 
(Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  22,  1908.)  Some  earth  had 
to  be  cast  behind  a  low  retaining  wall.  The  work  was  done  by 
company  forces,  the  foreman  being  paid  $2.50  per  day  of  10  hr., 
and  men  $1.50.  The  material  was  a  heavy  black  clay  with  a 
large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  in  it,  and  very  wet.  The  men 
did  not  have  to  stand  in  the  water,  except  in  a  few  places,  but 
their  shovels  were  frequently  submerged.  The  soil  was  exca- 
vated to  a  depth  of  from  12  to  18  in.,  and  at  high  tide  there  was 
always  water  in  the  holes  that  were  being  dug.  Most  of  the 
material  was  spaded,  but  where  roots  and  similar  material  were 
encountered,  mattocks  were  used  to  loosen  it.  The  earth  was  cast 
from  5  to  10  ft.,  and  the  bank  was  made  about  4  ft.  high.  The 
work  was  hard  and  difficult.  The  material  stuck  to  the  shovels, 
and  the  water  disintegrated  the  clay,  causing  a  man  to  make  sev- 
eral attempts  to  get  a  fair  shovelful  when  he  was  shoveling  where 
there  was  water.  ,;  ^  ;' 

About  16  men  worked  under  a  foreman.  The  work  was  done 
in  the  early  part  of  the  winter.  In  all  522  cu.  yd.  of  excavation, 
place  measurement,  was  made.  The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was: 

Foreman   at  25  ct.   per  hr $0.043 

Men  at  15  ct.  per  hr 0.454 

Total     $0.497 

This  meant  that  one  man  loosened  and  shoveled  in  a  day  about 
3i/£  cu.  yd.,  which  is  a  small  output. 

The  Cost  of  Excavation  for  Pavement  and  'Curb,  New  York. 
In  an  article  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  16,  1906,  a 
writer  gives  the  following  cost  for  excavation  for  asphalt  pave- 
ment and  a  concrete  curb  on  Broadway,  from  110th  to  119th  St., 
New  York  City,  in  November,  1904. 

Asphalt  pavement  excavation  Per  cu.  yd. 

Foreman    at    $3.75    $0.026 

Laborers    at   $1.50    0  201 

Teams    at   $5.50    '., 0.088 

Plowing    at    $4.00    0  018 

Carts    at   $4.00    0.010 


For  1,985  cu.  yd.,  cost  per  cu.  yd $0.443 

Excavation  for  curbs  Per  lin.  ft. 

Foreman    at    $3.75    $0.004 

Laborers    at    $1.50    o!o20 


For  2,253  lin.  ft.,  per  lin.  ft $0.024 


1 16       HANDBOOK  OF  EAETH  EXCAVATION 

Teams  with  wagons  cost  $5.50,  but  as  the  contractor  owned 
plows  and  carts,  it  was  necessary  to  hire  only  teams  and  drivers, 
which  reduced  the  daily  rata  per  team  to  $4.00. 

Cost  of  Excavation  and  Backfill  on  a  Bridge  Abutment.  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  May  30,  1906,  contains  the  detailed  cost 
of  a  masonry  bridge  abutment  on  the  Detroit,  Lansing  &  Northern 
R.  R.  The  cost  of  excavation  and  backfill  was  as  follows: 

Excavation 

Foreman,   8.9  days  at  $1.75   $15.58 

Laborers,    64.8  days  at  $1.50    97.20 

Engineman,    0.4    days   at  $1.75    0.70 

Derrickman,  0.4  days   at  $1.50   0.60 

Total,   772  cu.  yd.  at  $0.15   $114.08 

The  removal  of  excavated  matter  was  done  almost  entirely  with 
wheelbarrows.  The  material  was  sand  and  was  wasted.  The 
overhaul  was  short,  the  lead  being  75  ft. 

Backfill 

Foreman,   2.4  days  at  $3.00 $6.80 

Foreman,   6.3   days   at  $1.75 11.03 

Laborers,   37.8  days   at   $1.50    56.70 

Engineman,   3.6  days   at  $1.75    .'." 6.30 

Derrickman,  3.6  days  at  $1.50   5.40 

Total,  380  cu.  yd.  at  $0.23   $86.23 

Excavation  for  Retaining  Wall.  The  following  from  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  May  30,  1916,  relates  to  the  construction  of 
a  retaining  wall  at  the  round  house  of  the  Detroit,  Lansing  and 
Northern  R.  R.,  at  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  The  contractor  fur- 
nished the  labor  only.  The  excavation  was  nearly  all  stiff  clay 
with  stone  and  small  boulders,  making  hard  digging.  Almost  all 
of  the  excavated  matter  was  handled  twice,  cast  out  on  the  ground 
and  then  loaded  on  flat  cars.  The  time  given  for  excavation  in- 
cludes $6  or  $8  worth  of  time  spent  in  moving  cars.  In  all  of 
,  the  work  the  contractor  was  considered  as  a  foreman  and  was 
allowed  40  ct.  per  hr.  for  the  time  he  himself  actually  worked. 
In  all  of  the  cases  the  foremen  hours  are  for  the  hours  during 
which  acti.al  work  was  done  by  them;  that  is  to  say,  the  foreman 
not  only  acted  as  overseer,  but  also  did  actual  work,  excavating, 
laying  stone,  etc. 

The  cost  of  the  excavation  work  was  as  follows: 

Foreman,    33    hr.,    at    40    ct $13.20 

Foreman,     104    hr.,     at    22%    ct 23.40 

Laborer,     285    hr.,     at    12%    ct 35.63 

Total .$72.23 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  117 

A  total  of  168  cu.  yd.  was  excavated  at  a  cost  of  $0.43  per  yd. 
The  contract  price  at  which  the  work  was  let  was  $.0.25. 

In  backfilling,  the  earth  was  wheeled  from  the  flat  cars  and 
placed  back  of  the  wall.  A  small  amount  of  earth  was  cast  in 
directly  from  the  bank.  The  cost  of  this  work  was  as  follows: 

Foreman.   4  hr.   at  40  ct $1.60 

Foreman,   11  hr.   at  22%  ct 2.48 

Laborer,   52  hr.  at  12%  ct 6.50 

Total     $10.58 

The  back  filling  amounted  to  63  cu.  yd.,  and  this  was  done  at 
a  cost  of  $0.17  per  cu.  yd.  The  contract  price  was  $0.25  per  cu. 

yd. 

Cost  of  Excavation  for  a  Railway  Culvert.  This  job,  as  de- 
scribed in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  12,  1908,  was  done 
on  some  railroad  construction  in  Tennessee.  The  culvert  was  a 
4x4  box  culvert  of  rubble  masonry,  42  ft.  long.'  The  excavation 
was  12  ft.  wide  and  2i£  ft.  deep.  The  material  excavated  was  a 
dry  sandy  clay  that  was  easily  worked,  although  it  had  to  be 
picked  before  it  could  be  shoveled.  When  material  in  culvert 
excavation  can  be  spaded,  thus  saving  the  picking,  the  work  can 
be  done  much  cheaper. 

The  excavated  material  in  this  case  was  shoveled  on  to  the 
ground  on  each  side  of  the  culvert,  the  ends  being  left  open.  At 
each  end  of  the  culvert  a  ditch  4  ft.  wide  was  c  t  to  the  culvert 
excavation,  making  53  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  for  the  culvert  and 
ditches.  This  earth  piled  up  on  the  two  sides  of  the  pit  would 
make  about  65  cu.  yd.  loose  measurement,  making  it  necessary 
to  handle  some  of  the  material  a  second  time.  This  fact  and 
likewise  the  width  of  the  pit,  12  ft.,  necessitated  casting  the  earth 
some  distance,  thus  adding  to  the  cost  of  the  work.  At  least  half 
the  material  was  handled  a  second  time,  and  about  10%  wac 
handled  three  times. 

The  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows  per  cu.  yd.: 

Foreman  at  25  ct.  per  hr $0.14 

Laborers  at  12.5  ct.  per  hr 0.59 

Water  boy  at  5  ct.  per  hr 0.03 

Total     .' $0.76 

A  man  excavated,  that  is  picked  and  shoveled,  about  2  cu.  yd. 
per  day,  of  the  original  excavation,  or  about  3*4  c  .  yd.  per  day 
including  the  material  that  was  handled  more  than  once. 

This  is  a  very  high  cost  for  this  work.  One  reason  for  this 
high  cost  was  a  very  inefficient  foreman,  lie  was  discharged. 


118       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Another  reason  was  that  the  contractor  did  not  furnish  long  han- 
dled shovels  to  the  men.  To  cast  the  earth  10  ft.  or  more  with 
short  handled  shovels  was  much  more  expensive  than  if  long 
handled  shovels  had  been  used. 

In  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  5,  1908,  the  following 
cost  of  excavating  for  a  culvert  is  given.  This  culvert  was  a 
3x4  box  masonry  culvert,  the  excavation  being  40  ft.  long  and 

9  ft.  wide,  and  averaged  1  ft.  in  depth.     The  material  was  sandy 
gravel  and  stiff  clay.     The  stream  was  a  small  one  and  was  easily 
diverted  to  one  side,  but,  owing  to  the  top  soil  being  sandy  gravel, 
the  water  percolated  into  the  foundation  as  fast  as  it  was  dug. 
However,  it  was  not  necessary  to  pump  it  out,  as  a  small  trench 
ci.t  at  the  lower  end  of  the  foundation  pit  carried  off  the  water, 
care  being  taken  in  carrying  on  the  excavation  to  do  it  so  that  the 
pit  drained  itself  by  means  of  this  trench.     However,  this  water 
made  the  clay  wet  and  heavy  and  much  more  expensive  to  handle. 

The  crew  that  clid  the  work  consisted  of  a  foreman  and  4  men, 
who  finished  the  job  in  one  day.  There  were  13  cu.  yd.  of  ma- 
terial excavated,  at  the  following  cost  per  cu.  yd. : 

Foreman,   at  25  ct.  per  hr $0.19 

Laborers,    at  15  ct.  per  hr 0.45 

Total     $0.64 

This  shows  how  large  a  proportion  of  the  cost  the  foreman 
charge  can  be,  where  the  gang  is  necessarily  small.  In  this  case 
supervision  was  nearly  33%  of  the  total  cost.  Each  workman  in 

10  hr.  excavated  3%  cu.  yd.     This  meant  that  he  loosened  and 
shoveled  it.     With  the  material  dry  and  in  a  bank  it  would  have 
been  possible  for  a  man  to  have  done  at  least  10  to  12  cu.  yd.  in 
a   day,   thus   showing  that  prices   paid   for   ordinary   excavation 
would  not  cover  the  cost  of  this  wet  excavation. 

Labor  Cost  of  Excavating  in  Stiff  White  Clay.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  May  15,  1918,  gives  the  following: 

The  following  labor  costs  cover  the  excavation  in  stiff,  white 
clay  for  a  sewage  disposal  plant.  The  excavation  was  19^  ft. 
long  by  14  ft.  wide,  7  ft.  deep  and  contained  71  cu.  yd.  The  work 
was  done  during  good  weather,  but  by  a  poor  foreman  and  aver- 
age crew.  Some  water  seeped  in  the  bottom  foot,  delaying  the 
work  somewhat. 

The  costs  follow: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Foreman,  40  hr.   at  40  ct $0.225 

Labor   (excav.),  246  hr.  at  35  ct 1.210 

Labor   (timbering),  16  hr.  at  35  ct 079 

Total    (71   cu.   yd.)    $1.314 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  119 

The  above  costs  cover  excavation  only.  Hauling  .away  surplus 
earth  is  not  included.  The  backfill  (16  cu.  yd.)  cost  28-ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

Handling  Soft  Material.  On  ditching  work  in  light  marshy 
soil  where  tough  sod  and  numerous  small  roots  are  to  be  con- 
tended with,  a  hay  knife  will  be  found  useful.  This  should  be 
pushed  as  deep  as  possible  along  each  side  of  the  ditch,  cutting 
the  roots  so  that  each  spadeful  has  one  side  free.  Other  data 
on  the  subject  of  handling  soft  material  will  be  found  in  the 
chapter  on  ditches. 

Excavating  Swamps  in  Freezing  Weather.  In  the  Journal  of 
New  England  Water  Works  Association,  Vol.  15  (1900),  Mr. 
John  L.  Howard  gives  a  description  of  a  method  of  excavating 
a  swamp.  A  Hayward  grapple  excavator  loaded  the  muck  into 
the  hopper  from  which  it  was  distributed  into  cars  holding 
about  1  cu.  ydj  each.  These  cars  were  hauled  in  trains  of  six 
by  a  hoisting  engine  to  the  top  of  the  dump  along  which  they 
were  switched  to  the  place  of  disposal.  The  muck  was  so  com- 
pletely saturated  with  water  that  the  dump  became  a  quagmire. 
A  platform  was  built  under  the  track  to  keep  it  from  sinking, 
but  after  every  shower  more  planks  and  considerable  labor  were 
required  to  keep  it  in  alignment,  and  even  then  the  cars  would 
not  stay  on. 

The  difficulty  was  solved  by  waiting  until  cold  weather  set  in. 
The  surface  of  the  ground  became  frozen  and  carts  could  be  used 
without  any  difficulty.  A  pump  sump  was  kept  well  down  ahead 
of  the  excavator. 

Cost  of  Plowing.  A  plow  or  a  pick  is  ordinarily  used  for  loos- 
ening, the  plow  being  the  most  economic  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions. 

Whenever  the  word  "  team  "  is  used  I  mean  two  horses  and 
their  driver;  if  I  refer  only  to  the  horses,  I  shall  say  a  horse 
or  a  pair  of  horses. 

A  two-horse  team  with  a  driver  and  a  man  holding  the  plow 
will  loosen  25  cu.  yd.  of  fairly  tough  clay,  or  35  cu.  yd.  of  gravel 
and  loam  per  hr.  In  the  far  West  some  contractors  always 
use  a  four-horse  plow  even  in  light  soils,  but  when  very  tough 
clay  or  hardpan  is  encountered  a  pick-pointed  plow  with  four 
to  six  horses,  and  two  extra  men  riding  the  plow  beam  will 
always  be  required,  and  will  loosen  15  to  20  cu.  yd.  per  hr. 
In  such  soil  a  steam  roller  or  a  tractor  is  very  effective,  and  more 
economic  than  horses  as  a  plow  puller. 

One  example  to  show  the  high  cost  of  plowing  the  hard  crust 
of  an  old  road  will  suffice:  An  old  village  street,  partially 
graveled,  was  plowed  up  9  ft.  wide  X  1,400  ft.  long  X  14  in.  deep 


120 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


(=  55()  cu.  yd.)  by  one  plow  team  with  driver  and  a  man  holding 
plow,  in  214  days,  or  244  cu.  yd.  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  2  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  Another  similar  but  harder  stretch  was  plowed  with 
two  teams  on  the  plow  and  a  man  riding-  the  plow  beam,  at 
a  cost  of  6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  While  the  average  cost  of  plowing 
5,500  cu.  yd.  of  such  compacted  gravel  and  earth  roadway  was  4 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  plowing  alone,  wages  of  men  being  15  ct.  an 
hour  and  team  with  driver  35  ct.  an  hour.  Contractors  having 
old  streets  or  roads  to  loosen  will  do  well  to  keep  in  mind  these 
figures. 

Morris  found  that  a  team,  a  driver,  and  a  plowman  would 
loosen : 

20  to  30  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  of  "  strong,  heavy  soil." 

40  to  60  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  of  "  ordinary  loam." 

Specht  states  that  a  six-horse  plow  with  one  driver  and  one 
plow  holder  would  loosen  1,000  cu.  yd.  of  sand,  and  700  cu.  yd. 
of  sandy  loam  per  day,  ready  for  the  buck  scrapers  to  remove. 

Earthwork  Plows  are  of  rugged  construction  as  their  chief 
use  is  in  very  hard  ground.  A  plow  made  by  the  Baker  Mfg. 
Co.  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  It  is  made  in  the  following  weights  and 
sizes : 

No.  horses  Beam  Weight 

No.  0  2  6      ft.  180  ib. 

No.  1  2  to  4  6%  ft.  200  Ib. 

No.  2  4  to  6  7%  ft.  270  Ib. 

No.  3  6  to  8  8Ms  ft.  350  Ib. 

All  sizes  cut  a  12-in.  furrow. 


Fig.  14.     Railroad  and  Township  Grading  Plow. 

A  plow  weighing  only  150  Ib.,  and  said  to  be  light  enough 
for  two  horses  and  at  the  same  time  strong  enough  to  resist  the 
pull  of  ten  horses  is  shown  in  Fig.  15. 

In  tearing  up  hardpan,  frozen  ground,  macadam,  etc.,  a  special 
type  of  plow  called  a  rooter  is  used.  It  does  not  turn  over  the 
soil  as  does  the  ordinary  plow  but  merely  loosens  it.  A  rooter 
plow  which  complete  weighs  275  Ib.  is  shown  in  Fig.  16.  It  can 
be  used  with  either  horses  or  a  traction  engine. 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  121 


Fig.  15.     Light  Grading  Plow. 


Fig.  16.     Steel  Beam  Rooter  Plow. 


The  following  table  gives  the  cost  of  plowing  when  wages  of 
laborers  are  $1.80,  and  of  teams  (2  horses  and  driver)  $5.40  per 
day  of  9  hr. 

COST  OF  PLOWING 


Cu.  yd. 

Soil                                  Labor  per  hr. 

Loam     1  driver,  1  holder,  2  horses  50 

Gravel    and    loam.l                1                  2      "  35 

Fairly    tough    clay.l        "       1       "         2      "  25 
Very     hard    soil...l        "       1        "      4-6      " 
2  men  on  plow  beam  of 

rooter    plow  15-20 

Ordinary    soil    1  driver,  6  horses  on  gang  40 

plow 


Per 
cu.  yd. 

$0.014 
0.023 
0.032 


0.035 


Gang  Rooter  Plow.  Fig.  17  shows  the  improved  model  of  the 
Petrolithic  gang  road  rooter  plow  (made  by  W.  A.  Gillette,  South 
Pasadena,  Calif.).  It  consists  of  a  steel  frame  with  two  wheels 
in  front  and  the  same  number  in  the  rear.  The  wheels  are  con- 
trolled by  levers  so  they  can  be  raised  or  lowered  from  the 
ground.  In  this  manner  the  exact  depth  to  which  the  rooters 
or  plows  penetrate  can  be  regulated.  If  it  is  desired  to  loosen 
a  crust  only  2  in.  deep,  it  can  be  done;  if  it  is  desired  to  plow 


122 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


to  the  depth  of  12  in.,  this  is  also  possible.  The  five  rooters  or 
plows  are  so  fastened  in  the  frame  that  any  one  or  all  can  be 
removed  if  desired,  and  each  rooter  is  provided  with  a  removable 
point,  which  can  be  taken  off  and  sharpened  without  removing 
the  entire  rooter  from  the  frame. 

Only  one  man  is  required  for  operating  a  steam  roller,  which 
serves  as  a  traction  engine,  and  the  gang  rooter.  At  the  end  of  a 
run,  this  engineman  simply  raises  the  rooters  out  of  the  ground 
by  means  of  a  lever,  turns  around,  sets  the  levers  again  and  goes 
back.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Nov.  10,  1909,  states  that 
this  gang  rooter,  and  a  road  roller  or  traction  engine,  has  actually 
broken  more  ground  in  one  day  than  12  horses  hitched  to  an  or- 
dinary rooter  plow  had  previously  broken  in  6  days. 


Fig.  17.    Petrolithic  Gang  Road  Hooter  Plow. 


Mr.  W.  A.  Gillette,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  28, 
1911,  gives  the  cost  of  plowing  an  old  street  with  one  of  these 
Petrolithic  gang  rooters.  The  machine  was  drawn  by  a  12-ton 
gasoline  road  roller.  One  man  operated  the  rooter,  which  was 
easily  set  so  as  to  break  ground  at  any  depth  from  6  to  15  in. 
in  a  strip  5  ft.  wide.  The  gasoline  roller  developed  sufficient 
power  to  pull  the  rooter  in  an  old  and  very  hard  asphaltic  oiled 
road.  It  lost  very  little  time  for  stops  and  used  a  minimum  of 
fuel,  no  stops  were  made  during  working  hours  to  take  on  fuel. 
A  usual  day's  work  was  nine  hours.  The  operating  cost  of  the 
roller  was  as  follows: 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  123 

Per  day 

35  to  40  gal,  distillate   @    8  ct.  per  gal.    $3.20 

0.75  gal.  lubricating  oil   @   45  ct.  per  gal 0.34    J 

Engineman 4.00 

Total $7.54 

Dynamometer  Tests  on  Plows.  Engineering  News,  Aug.  17, 
1911,  published  the  results  of  some  tests  made  by  Wm.  Clyde 
Willard 

In  making  the  tests  a  "  Pattern  B "  Schaeffer  &  Budenberg 
recording  dynamometer  registering  to  4,000  Ib.  was  used.  In  this 
instrument  the  paper  record  slip  was  fastened  on  a  drum  4  in. 
in  diameter  making  one  revolution  per  hr. 

The  results  in  pounds  were  obtained  by  planimetric  averaging 
from  the  record  slips.  The  area  enclosed  by  the  dynamometer 
autograph,  the  zero  line  and  the  ordinate  at  beginning  and  end 
of  run,  was  measured  by  a  rolling  planimeter.  This  area  was 
divided  by  the  length  of  the  zero  line  to  give  average  pull.  Some 
difficulty  was  encountered  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  clockwork 
which  revolved  the  drum  of  the  dynamometer  ran  so  slowly  that 
the  lines  made  by  the  pencil  overlapped  each  other  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  it  was  impossible  to  trace  out  each  separate  line.  To 
overcome  this  the  lines  joining  the  points  of  maximum  and  mini- 
mum pull  were  traced  by  the  planimeter  and  the  mean  of  the 
two  areas  taken  as  the  result.  This  probably  gave  as  accurate 
a  result  as  could  have  been  obtained  had  it  been  possible  to  trace 
each  pencil  line  throughout  its  entire  length. 

In  conjunction  with  the  tests  on  wagons  several  tests  were 
made  to  determine  the  tractive  resistance  of  plows.  The  results 
should  be  of  great  interest  to  all  users  of  plows  or  to  those  in- 
terested in  farm  mechanics.  Two  plows  of  different  manufacture 
were  used.  Test  group  A  (Table  I)  was  made  with  a  Parlin 
&  Orendorf  14^-in.  two-bottom  gang  plow;  test  group  B  (Table 
II)  was  made  with  an  Oliver  chilled  14l£-in.  two-bottom  gang 
plow.  Each  plow  was  drawn  by  six  horses.  The  results  are 
tabulated  below. 

TABLE    I  — TRACTIVE    RESISTANCE  OF   PLOW   IN    STUBBLE 

LAND 

Test  Draft 

number  Description  in  Ib. 

1  7-in.  cut,  loose  stubble  land  on  about  a  10%  grade,   man  rode    900 

2  Same  as  1,  except  that  man  walked   ,..,..............;...• 883 

8      All    conditions    the    same    as    1,    except    that    the    coulter    was 

moved    %-in.    toward   the   land    side   of   the   furrow    and    sev- 
eral bolts  about  the  plow  were  tightened    776 

4  Same    as   3,   except   man   walked.     (The   increase    in   draft   was 

caused    by    the    plow    not    scouring    for    a    part    of    the    dis- 
tance. )       . . , 822 

5  7%-in.  cut,   otherwise  the  same  as  4   849 


124  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

TABLE    II.— TRACTIVE    RESISTANCE    PLOW    IN    CLOVER    SOD 

Test  Draft 

number  Description  in  Ib. 

6  GV^-in.  cut,   heavy  clover  sod,   almost  level    949 

7  6%-in.  cut,    thin   clover   sod,    coulter  ^-in.    in   furrow,   furrow 

wheel   ran   free    850 

8  Same    cut    and    sod    as    7,    coulter    ^4-in.    outside    of    furrow, 

furrow  wheel  %-in.   below  land  side    689 

9  Same    sod    and    cut    as    7    and    8,    coulter    same    as    8,    furrow 

wheel  %-in.  below  land  side   697 

In  the  tests  reported  in  Table  I,  a  change  of  ^  in.  in  the 
position  of  the  coulter  made  a  difference  in  draft  of  124  Ib.,  or  a 
difference  of  almost  one  horse.  Tests  1,  6  and  7  show  the  differ- 
ence in  resistance  of  the  two  sods  and  stubble.  Tests  7,  8  and 
9  show  the  change  in  draft  made  by  a  shift  in  the  positions  of  the 
furrow  wheel  and  coulter.  Comparing  7  and  8  it  is  seen  that 
shifting  the  position  of  the  coulter  %-in.  and  lowering  the  furrow 
wheel  ^4'^n-  made  a  difference  in  draft  of  161  Ib.,  or  over  one  horse 
difference.  Five  horses  could  have  pulled  the  plow  easier  after 
the  shift  than  the  six  could  before.  The  resistance  is  increased  by 
having  the  furrow  wheel  too  low,  as  shown  in  Test  9. 

Cost  of  Plowing  with  a  Steam  Traction  Engine.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  June  16,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

It  is  only  within  the  last  ten  years  or  so  that  the  feasibility 
of  plowing  with  traction  engines  has  become  generally  recog- 
nized. The  results  obtained  have  been  very  satisfactory,  and 
when  it  is  remembered  that  one  man  with  a  plowing  outfit  can 
do  much  more  work  than  six  or  eight  with  horses,  the  advantages 
of  this  method  on  the  large  farms  of  the  West  are  obvious.  Some 
data  on  the  cost  of  steam  plowing  taken  from  letters  written  to 
the  manufacturers  by  users  of  the  traction  engine  are  given  below. 

The  first  piece  of  work  for  which  data  are  given  was  done 
in  Missouri  last  year,  a  20  hp.  Rumley  Standard  traction  engine 
and  an  8-gang  14-in.  Moline  steam  plow  being  used.  An  average 
of  18  acres  per  day  was  plowed,  the  cost  of  operating  per  day 
being  as  follows: 

Total  Per  acre 

Engineman     $3.00  $0.166 

Water  and  fuel,  hauled  with  team  2.50  .139 

Plowman       1.00  .055 

Coal     3.00  .166 

Plow  sharpening,   oil,   etc 50  .027 

Total $10.00  $0.553 

The  next  piece  of  work  was  done  in  North  Dakota,  a  30  hp. 
Rumley  engine  and  Emerson  16-in.  plow  being  used.  The  cost 
was  as  follows: 

••••*   ' 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  125 

Per  acre 

Coal,   at  $6  per  ton,  90  Ib.  per  acre  $0.27 

Cylinder  oil,   at  40  ct.  per  gallon    01%, 

Machine  oil,   at  20  ct.  per  gallon  01 

Fireman,    $2.50    per    day 06% 

Water,  team  and  man  for  hauling,  $4  per  day 10 

Sharpening    lays 01 

Gear  grease,  4  ct.  per  Ib 00*4 

Total      $0.47 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  is  no  allowance  made  for  engine- 
man  in  the  above,  the  owner  of  the  outfit  probably  acting  as 
such.  Charging  this  item  up  at  $4.00  per  day  would  bring  the 
cost  per  acre  to  57  ct.  The  fireman  also  probably  acted  as  plow- 
man. The  outfit  traveled  2^4  miles  per  hr.,  cutting  16^  ft., 
thus  averaging  four  acres  per  hr.,  allowing  for  stops.  The  last 
piece  of  work  was  also  done  in  North  Dakota,  a  30-hp.  Rumley 
plowing  engine  being  used.  The  ground  was  stony  and  hilly  and 
a  disc  plow  with  14  discs  and  cutting  11  ft.  wide  was  used  for 
breaking  the  ground.  An  average  of  16  acres  of  ground  was 
broken  per  12-hr,  day,  the  cost  being  as  follows: 

Total  Per  acre 

Coal,   2,300  Ib.,   at  $7.50  per  ton    $  8.05  $  .50 

Water,  team  and  man  for  hauling  4.50  .28 

Engineer     3.00  .11 

Plowman    (who   also   fired)    2.00  .12 

Oil    and    incidentals     1.00  .06 


Total      $18.55  $1.07 

Later  on  this  ground  was  put  in  shape  for  the  drill  at  a  cost 
of  about  50  to  60  ct.  per  acre.  To  do  this  the  traction  engine 
was  used  to  three  sections  of  21  discs  cutting  18  ft.  wide  with  a 
large  drag  and  float  behind. 

Tractor  Plowing.  Mr.  J.  Gardner  Bennett  in  Engineering 
News,  Mar.  11,  1915,  describes  the  use  of  a  small  gasoline  tractor 
for  breaking  soft  muck  land  on  a  Southern  reclamation  project. 
This  machine  was  driven  by  a  20-hp.  4-cylinder  motor,  and  was 
equipped  with  three  small  "  caterpillar "  wheels  which  gave  a 
bearing  surface  of  2,800  sq.  in.  for  a  total  weight  of  4  tons. 
The  price  of  the  machine  was  $2,500.  The  cost  of  breaking  soft 
muck  land  was  about  as  follows :  Operator's*  wages  for  a  10-hr, 
day,  $3;  gasoline,  $2;  lubrication,  $0.40.  This  gives  a  total  op- 
erating cost  of  $5.40  for  plowing  five  acres,  or  $1.08  per  acre. 

Traction  Plowing  Outfits.  Bulletin  170,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  gives  a  large  amount  of  data  on  plowing  with  trac- 
tion outfits,  as  well  as  on  the  cost  of  operating  steam  and  gas- 
oline tractors  under  average  farm  conditions.  Plowing  costs  are 
given  as  follows: 


126  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

COST  OF  STEAM  PLOWING 
(Including  Harrowing) 

Cost  per  acre 

California     |0.853 

Southwest 1.14 

Northwest      , 1.73 

Canada     1.898 

The  cost  of  plowing,  including  some  harrowing,  with  gasoline 
engines  is  given  as  $1.409  per  acre.  The  depth  of  plowing  is  not 
stated  but  it  is  safe  to  assume  it  as  fully  6  in.  An  acre  6  in. 
deep  contains  approximately  800  cu.  yd.  Thus  if  farm  condi- 
tions can  be  approximated  on  an  excavation  job,  it  will  be  pos- 
sible to  loosen  earth  with  traction-drawn  plows  at  a  cost  of  from 
0.1  to  0.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Loosening  with  Explosives.  Some  earthy  materials  are  more( 
economically  loosened  by  explosives  than  by  either  picks  or  plows. 
Even  where  the  material  to  be  excavated  is  soft  enough  to  plow, 
"  the  lay  "  of  the  land  or  the  method  of  excavating  may  make 
plowing  impossible.  Explosives  are  the  most  economical  means 
of  loosening  for  drag  line  scraper  and  steam  shovel  work.  In 
addition  to  loosening,  explosives  if  used  in  sufficient  quantities, 
will  throw  the  earth  considerable  distances;  as  in  making  holes 
for  tree  planting  or  in  digging  ditches. 

In  the  "  Engineer  Field  Manual,  Professional  Papers,  No.  29, 
Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,"  data  are  given  as  to  the 
amount  of  explosive  required  to  make  military  mines,  from 
which  the  following  brief  tables  are  taken.  The  values  given 
are  to  be  regarded  as  approximations  only.  The  maximum  loosen- 
ing effect  is  obtained  from  the  explosions  of  the  powder  when  no 
earth  is  displaced  on  the  surface.  A  sphere  of  earth  is  ruptured 
about  the  charge  as  a  center.  In  military  parlance  this  type 
of  mine  is  called  a  "  camouflet."  Where  the  radius  of  rupture 
is  to  be  equal  to  the  depth  at  which  the  charge  is  placed,  mul- 
tiply the  cube  of  the  depth  in  feet  by  the  following  factors  to 
obtain  the  required  number  of  Ib.  of  50%  dynamite. 

Light    earth    0.005 

Common    earth    0.006 

Hard   sand    0.007 

Hardpan     0.008 

These  factors  apply  to  only  one  type  of  mine.  According  to 
them  1  Ib.  of  dynamite  placed  6  ft.  below  the  surface  in  light 
earth  and  properly  tamped  will  rupture  about  33  cu.  yd.  of 
earth.  The  amount  of  earth  ruptured  varies  directly  as  the 
amount  of  powder  used,  but  only  if  the  conditions  above  set  forth 
are  fulfilled.  Thus  2  Ib.  of  dynamite  placed  6  ft.  below  the  sur- 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  127 

face  will  not  rupture  66  cu.  yd.  because  the  surface  will  be 
broken  and  much  of  the  force  of  the  explosion  lost.  Placed  7.5 
ft.  below  the  surface  the  two  pounds  would  rupture  about  66 
cu.  yd. 

It  is  often  desirable  not  to  loosen  the  subgrade,  in  which  case 
such  blasting  charges  can  only  be  placed  at  half  the  depth  of 
excavation.  Under  these  conditions  it  may  be  desirable  to  use 
larger  quantities  of  explosives  than  above  indicated,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  part  of  their  force  is  expended  in  making  a  crater. 
In  this  case  the  relief  of  pressure  in  one  side  shortens  all  radii 
of  rupture  which  have  a  component  in  that  direction,  and  the 
volume  of  rupture  is  ellipsoidal.  For  a  "  Common  Mine,"  dia- 
meter approximately  equal  to  twice  the  depth  of  charge,  having 
its  greatest  horizontal  radius  of  rupture  equal  to  1.7  times  depth 
of  charge  and  vertical  (downward)  radius  of  rupture  equal  to 
1.1  times  the  depth  of  charge,  the  following  factors  are  given: 

Light    earth    0.012 

Common    earth    0.015 

Hard    sand    0.042 

Hardpan       0.050 

9 

Figuring  from  the  above  data  a  charge  of  approximately  2^ 
Ib.  of  50%  dynamite  placed  6  ft.  down  in  light  earth  will  loosen 
about  48  cu.  yd.  of  material.  Here  an  increase  of  250%  in  dyna- 
mite over  the  requirements  of  the  "  camouflet "  produces  less 
than  a  50%  increase  in  the  amount  of  dirt  loosened.  While  these 
figures  are  rough  approximations  they  serve  to  show  the  folly 
of  using  excessive  amounts  of  explosives  in  loosening  earth. 

Consult  Gillette's  "  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation,"  for  further 
information  on  blasting. 

Cost  of  Blasting  Hardpan.  (From  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Aug.  19,  1908.)  In  all  about  80  holes  were  drilled,  each  hole 
being  put  down  to  a  depth  of  6^  ft.,  making  520  ft.  of  drilling 
necessary.  These  holes  were  put  down  by  two  men  with  a  12-ft. 
churn  drill,  taking  about  8  days  to  do  the  work.  This  meant  10 
holes  drilled  per  day,  or  about  65  ft.,  and,  with  wages  at  $1.25 
for  10  hr.,  gave  a  cost  for  drilling  of  about  4  ct.  per  ft.  It  took 
about  two  days'  time  for  these  two  men  to  dry  the  holes  (water 
stood  in  the  bottom  of  them)  and  do  all  the  necessary  blasting, 
thus  costing  about  6  ct.  per  hole  for  labor  for  blasting,  making 
all  the  labor  of  drilling  and  blasting  4.4  ct.  per  ft.  of  hole. 

About  2  Ib.  of  40%  dynamite  was  used  to  the  hole,  172  Ib. 
being  actually  used  for  all  the  holes.  This  meant  an  average  of 
0.28  Ib.  of  dynamite  per  cu.  yd.  of  cemented  gravel.  The  total 
cost  of  blasting  was: 


128  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Laborers,   20  days,   at  $1.25   $25.00 

172  Ib.  dynamite,   at  11%  ct 19.48 

80  electrical  exploders,   at  4  ct 3.20 


Total     $47.68 

,For  the  600  cu.  yd.  of  cemented  gravel  this  is  a  cost  of  8  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  for  blasting,  but  if  we  distribute  this  cost  for  the 
1,000  cu.  yd.  of  excavation,  the  cost  becomes  4%  ct.  per.  cu.  yd. 

This  work  was  done  in  making  a  channel  20  ft.  wide  on  top 
and  15  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom,  6  ft.  deep  and  250  ft.  long.  The 
top  2}£  ft.  was  sandy  clay  while  the  rest  of  the  material  was  a 
hard  cemented  gravel. 

Breaking  Up  Hard  Ground  with  Dynamite  is  described  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Nov.  13,  1912,  as  follows:  Although 
road  contractors  have  commonly  used  dynamite  for  blasting  pocky 
cuts  in  road  work,  the  use  of  high  explosives  for  moving  gravel, 
clay  or  old  road  beds  is  a  recent  innovation.  At  a  demonstration 
given  recently  by  the  Du  Pont  Powder  Co.  to  the  Park  Depart- 
ment of  Los  Angeles  to  show  the  value  of  dynamite  blasting  in 
hard  ground,  30  holes  were  bored  to  a  depth  of  6  ft.  (to  grade), 
spaced  4  ft.  apart  and  each  loaded  with  two  cartridges.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  blast  the  dirt  was  loosened  to  grade,  making  further 
plowing  unnecessary.  The  ground  was  so  hard  that  they  had 
been  using  six  mules  to  a  plow  and  at  each  plowing  were  loosen- 
ing only  about  8  in.  of  dirt.  Low  grade  dynamites  are  best  for 
this  work,  as  they  have  the  slow,  heaving  effect  that  is  most 
advantageous  in  dirt  work. 

Breaking  High  Banks.  In  excavating  a  high  bank  of  hardpan, 
12  to  15  ft.  high,  an  economical  method  is  to  churn  a  hole  some 
8  to  10  ft.  deep,  and  about  8  to  12  ft.  back  from  the  bank  and  to 
load  this  with  a  small  charge  of  black  powder.  Sufficient  powder 
is  used  to  crack  the  bank,  but  not  to  throw  very  much  of  it  down. 
Thus  the  earth  is  easily  undermined  or  barred  down,  as  the  case 
may  require,  breaking  into  small  pieces  by  reason  of  its  fall. 

Excavating  Holes  with  Explosives.  The  following  is  taken 
from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.  15,  1908.  A  hole  was 
churned  in  the  ground  where  the  tree  was  to  be  planted,  with  a 
churn  drill,  at  an  angle  with  the  surface  of  35°  to  40°.  The  hole 
was  made  about  2  ft.  deep,  and  loaded  with  a  half  stick  of  40% 
dynamite  (14  Ib.)  and  shot.  This  blew  out  of  the  ground  a  hole 
about  3  ft.  in  diameter  and  about  2  ft.  deep,  making  a  hole  the 
shape  of  a  cone.  The  soil  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  was  well 
pulverized,  admitting  of  the  tree  being  planted  without  further 
preparation. 

One  man  accustomed  to  handling  explosives,  with  a  helper, 
blew  out  on  an  average  250  holes  per  day,  working  10  hr.  The 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  129 

dynamiter  prepared  the  charges  and  loaded  the  holes,  tamping 
them  but  little,  while  the  helper  churned  the  holes  and  assisted  in 
other  work. 

The  cost  of  blowing  250  holes  was: 

1    man    $3.50 

1    man    1.50 

500  ft.  fuse  at  45  ct.  per  100  ft 2.25 

250  caps  at  75  ct.  per  100 1.87 

63  Ib.  of  dynamite  at  15  ct 9.45 

Total     $18.57 

This  gives  a  cost  of  7.4  ct.  per  hole.  From  each  hole  about 
4.7  cu.  ft.  of  earth  was  excavated,  being  equal  to  .17  cu.  yd.  At 
the  above  cost  this  makes  43  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  In  such  a  hole  trees 
as  large  as  4  in.  can  usually  be  planted. 

With  a  deeper  hole  and  a  larger  charge  of  explosive  larger 
holes  could  no  doubt  be  blown  out.  It  would  also  be  possible  to 
use  either  black  powder  or  Judson  instead  of  dynamite,  and  the 
work  might  be  cheapened  by  the  use  of  either  of  them. 

See  Gillette's  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data  "  for  further  informa- 
tion on  hole  digging  and  tree  planting. 

Blasting  a  Pit  for  a  Dredge.  In  order  to  float  a  dipper  dredge 
for  the  purpose  of  digging  a  ditch  at  Madrid  Co.,  Mo.,  according 
to  Engineering  News,  June  24,  1915,  it  was  necessary  to  exca- 
vate a  pit  136x50x6  ft.  in  size.  Eleven  rows  of  holes,  3  ft. 
apart,  were  driven.  The  holes  in  the  center  row  were  loaded  with 
2.5  Ib.  of  dynamite  each,  those  in  the  next  two  rows  on  each  side 
2  Ib.  each,  in  the  next  rows  with  1.5  Ib.  each,  in  the  next  with  1 
Ib.  each  and  in  the  outside  rows  with  0.5  Ib.  each.  The  holes  in 
the  outside  rows  were  18  in.  apart,  in  the  next  rows,  2  ft.  apart, 
in  the  next  2.5  ft.  apart,  and  in  the  rows  alongside  the  middle 
row,  15  in.  apart.  A  total  of  950  Ib.  of  dynamite  was  used. 

The  blast  resulted  in  a  hole  136x43  ft.  in  area,  7  ft.  deep  at 
the  center,  and  an  average  of  3.5  ft.  deep.  In  all,  747  cu.  yd. 
were  removed  at  an  expenditure  of  about  1.3  Ib.  per  cu.  yd. 

Eliminating  a  Mosquito  Breeding  Pool  by  Blasting.  The  fol- 
lowing item  was  extracted  from  the  Year  Book  for  1916  of  the 
Commissioners  of  the  Borough  of  Haddonfield,  N.  J.  (Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Aug.  9,  1916.) 

"  The  residents  of  West  Haddonfield  were  for  years  pestered 
and  tormented  by  mosquitoes  which  it  was  learned,  upon  in- 
vestigation, were  propagated  in  stagnant  pools  between  the  rail- 
road and  Haddon  Ave.  It  was  found  practically  impossible  to 
drain  these  to  the  street  gutters,  hence  another  method  had  to  be 
employed  and  it  was  decided  to  sink  the  water  into  the  ground. 
Under  the  supervision  of  L.  Z.  Lawrence  a  heavy  charge  of  dy- 


130 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


namite  was  sunk  and  discharged  about  20  ft.  under  the  surface. 
This  caused  the  pools  to  disappear  in  short  order  and  no  water  has 
accumulated  at  this  point  up  to  the  end  of  the  year." 

Dynamiting  a  Dredge  way.  Paul  R.  Higgings,  in  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Aug.  16,  1916,  is  author  of  the  following: 

A  small  creek  ran  under  a  concrete  bridge  22  ft.  in  width.  It 
was  desired  to  run  dredges  under  the  bridge,  but  the  creek  was 
not  deep  enough,  nor  wide  enough.  I  was  given  the  contract  at 
a  price  of  80  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  to  deepen  and  widen  the  creek  for 
60  ft.  on  either  side  of  the  bridge. 

I  began  operations  directly  under  the  bridge.  It  was  imprac- 
ticable to  load  heavy  charges  at  that  point,  so  I  put  down  a  row 
of  bore  holes  2  ft.  back  from  the  bank  of  the  stream,  spacing 
them  2  ft.  apart  and  making  them  2  ft.  deep.  Each  hole  was 
loaded  with  a  half  stick  of  60%  dynamite.  I  worked  in  this 
way  from  both  ends  toward  the  middle.  It  was  necessary  for  me 
to  make  use  of  these  little  shots  at  the  2-ft.  distances  all  the  way 
down  these  lines  in  order  to  get  the  required  excavation. 

This  method  of  blasting  resulted  in  "throwing  most  of  the  dirt 
into  the  creek  bed,  which  was  at  that  time  dry.  Two  hours' 
work  with  team  and  scraper  at  a  cost  of  50  ct.  per  hr.  were  re- 
quired to  remove  the  dirt. 

After  finishing  under  the  bridge,  the  work  was  much  easier, 
as  I  could  load  more  heavily.  Parallel  rows  of  holes  were  put 
down  on  each  side  of  the  creek  2  ft.  back  from  the  banks,  6  ft. 
deep  and  4  ft.  apart,  each  hole  loaded  with  from  seven  to  nine 


5'to6' 
7'[/-~^\   7' 


B 


Creek  thru. 
Center 


ESC 


Fig.  18.    Method  of  Enlarging  a  Creek  Bed  by  Dynamite. 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  131 

sticks  of  the  60%  dynamite.  An  electric  cap  was  used  in  each 
charge  and  the  charges  were  fired  electrically.  Fig.  18,  Al,  will 
illustrate  this  operation.  These  side  blasts  threw  most  of  the 
dirt  over  into  the  dry  creek  bottom,  leaving  the  work  in  the  con- 
dition indicated  by  diagram  B,  Fig.  18. 

I  then  put  down  a  single  row  of  holes  directly  down  the  center 
of  the  hump,  also  two  more  parallel  rows  of  holes  on  either 
side  of  the  center  line.  These  side  lines  were  each  about  3  ft. 
from  the  center  line.  The  center  line  of  holes  was  about  6  ft. 
deep;  the  side  lines  from  3  to  4  ft.  My  center  line  of  holes  (all 
the  holes  were  from  2  to  3  ft.  apart)  was  loaded  with  about  4^ 
cartridges  each  of  the  straight  dynamite,  and  the  side  line  of 
holes  with  about  three  cartridges  each. 

This  final  shot  resulted  in  throwing  the  dirt  out  on  the  banks, 
leaving  a  nice  clear  ditch  nearly  20  ft.  wide  at  the  top  and  about 
12  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom.  Diagram  C,  Fig.  18  will  illustrate  the 
loading  for  this  last  shot  and  the  approximate  shape  of  the 
ditch  after  the  blast. 

Digging  Ditches  with  Dynamite.  Arthur  E.  Morgan  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Feb.  1,  1911,  is  author  of  the  fol- 
lowing : 

In  the  lowlands  of  southeast  Missouri,  a  considerable  amount 
of  excavation  for  drainage  ditches  is  now  being  made  with  dyna- 
mite, a  method  of  construction  discovered  by  accident  in  1909. 
In  blowing  large  stumps  preparatory  to  digging  drainage  ditches, 
it  was  noticed  that  where  several  stumps  close  together  in  a  line 
were  blown  out,  a  depression  remained  which  had  approximately 
the  dimensions  of  the  required  ditch.  Acting  on  the  suggestion 
thus  offered,  efforts  were  made  to  blow  out  a  channel  by  placing 
a  single  charge  at  a  time,  with  results  which  were  not  satis- 
factory. Next  charges  were  placed  in  the  ground  2  ft.  apart  for 
a  distance  of  100  or  200  ft.,  and  an  effort  was  made  to  dis- 
charge them  at  about  the  same  time  by  means  of  fuses.  As  the 
explosion  of  all  charges  was  practically  instantaneous,  it  was 
apparent  that  all  but  the  first  had  been  discharged  by  concussion. 
The  experimenters  continued  setting  charges  2  or  3  ft.  apart 
for  distances  up  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  found  in  all  cases 
that  it  was  necessary  to  set  a  fuse  to  only  one  of  the  charges, 
in  order  for  the  whole  to  be  exploded.  Up  to  the  present  this 
method  is  in  use  only  for  the  construction  of  small  ditches  3  or 
4  ft.  deep  and  6  to  12  ft.  wide. 

The  dirt  removed  by  the  dynamite  is  thrown  onto  both  sides 
for  100  ft.  or  more,  and  does  not  lie  more  than  6  in.  or  1  ft. 
deep  along  the  margins  of  the  ditch.  The  charges  are  set  by 
making  a  hole  of  the  necessary  depth  with  a  bar,  and  then  push- 


132  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ing  the  dynamite  into  the  hole  with  a  wooden  stick,  tamping  dirt 
on  top.  In  order  to  secure  a  uniform  cross  section  it  is  found 
necessary  to  place  the  charges  at  equal  distances  apart,  and  at 
such  a  depth  that  they  will  be  on  the  proposed  bottom  line  of 
the  ditch,  and  that  the  charges  should  be  approximately  equal 
in  size. 

The  best  of  the  channels  constructed  in  this  manner  are  as 
nearly  uniform  in  cross  section  as  they  could  be  made  by  using 
teams  and  scrapers. 

One  of  the  ditches  examined,  which  had  been  constructed  about 
a  year,  was  6  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom,  12  ft.  wide  on  top,  3^  ft. 
deep,  and  in  good  order.  In  digging  it  two  ^-lb.  sticks  of  50% 
dynamite  were  placed  3  ft.  apart  in  the  ground  and  between  3 
and  4  ft.  deep.  Two  men  will  construct  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of 
ditch  in  a  day. 

At  a  cost  of  15  ct.  per  Ib.  for  dynamite,  and  $20  per  mile 
for  placing  the  charges,  the  ditch  in  the  condition  in  which  it 
was  examined,  after  a  year  of  depreciation,  had  cost  about  5  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  The  ditch  had  been  constructed  through  the  woods 
without  cutting  down  any  of  the  trees,  and  in  some  instances  the 
fallen  trunks  were  lying  across  the  channel. 

This  method  of  construction  is  coming  into  general  use  in  ex- 
cavating lateral  ditches  in  the  wet  muck  soils  of  southeast  Mis- 
souri. Its  advantages  lie  in  its  usefulness  for  digging  ditches  too 
small  for  a  dredge,  and  through  ground  too  wet  for  economical 
work  by  hand  or  with  teams  and  scrapers.  Whether  larger  chan- 
nels can  be  constructed  by  using  larger  charges  of  dynamite, 
placed  at  greater  depths,  remains  to  be  seen. 

Sandy  soils  are  not  handled  as  readily  as  clay  or  muck,  and 
where  ditches  have  been  blown  out  in  sand,  the  cost  per  yd.  has 
been  several  times  as  great.  Neither  does  the  method  work  well 
in  dry  soil.  The  use  of  60%  dynamite  has  in  some  cases  given 
better  results  than  50%.  If  the  success  achieved  by  this  method 
of  excavation  is  repeated  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  it  will 
appear  that  we  have  added  to  our  construction  methods  another 
means  of  earth  excavation,  applicable  to  wet  muck  and  clay  soils, 
under  conditions  where  none  of  our  former  methods  of  excava- 
tion were  economical  for  the  construction  of  small  channels. 

Ditching  and  Digging  Pole  Holes  win  Dynamite.  From  an 
article  by  Thomas  M.  Knight  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
July  19,  1916. 

There  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  miles  of  ditches  needed 
in  this  country.  Excess  water  must  be  carried  away,  and  in 
the  arid  regions  water  must  be  brought  to  the  land.  Ditches 
both  small  and  large,  deep  and  shallow,  to  fill  the  particular 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  133 

needs  are  required.  How  to  dig  these  ditches  at  the  least 
cost  in  the  quickest  time  possible  is  a  question  of  vital  interest 
to  the  engineer. 

In  times  past,  pick  and  shovel,  mechanical  diggers,  heavy 
ditching  machinery  and  floating  dredges  all  played  their  part  in 
the  excavation  of  ditches.  In  recent  years  dynamite  has  been 
added  to  this  list.  All  of  these  methods  have  their  place;  yet 
for  a  great  many  classes  of  ditches  the  use  of  dynamite  is 
cheapest  and  most  satisfactory.  However,  in  cases  of  ditches  of 
from  one  to  several  miles  in  length  and  6  ft.  deep  or  over  other 
means  than  by  the  use  of  dynamite  will  probably  be  found  more 
economical,  but  for  ditches  from  3  ft.  wide  to  2  ft.  deep  up  to 
16  ft.  wide  and  6  ft.  deep  the  use  of  dynamite  will  be  found  to 
be  a  very  economical  way  of  digging.  Ditches  may  be  dug  with 
dynamite  in  the  softest  swamp  lands  or  through  the  hardest 
rock.  In  fact,  dynamite  will  do  the  work  in  any  soil,  with  the 
exception  of  loose,  dry  sand. 

In  ditching  with  dynamite  no  expensive  machinery  is  required, 
and  the  cost  and  labor  of  transporting  this  machinery  is  elim- 
inated. The  equipment  required  is  generally  a  sledge  and  punch 
bar  or  soil  auger,  and  very  often  two  men  can  carry  all  the  sup- 
plies that  are  needed  for  a  few  hundred  feet  of  ditch.  Dynamite 
works  exceptionally  well  in  rough  and  swampy  lands,  and  will 
dig  a  clean-cut  channel  through  places  so  wild  that  teams  or 
machinery  could  not  be  brought  to  work  in  them.  A  little 
shoveling  is  sometimes  required,  and,  as  the  blast  scatters  the 
soil  over  an  area  approximately  150  ft.  on  each  side  of  the 
ditch,  there  are  no  spoil  banks  with  which  to  contend  in  after- 
times.  It  is  as  easy  to  dig  a  curved  ditch  as  a  straight  one,  as 
the  center  of  the  ditch  is  where  the  dynamite  cartridges  are 
placed. 

In  wet  weather  it  is  often  imperative  that  a  ditch  be  dug  very 
quickly  to  avert  the  flooding  of  certain  sections,  and  the  use  of 
dynamite  in  cases  like  this  is  the  means  of  saving  an  untold 
number  of  dollars. 

There  are  two  methods  of  blasting  ditches,  propagated  and 
electric.  The  propagated  method  can  be  carried  on  only  in  wet 
soils,  while  the  electric  one  may  be  practiced  in  both  wet  and 
dry  soils.  The  grades  of  explosives  used,  blasting  supplies  needed, 
and  methods  of  loading  vary  with  the  two  methods. 

In   wet   or    swampy    soils   the   ditching   can    best   be   done    by   . 
the  propagated  method.     In   firing  a  propagated   blast   the   car- 
tridges are  placed  from  18  to  24  in.  apart  and  at  the  proper  de- 
termined  depth.     A   blasting   cap   with   fuse   is    inserted    in   the 
center   cartridge   and   fired.     The  force  of  the  explosion   of  this 


134          HANDBOOK:  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

cartridge  fires  or.  detonates  the  balance  of  the  cartridges  so 
placed.  If  the  ditch  is  to  be  a  wide  one,  then  a  parallel  row 
of  cartridges,  and  sometimes  a  third  row,  is  required.  In  such 
a  case  there  should  be  an  extra  cartridge  or  two  put  down  to  con- 
nect the  parallel  rows  to  make  sure  of  the  simultaneous  detona- 
tion of  all  the  charges.  It  is  also  good  practice  to  charge  the  two 
cartridges  on  each  side  of  the  primer  with  a  blasting  cap,  to 
further  insure  perfect  detonation.  In  a  propagated  blast  a 
straight  nitroglycerine  dynamite  must  be  used,  as  other  grades 
are  too  insensitive  to  be  fired  in  this  manner.  This  method  of 
blasting  should  be  carried  on  only  in  a  fairly  warm  soil.  It 
should  not  be  attempted  in  icy  water  or  in  cold  weather. 

If  stumps,  boulders,  or  other  obstructions  are  directly  in  the 
line  of  the  ditch  it  is  best  to  prime  a  cartridge  on  each  side 
of  the  obstruction  and  fire  these  with  an  electric  blasting  ma- 
chine. The  explosive  wave  might  carry  through  or  around  these, 
but  it  does  not  pay  to  take  the  risk.  When  such  obstructions 
are  to  be  removed  from  the  ditch,  extra  charges  should  be  placed 
under  them. 

The  electric  method  of  blasting  ditches  may  be  carried  on  re- 
gardless of  soil  conditions  and  temperature.  It  has  the  advan- 
tage over  the  propagated  method  in  that  the  low  freezing  and 
less  sensitive  grades  of  dynamite  may  be  used  and  larger  charges 
may  be  employed  in  the  hole,  and  these  placed  correspondingly 
farther  apart,  thus  reducing  the  cost.  The  method  of  procedure 
is  exactly  the  same  as  with  the  propagated  blast,  except  every 
charge  must  be  primed  with  an  electric  blasting  cap,  and  the 
wires  connected  up.  To  fire  this  an  electric  blasting  machine  is 
used.  Where  more  than  one  cartridge  is  used  in  a  hole,  the  one 
containing  the  primer  should  be  placed  on  top  and  the  cap 
pointed  downward.  Blasting  machines  have  limited  capacities; 
so  don't  overload  them.  If  one  is  rated  at  fifty,  it  is  far  better 
to  fire  forty-five  charges  than  to  try  to  fire  fifty-five.  Be  on  the 
safe  side.  Where  the  water  does  not  rise  2  ft.  in  the  hole,  it 
should  be  filled  with  suitable  tamping  material  and  packed 
tightly. 

If  one  set  of  holes  is  to  be  fired  they  can  best  be  connected  as 
shown  in  Fig.  19.  Fig.  20  also  shows  a  method  of  connecting 
one  line  of  holes.  For  two  sets  of  holes  the  connections  are 
made  as  in  Fig.  21.  If  a  ditch  is  of  a  sufficient  width  to  de- 
mand three  lines  of  holes,  the  method  of  connecting  the  wires 
is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  Fig.  23  gives  a  view  of  the  longitudinal 
section  of  the  placing  of  charges  and  wiring  for  an  electric  ditch 
blast. 

The  amount  of  dynamite  needed,  the  space  between  the  charges, 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  135 


Fig    19.    Plan  of  Wire  Connections  for  Blasting  a  Narrow  Ditch 
Through  Dry  Ground. 


Fig.  20.     A  Second  Method  of  Wiring  One  Line  of  Holes. 


Fig.  21.    Plan  Showing  Method  of  Connecting  Wires  for  Blasting 
a  Large  Ditch  Through  Dry  Ground. 


Fig.  22.    Method  of  Connecting  Wires  for  a  Ditch  Blast  Where 
Three  Lines  of  Holes  are  Used. 


CONNECTING  Wine  TO  L  CAD/KG  Wl*£ 


•IT 
ii 


w- 

•&o~or/ar* 


Fig.  23.    Longitudinal  Section  Showing  Method  of  Loading  With 
Electric  Blasting  Caps  for  Blasting  a  Ditch. 


136  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

and  the  depth  to  which  they  are  placed  to  dig  a  ditch  of  the 
required  size  vary  greatly.  No  set  rule  can  be  laid  down. 
Roughly  speaking,  in  average  soils  a  pound  of  50%  straight 
nitroglycerine  dynamite  should  dig  a  running  yard  of  ditch  6  ft. 
wide  and  from  2y2  to  3  ft.  deep.  That  would  mean  the  placing 
of  a  cartridge  of  dynamite  every  18  in.  at  a  depth  of  about 
30  in. 

The  only  sure  way  to  proceed  either  in  a  propagated  or  electric 
blast  is  first  to  fire  trial  or  test  shots.  For  ditches  from  3  to 
3%  ft.  deep  the  depth  of  the  bore  or  loading  holes  should  be  from 
2  to  2}£  ft.  and  the  spacings  from  20  to  24  in.  apart.  It  is  well 
to  load  about  ten  holes  as  a  trial  and  note  the  results.  If  a 
clean  ditch  has  been  blown  to  the  required  width  and  depth,  the 
work  may  proceed,  but  if  too  deep  or  too  shallow,  vary  the  spac- 
ing, depth,  and  charges  accordingly.  Two  or  three  test  shots  in 
most  cases  will  determine  the  correct  loading.  In  some  cases 
where  a  shallow  ditch  is  required  and  the  soil  is  soft  and  wet, 
half  a  cartridge  will  be  sufficient  to  do  the  work.  When  the  dyna- 
mite moves  too  much  ground  in  propagated  blabts  and  the  spacing 


Fig.  24.     Dynamite  Charges  Tied  to  a  Stick  and  Ready  to  Load 
for  a  Post  Hole  Blast. 

between  the  charges  is  24  in.,  cut  down  the  size  of  the  charge 
rather  than  increase  the  spacings,  as  24  in.  is  usually  the  limit 
of  successful  propagated  blasts. 

The  holes  can  be  put  down  in  swampy  and  wet  land  with  a 
wooden  stick  or  bar  with  little  trouble,  while  in  harder  soils  a 
hole  may  be  put  down  with  a  bar  and  sledge  or  crowbar. 

Soil  conditions  vary  in  every  location;  so  it  is  impossible  to 
arrive  at  any  cost  prices  until  test  shots  have  been  made.  Table 
I  gives  the  approximate  amount  of  50%  straight  nitroglycerine 
dynamite  required  to  dig  ditches  of  various  width.  Table  II 
shows  the  amount  of  dynamite  required  for  a  given  length  of 
ditch. 

Dynamite  is  also  employed  to  good  advantage  in  digging  post 
and  pole  holes. 

In  digging  pole  holes  with  dynamite  the  dirt  is  packed  solidly 
around  the  sides  of  the  hole,  which  is  greatly  to  be  desired.  The 
tendency  in  hand  digging  in  hard  soils  or  shale  is  to  make  the 
holes  shallow.  This  danger  is  wholly  eliminated  where  explosives 
are  employed. 

In  preparing  to  blast  out  a  hole  with  dynamite,  a  hole  is  first 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH 


137 


dug  with  a  spade  about  6  or  8  in.  deep  to  the  full  diameter  of 
the  hole  required.  This  is  to  relieve  the  pressure  on  the  blasted 
hole  and  to  prevent  excessive  shattering.  . 

A  bore  hole  is  then  put  down  in  the  center  of  the  shallow 
hole  to  within  about  6  in.  of  the  depth  required.  A  soil  auger 
or  churn  drill  will  probably  work  the  best  in  putting  down  this 
hole. 

The  dynamite  used  in  blowing  out  the  hole  must  be  divided 
into  several  charges  and  spaced  so  that  when  placed  in  the 
hole  the  top  charge  will  be  about  20  in.  below  the  surface.  The 
charges,  consisting  of  a  cartridge  or  fraction  of  one,  may  be  tied 
to  a  lath  or  any  other  light  stick  (see  Fig.  24)  at  distances  from 
6  to  24  in.  apart.  The  spacings  and  charges  are  determined  by 
the  character  of  the  soil  and  depth  and  diameter  of  the  hole 
required.  Fere,  again,  test  shots  must  be  made  to  determine  the 
most  satisfactory  and  economical  method  of  procedure. 


TABLE    I.— APPROXIMATE    TABLE    OF    CHARGES    OF    STRAIGHT 

50%    DYNAMITE    FOR    BLASTING    DITCH    WITHOUT   A 

BLASTING  MACHINE 


Top 

width  of 
ditch 

6 

8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 


Approximate 

number  of  cartridges  per  hole 
required  for  ditches  of  various  depths 


2V2  to  3  ft. 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


4ft. 


5ft. 


TABLE  II 


6ft. 
5 
5 
5 

5 

5 


Number  of 
parallel  rows 
required 

1 

lor  2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 


Distance 

between 

rows  in 

inches 

SO 
36 

42 
48 
36 
42 


between  holes 
in. 

,  10  rods  , 
Dynamite 
required 
using 
co         charges 
•2       per  hole  of 

°                £      •          I  o 

of  holes  "j 

—  14  mile  \ 
Dynamite 
required 
using 
charges 
per  hole  of 

fi    *, 

i  

1 

0 

—  %  mile  ^ 
Dynamite 
reqxiired 
using 
charges 
per  hole  of 

t*    L 

1 

« 

fe 

o>    . 

|S 
I.S 

S 

-—    01 

'II 

Q 

II 

II 

| 

II 

If 

18 

110 

28 

55 

880 

220 

440 

1,760 

410 

880 

20 

99 

25 

49 

792 

198 

396 

1,584 

396 

792 

.      24 

83 

11 

41 

664 

166 

332 

1,328 

332 

664 

26 

76 

19 

38 

608 

152 

304 

1,216 

304 

608 

28 

71 

18 

36 

566 

142 

284 

1,132 

283 

566 

9JlJ    J, 

1  rod  — 

16% 

ft. 

•tad*  • 

10  rods 

—  165 

ft.  or 

55  yd. 

mile  —  1.320  ft,   or  440  yd.  or  80  rods, 
mile  — 2,640  ft.  or  880  yd.  or  160  rods. 


138 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  top  cartridge  or  piece  of  cartridge  is  primed  with  a  fuse 
and  blasting  cap  or  an  electric  blasting  cap.  (Nothing  smaller 
than  ft  No.  6  should  be  used,  so  as  to  insure  perfect  detonation.) 
The  lath  with  the  primer  on  top  and  charges  attached  is  then 
placed  in  the  hole  ( see  Fig.  25 ).  If  water  is  in  the  hole  of  suffi- 


Fig.   25.    Method   of   Loading  for   Pole  Hole  Blasting. 

cient  depth  to  cover  the  charges,  including  the  primer,  no  tamping 
is  necessary.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hole  is  dry,  better  re- 
sults may  be  secured  if  the  hole  is  tamped  at  the  top  about  the 
charge.  In  tamping  the  hole  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
no  dirt  or  pieces  of  sod  get  between  the  primer  and  charges 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  139 

below.  In  firing,  the  force  of  the  explosion  of  the  primer  explodes 
the  other  charges,  but  if  dirt  or  sod  intervenes  the  charges  below 
will  fail  to  explode.  Water  transmits  the  detonation,  but  dry 
dirt  retards  or  cuts  it  off  entirely. 

In  a  test  shot  following  the  described  method  in  a  tight  clay 
soil,  an  excellent,  clean-cut,  open  hole  was  blown  out  4.5  ft.  deep. 
One-third  of  a  cartridge  of  straight  60%  dynamite  was  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  the  hole;  one-third  of  a  cartridge  of  the  same 
strength  eight  inches  from  the  bottom,  and  one-half  cartridge 
of  40%  low  freezing  extra  dynamite  was  placed  20  in.  below  the 
top.  There  was  no  tamping  in  this  case.  Very  little  hand  work 
was  required  to  clean  the  hole  out. 

Another  test  shot  was  recently  made  in  a  wet  blue  clay  soil. 
A  bore  hole  was  put  down  6  ft.  deep.  Seven  charges,  each  con- 
taining one-third  of  a  cartridge  of  50%  straight  nitroglycerine 
dynamite,  were  placed  6  in.  apart,  beginning  at  the  bottom.  This 
blew  out  a  uniform,  clean-cut  hole,  78  in.  deep,  which  required  less 
than  three  minutes  of  hand  work  to  clean  out.  The  walls  were 
compact  and  hard.  The  shot  was  satisfactory  in  every  way. 

In  pole  hole  blasting  the  straight  dynamites  give  good  results 
in  warm  weather,  while  the  extras  and  low  freezing  grades  give 
satisfactory  results  both  in  warm  and  cold  weather.  The  straight 
dynamites  are  more  sensitive  and  quicker  in  their  action  than  the 
others. 

Undercutting  Frozen  Ground.  One  of  the  simplest  methods  of 
excavating  frozen  ground  where  the  depth  of  freezing  is  not  too 
great,  is  to  undercut  it  and  to  break  the  unsupported  crust  with 
heavy  sledges. 

Methods  of  Digging  Pole  Holes  in  Frozen  Ground.  The  fol- 
lowing is  from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec.  3,  1913. 

In  northern  Minnesota,  where  the  earth  freezes  to  a  depth  of 
from  4  ft.  to  5  ft.  in  winter  and  where  consequently  the  cost  of 
digging  holes  is  high,  the  following  expedient  is  used  to  keep 
down  costs.  When  the  top  of  the  hole  has  been  picked  out  to  a 
depth  of  6  in.  or  more,  a  tin  cup  full  of  gasoline  or  coal  oil 
is  poured  into  the  hole  and  lighted.  The  digging  is  then  con- 
tinued, the  burning  oil  thawing  the  earth,  and  from  time  to  time 
more  oil  is  added.  It  is  said  that  with  the  help  of  about  a 
gallon  of  oil  per  hole,  the  cost  of  digging  can  be  reduced  approx- 
imately 15%. 

Steam  jets  have  been  successfully  used.  For  example,  in  En- 
gineering'News  for  April  13,  1899,  a  description  was  given  of  a 
method  used  for  thawing  frozen  ground  in  order  to  dig  holes  for 
electric  light  poles,  from  which  the  following  information  is  ab- 
stracted. 


140  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

A  vertical  jet  pipe  was  connected  by  a  tee  to  a  horizontal  pipe 
24  in.  long,  capped  at  one  end  and  connected  at  the  other  by 
nipples  and  four  elbows  with  a  pipe  leading  to  the  boiler  of  a 
traction  engine.  The  nipples  and  elbows  were  provided  to  allow 
the  necessary  play  for  handling  the  appliance.  To  protect  the 
workmen  from  the  steam  and  to  enable  them  to  manipulate  the 
jet  pipe,  two  wooden  handles  2x4  in.  in  section  and  10  ft.  long 
were  connected  by  stirrups  to  the  two  ends  of  the  short  horizontal 
pipe. 

This  jet  pipe  was  forced  down  by  two  men  pressing  on  the 
handles;  as  the  earth  thawed  out,  the  steam  carried  the  particles 
out  alongside  the  pipe;  and  as  the  depth  increased  more  steam 
would  be  condensed  in  the  borehole  until  finally  no  steam  escaped 
and  the  outflow  was  liquid  mud.  This  outfit,  which  was  invented 
by  Mr.  James  W.  Pearl,  of  Decatur,  Mich.,  would  thaw  out  about 
30  holes  for  electric  light  poles  in  a  day  of  ten  hours. 

Thawing  Ground  with  Steam  Pipes.  An  article  by  Mr.  A.  Len- 
derink,  in  Engineering  News,  Feb.  18,  1915,  gives  the  following: 

An  interesting  method  of  thawing  ground  for  trenching  was 
employed  during  the  winter  of  1914  and  1915  at  Kalamazoo, 
Michigan.  The  ground  in  the  streets  was  frozen  18  to  24  in. 
deep  and  this  was  thawed  by  the  following  method:  A  10-hp. 
upright  boiler  and  engine  (mounted  on  a  truck  so  that  it  could 
be  easily  moved  about)  furnished  steam  to  a  1-in.  steam  line, 
laid  along  one  of  the  outer  edges  of  the  proposed  trench  for  a 
distance  of  100  to  150  ft.  from  the  boiler  and  returned  along  the 
other  edge.  This  part  of  the  trench,  including  the  pipe,  was  then 
covered  with  some  wooden  sewer  forms  that  the  city  had  used  for 
large  concrete  sewer  construction,  and  the  forms  were  covered 
with  6  to  8  in.  of  sand.  The  pipes  were  kept  off  the  ground  by 
laying  them  on  a  few  bricks. 

It  was  found  that  by  keeping  steam  on  the  pipe  for  24  hr.  the 
frost  in  the  part  under  cover  was  entirely  removed.  The  mois- 
ture in  the  thawed  ground  allowed  the  men  to  shovel  the  top  dirt 
out  of  the  trench  without  using  a  pick  to  loosen  it.  The  pipes 
and  forms  were  moved  ahead  each  morning  and  the  thawing 
started  for  the  next  day's  work. 

The  cost  of  thawing,  for  a  trench  3  ft.  wide,  was  8  to  10  ct. 
per  lin.  ft.,  exclusive  of  interest  and  depreciation  on  the  boiler. 

A  Device  for  Thawing  Holes,  made  by  Hauck  of  Brooklyn, 
consists  of  an  oil  burning  blow  pipe  which  is  used  inside  of  an 
18-in.  length  of  stove  pipe.  The  ground  is  warmed  ancl  dug  out 
with  bar  and  scoop  to  the  full  depth  but  to  a  diameter  of  from 
8  in.  to  12  in.  only.  The  hole  is  then  filled  with  the  warmed 
earth,  covered  and  allowed  to  stand  over  night.  The  warmed 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  141 

earth  thaws  the  adjacent  frozen  earth  so  that  the  hole  may 
be  excavated  to  the  full  diameter. 

Lime  for  Thawing  Frozen  Ground.  The  following  is  from 
Engineering  Record,  March  22,  1913.  In  connection  with  the 
sewer  construction  at  West  Liberty,  Iowa,  described  in  the  En- 
gineering Record  of  Mar.  15,  1913,  a  novel  method  of  fighting 
frozen  ground  was  used  with  considerable  success.  During  the 
winter  of  1911  and  1912  the  ground  was  frozen  to  a  depth  of 
about  4  ft.,  and  in  this  state  resisted  all  efforts  of  the  trenching 
machine  to  break  it.  Finally  lime  was  placed,  covering  the  width 
of  trench  to  be  opened,  and  was  broken  up  into  small  pieces  and 
covered  with  straw,  hay  or  manure.  Water  was  poured  upon  it 
so  as  to  slake  the  lime  thoroughly.  The  covering  retained  the 
heat,  which  with  the  hot  water  penetrated  the  frozen  ground 
sufficiently  to  enable  the  trenching  machine  to  make  headway. 
On  another  job  a  covering  of  old  boards  with  a  steam  jet  was 
found  to  hurry  matters  up.  This  method  of  thawing  ground  is 
now  being  used  successfully  by  Thos.  Carey  &  Son  in  Clinton, 
Iowa,  where  they  have  been  vigorously  prosecuting  sewer  work 
all  winter. 

Thawing  Frozen  Gravel.  In  "  Methods  and  Costs  of  Gravel  and 
Placer  Mining  in  Alaska,"  by  C.  W.  Purington  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur- 
vey Bui.  No.  263,  1905),  various  methods  of  thawing  gravel  for 
mining  purposes  were  described  substantially  as  follows: 

According  to  experience  in  one  district  the  efficiency  of  a  good 
fire  in  creek  ground  was  as  follows :  A  fire  taking  three-fifths 
of  a  cord  of  wood  (at  $12  a  cord)  is  built  against  the  face  of  the 
bank.  The  pile  of  wood  is  18  in.  wide,  2  ft.  high  and  25  ft.  long. 
Stones  are  laid  up  over  the  pile  and  a  space  is  left  to  light  the 
fire.  The  fire  is  lighted  at  5  p.  m.  and  left  to  burn  until  8  a.  m. 
the  next  day.  The  stones,  which  quickly  get  hot,  are  regarded 
as  most  efficient  in  thawing.  On  a  4-ft.  thickness  of  pay  gravel 
this  amount  of  fire  will  thaw  in  the  time  specified  from  5  to  6 
cu.  yd.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  9.2  cu.  yd.  thawed  per  cord  of 
wood,  which  is  considerably  less  efficient  than  the  method  of 
thawing  with  steam.  Time,  delays  and  awkwardness  of  the 
method,  moreover,  make  wood  fire  thawing  the  most  expensive 
that  can  be  adopted.  The  figures  per  ft.  for  shaft  sinking  range 
from  $3.16  to  $7.50  in  taking  gravel  from  prospect  shafts. 

The  direct  application  of  jets  of  dry  steam  to  the  gravel  bank 
through  the  agency  of  driven  pipes  has  been  found  to  be  the 
most  efficient  method  in  general  practice  for  thawing  frozen 
gravel.  The  amount  of  moisture  contained  in  steam  can  be 
judged  by  the  color  of  a  jet  of  steam  issuing  from  a  small  brass 
petcock.  If  it  is  transparent  or  whitish  near  the  orifice  it  con- 


142       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

tains  less  than  2%  of  moisture.  If  pure  white  the  moisture  is 
above  2%.  A  %-in.  steam  hose  is  run  from  the  boiler  to  the 
bank,  where  it  ends  in  a  manifold  to  which  several  %-in.  hose 
lines  can  be  coupled.  Each  of  these  small  lines  ends  in  a  hollow 
bar  about  5  ft.  long  with  a  tool  steel  point  which  is  driven  into 
the  gravel  and  enables  the  jet  of  steam  to  penetrate  far  into 
the  interior  of  the  frozen  mass. 

In  creek  claims  exceeding  15  ft.  in  depth,  where  solidly  frozen 
ground  occurs,  the  method  of  drifting  with  the  use  of  the  steam 
point  is  as  follows. 

A  20-hp.  boiler,  capable  of  running  10  steam  points,  is  put  on 
the  ground,  and  frequently  one  or  two  extra  long  points  are  pro- 
vided for  sinking  holes.  These  long  points,  from  10  to  12  ft.  in 
length,  are  not  so  strongly  made  as  the  5-ft.  points  used  in  the 
drifting  operations.  In  some  cases  pieces  of  %-in.  hydraulic  pipe 
are  used.  The  point  is  set  up  on  the  ground  and  steam  or  hot 
water  is  turned  on.  The  time  for  sinking  a  hole  by  this  method 
to  bedrock  is  from  24  to  48  hr.  If  large  flat  stones  are  en- 
countered in  the  gravel  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  use  strong, 
specially  made  points  to  prevent  breaking.  The  average  radius 
of  a  vertical  shaft  thus  thawed  by  a  single  point  is  2  ft.  and  the 
hole  when  cleaned  out  has  a  cylindrical  or  tube  shape. 

On  some  of  the  work  the  5-ft.  points  are  used  in  batteries  of 
four  points  each.  A  mallet  is  used  to  drive  the  points  into  the 
bank,  where  they  are  left  from  10  to  14  hr.  Each  point  thaws  a 
block  of  gravel  averaging  6  ft.  into  the  bank,  18  in.  on  each  side 
of  the  bank  and  4  ft.  high.  The  use  of  hot  water  turned  into  the 
hose  for  starting  the  points  is  considered  good  practice.  The 
points  must  be  driven  carefully  and  slowly,  and  for  ten  points 
distributed  along  a  face  the  average  time  needed  is  from  one  to 
three  hours.  The  amount  of  steam  required  for  each  point  has 
been  found  to  vary  in  amount  from  1  to  2  boiler  lip.  The 
amount  of  gravel  which  a  point  will  thaw  appears  to  vary  with 
the  length  of  the  point,  and  this  is  regulated  somewhat  by 
the  character  of  the  gravel.  The  5-ft.  point  has  been  found  to 
be  the  most  economical. 

A  typical  case  illustrating  the  efficiency  of  the  points  is  the 
following:  Points  of  Dawson  manufacture,  5  ft.  long,  costing 
$15  laid  down,  were  used  in  manifolds  of  four.  They  were  put 
in  at  distances  of  from  2  ft.  6  in.  to  3  ft.  apart,  and  were  started 
with  hot  water.  It  took  three  hours  to  drive  them  in.  A  12-hp. 
boiler  supplied  the  steam  for  ten  points,  three-fourths  of  a  cord  of 
wood  being  burned  while  the  thawing  was  done.  In  twelve 
hours  the  ten  points  thawed  a  block  of  gravel  30  ft.  in  length  by 
5  ft.  high,  6  ft.  into  the  bank  or  a  total  of  33.3  cu.  yds.  This  ia 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  143 

at  the  rate  of  3.3  cu.  yds.  per  point  and  44.4  cu.  yds.  per  cord 
of  wood. 

Steam  Jets  Thawing  Ahead  of  Steam  Shovel.  (H.  P.  J.  Earn- 
sliaw,  in  Engineering  Xews-Kecord,  Sept.  13,  15)17.)  Thirty-four 
inches  of  froxen  clay,  so  hard  that  stones  embedded  in  it  could 
be  cut  off  without  loosening  them  at  all,  which  was  encountered 
on  a  recent  excavating  contract,  was  readily  thawed  by  the  fol- 
lowing method. 

It  was  impossible  to  lift  or  break  this  frozen  crust,  and  ordi- 
nary means  of  thawing,  such  as  steam  pipes  under  canvas  cover, 
and  live  steam  under  canvas  cover,  proved  such  a  failure  that 
only  4  or  5  in.  were  thawed  out  in  36  hours.  The  plan  used 
was  to  jet  holes  with  an  open-end  %-in.  pipe  connected  to  the 
boiler  by  a  %-in.  hose,  the  steam  pressure  quickly  melting  a 
hole  in  the  frozen  clay  and  forcing  pebbles  and  small  stones  out 
of  the  way.  As  fast  as  these  holes  were  made  a  ^-in.  capped 
pipe  with  four  ^-in.  holes  bored  in  it  was  put  in  each  and  left 
running  to  thaw  out  the  ground.  These  pipes  were  connected  in 
series  by  short  lengths  of  hose  to  steam  lines  run  from  the 
boiler.  Twelve  of  these  were  put  in  at  a  time,  connected  to  one 
line.  These  were  moved  back  as  the  shovel  worked  toward  them, 
requiring  only  15  minutes  to  thaw  out  a  section  of  the  bank  so 
thoroughly  that  the  revolving  shovel  could  dig  it  as  well  as  if  it 
had  never  been  frozen. 

Thawing  by  Direct  Application  of  Hot  Water  is  described  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  14,  1907,  as  follows:  At  a 
claim  on  Gold  Run,  in  the  Klondike,  where  it  was  desired  to  ex- 
tract a  3-ft.  pay  streak  of  gravel  capped  by  27  ft.  of  barren  gravel 
at  a  depth  of  50  ft.  below  the  surface,  a  small  force  pump  of  the 
ram  pattern,  with  out-side  packed  valves,  was  placed  in  the  main 
runway  near  the  shaft.  It  drew  water  from  a  6-ft.  sump  near 
at  hand,  to  which  the  workings  drained.  The  pump  had  4-in. 
intake,  3-in.  discharge  choked  to  2%  in.,  and  the  water  was 
pumped  to  the  face  by  means  of  cotton  hose  and  discharged 
through  a  1-in.  brass  nozzle  at  40-lb.  pressure.  Six  thousand 
gallons  of  water  were  used  over  and  over,  and  by  discharging 
the  exhaust  from  the  pump  into  the  suction  the  water  was  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  150°  F.  In  a  shift  of  ten  hours  the  pump, 
using  30  hp.,  thawed  and  broke  down  ready  for  the  shovelers 
175  cu.  yd.  of  gravel. 

Hot  Water  Thawing.  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Henry  Mace  Payne 
in  a  paper  read  before  the  Canadian  Mining  Institute,  and  ab- 
stracted in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  April  17,  1918,  that  ex- 
perience in  the  Yukon  District  shows  that  with  hot  water  four 
times  the  amount  of  gravel  can  be  thawed  in  two-thirds  the  time 


144 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


with  less  than  half  the  fuel  necessary  when  steam  is  the  medium 
used.  An  average  of  40%  of  the  frozen  material  in  place  is  ice. 
When  this  is  melted,  the  boulders  are  loosened,  so  that  a  thawing 
process  started  at  bed-rock  creates  a  subterranean  cavern,  which, 
as  the  thawing  continues,  causes  a  gradual  caving  to  the  surface 
and  a  shrinkage  in  volume  of  the  entire  mass. 

To  drive  the  thawing  points  to  bedrock  a  hollow-steel  rock- 
drill  cross-type  bit  was  welded  to  the  end  of  a  %-'m.  steam  point 
and  a  %2-in  hole  was  drilled  at  the  top  of  each  of  the  four  flutes 
to  the  bit.  Thus,  instead  of  one  %e-in-  nole  at  the  end>  as  in  tne 
old  point,  there  are  five  holes,  four  in  the  sides  and  one  in  the 
end,  and  as  a  result  it  is  possible  to  drive  the  point  directly 
through  a  boulder. 

A  frozen  boulder  when  partly  drilled  through  expands  from 
contact  with  the  hot  water  and  splits,  allowing  the  point  to  drop 


5 

u y — < 

Fig.  26.     Anvil  Attachment  for  Thawing  Points. 


below  to  the  next  boulder.  Meanwhile  the  hot  water  has  a 
sluicing  effect  from  the  four  side  holes,  not  obtainable  with  the 
one  orifice  only,  and  thawing  proceeds  with  consequent  greater 
rapidity. 

A  further  advantage  of  hot-water  thawing  is  the  elimination 
of  the  possibility  of  back  pressure  or  suction  through  the  thaw- 
ing point,  with  consequent  choking  by  mud,  etc,,  due  to  steam  con- 
densation in  the  lines,  or  pressure  drop  in  the  boiler. 

To  facilitate  driving  of  the  thawing  points  and  to  eliminate  the 
use  of  ladders  and  chances  for  breaking  points,  anvils  weighing 
about  100  Ib.  may  be  forged  from  old  dredge-bucket  pins,  slotted 
so  as  to  pass  over  the  thawing  point,  and  held  in  place  by  a  key. 
(See  Fig.  2C.)  Handles  may  be  inserted  on  each  side  of  the 
anvil  and  the  helper  can  turn  the  point  as  in  regular  rock  drill- 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  145 

ing,  while  the  operator  standing  on  the  ground  alongside  strikes 
with  a  sledge  hammer,  driving  the  point  until  the  anvil  reaches 
the  ground.  The  key  can  then  be  knocked  out,  the  anvil  raised 
to  a  convenient  height,  and  the  driving  operation  resumed. 

In  thawing,  the  points  are  regularly  spaced  in  triangular  re- 
lation to  each  other  16  ft.  apart  between  any  two  adjacent  points. 
This  establishes  a  fixed  distance  from  the  points  to  the  supply 
line.  Rubber  hose  is  used  only  during  driving,  after  which  a 
standard  pipe  connection  is  pvt  on.  Between  the  pipe  connec- 
tions and  the  main  line  ordinary  railroad-train  hose  couplings 
may  be  inserted,  obviating  leaky  unions  and  facilitating  con- 
necting and  disconnecting  operations.  Two  pairs  of  point  men, 
each  equipped  with  an  anvil,  can  drive  five  drill-bit  points  in 
10  hours,  viz.:  Driving,  6  hr. ;  pulling,  1^;  connecting,  1^,  and 
miscellaneous,  1  hr. 

Thawing  Frszen  Gravel  by  Hot  Water.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Oct.  18,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

Marked  reduction  in  the  cost  of  thawing  frozen  gravel  in  the 
Klondike  District  has  been  brought  about  by  the  use  of  hot  water 
instead  of  steam.  In  an  article  in  the  Sibley  Journal  of  En- 
gineering for  September  Dr.  Henry  M.  Payne  states  that  during 
the  season  of  1915,  by  the  employment  of  hot  'water  and  other 
•improvements,  the  amount  thawed  per  thawing  point  was  in- 
'creased  265%;  the  time  required  to  drive  the  points  was  de- 
creased 50% ;  the  average  net  thawing  period  was  decreased  50% ; 
the  fuel  consumption  per  unit  thawed  was  decreased  65%;  and 
the  number  of  points  used  per  unit  area  (and  consequent  labor- 
saving  in  driving  and  pulling)  was  70%. 

During  the  past  four  years  a  systematic  study  of  the  thawing 
problem  has  been  conducted  by  Dr.  Payne,  and  the  whole  process 
has  been  reduced  to  a  scientific  basis. 

The  actual  temperatures,  specific  heats  and  specific  gravities 
of  the  materials  to  be  thawed  have  been  definitely  determined 
and  several  interesting  physical  characteristics  discovered,  as, 
e.  g.,  it  was  found  that  after  reaching  frost  line  the  temperature 
drops  within  the  next  few  inches  io  the  mean  temperat.  re  of  the 
mass,  depending  solely  on  the  natuie  of  the  material,  and  not  on 
its  depth  or  on  water  level.  /V 

The  steam  points,  instead  of  being  driven  in  rectangular  ar- 
rangement, are  staggered  in  triangular  lay-out,  thereby  reducing 
the  theoretical  unthawed  segment  between  the  thawed  cylinders  of 
ground,  or  the  correspondingly  necessary  overlap  to  completely 
thaw  the  area. 

Experiments  were  carried  on  with  hot  water  as  a  thawing 
medium  instead  of  steam,  the  points  being  driven  at  varying 


146  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

distances  and  depths,  and  left  foi  various  periods  and  then   A7ith- 
drawn,  and  excavations  made  to  ascertain  their  efficiency. 

The  great  loss  from  condensation  of  steam  was  immediately 
corrected  by  this  method,  although  the  quantity  of  water  re- 
quired is  3.0  times  as  much  aa  for  steam  at  the  same  pressure, 
the  boilers  being  supplied  by  injectors  and  the  pipe  line  being 
connected  with  the  blow-off  pipe. 

The  next  steps  were:  The  substitution  of  an  Ingersoll-Rand 
drill  bit  point  for  the  ordinary  one  on  the  steam  point;  the 
design  and  construction  of  a  movable  anvil  to  fit  over  the  steam 
pipe  at  convenient  driving  height  above  the  ground,  eliminating 
the  moving  and  climbing  of  ladders  at  each  point  while  driving; 
the  use  of  three-way  connections  on  steam  lines;  and  of  standard 
pipe  lengths  and  train-line  couplings  in  place  of  rubber  hose. 

Eventually  the  thawing  point  was  driven  to  bedrock  at  one 
driving,  and  thawing  started  from  the  bottom  up,  instead  of  the 
reverse,  as  had  always  formerly  been  the  case. 

Dredging  Frozen  Earth.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
May  26,  1904,  contains  a  description  of  an  elevator  dredge.  It 
worked  all  winter  in  Montana.  Frozen  sod  7  to  15  in.  in  thick- 
ness could  be  handled  by  the  buckets  without  blasting,  but  when 
thicker  than  this  it  was  broken  by  small  charges  of  dynamite, 
about  1/2  sticks  in  a  hole  for  every  10  sq.  ft.  of  surface  broken. 
The  winter  was  mild  and  the  frost  was  never  over  24  in.  thick. 
The  sluice  was  made  of  sheet  metal  with  an  inner  lining  on  sides 
and  bottom  of  wood  between  which  steam  pipes  were  placed. 

Chisel  Excavator  for  Frozen  Ground.  (Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Sept.  22,  1909.)  A  machine  that  was  first  used  on 
sewer  work  at  Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  for  excavating  frozen  ground 
was  operated  as  follows:  A  hole  was  first  dug  by  hand  through 
the  frost,  and  then  the  machine  was  put  to  work  chiseling  down 
one  side  of  the  hole  and  elongating  it  into  a  trench.  The  ma- 
chine then  traveled  back  and  forth  along  one  side  of  this  trench, 
breaking  down  one  side  for  several  feet  each  trip,  and  so  widening 
the  trench  until  it  covered  the  whole  area.  The  operating  force 
consisted  of  an  engineer,  a  fireman,  and  four  helpers. 

Briefly  described,  the  machine  consisted  of  a  frame  platform, 
mounted  on  a  truck  and  carrying  two  hammer  guides  like  the 
leads  of  a  pile-driver.  These  leads  were  not  fixed  as  in  a  pile- 
driver  but  were  mounted  on  wheels,  which  ran  on  the  top  piece 
of  a  sort  of  gallows  frame.  They  were  thus  capable  of  being 
shifted  right  and  left  a  distance  of  5  ft.  each  way.  In  the 
guides  was  an  800-lb.  hammer,  attached  to  bottom  of  which  was 
a  6-in.  diameter  bar,  from  3  to  7  ft.  long,  with  its  lower  end 
forged  down  to  a  chisel  edge.  The  drop  of  the  hammer  and 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  147 

chisel  was  usually  about  14  ft.  At  the  center  of  the  platform, 
just  forward  of  the  leads,  was  riveted  a  boom,  whose  outer  end 
was  guyed  back  to  the  top  of  the  gallows  frame.  This  boom 
made  the  machine  a  derrick  for  handling  frozen  lumps  of  earth 
excavated  by  the  chisel.  A  10-hp.  engine  and  boiler  operated 
the  hammer  and  boom.  The  machine  was  invented  by  Mr.  Wil- 
liam Hurst. 

In  excavating  a  sewer  in  Winnipeg,  the  daily  cost  of  operation 
was  as  fojlows: 

1  Engineman   at  $3.00   $3.00 

1  Fireman   at  $2.00   2.00 

4   Laborers    at  $2.00    8.00 

Coal   and    oil    3.50 

Rental    of    machine    5.00 


$21.50 

The  output  on  trenching  work  was  about  60  cu.  yd.  per  day, 
and  on  foundation  work,  from  200  to  300  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

The  work  was  done  when  the  depth  of  frost  was  5  to  6  ft., 
and  -the  cost  of  excavating  a  cubic  yard  by  pick  and  shovel  was 
$1.35.  Using  explosives,  the  cost  has  been  in  individual  cases 
as  low  as  93  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  With  machine,  the  same  excavation 
costs  from  11  to  30  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Breaking  Up  Clay.  A  method  of  breaking  up  hard  clay  for 
a  dredge  somewhat  similar  to  the  foregoing  is  described  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb.  12,  1908.  The  foundation 
walls  for  a  bridge  were  sunk  through  sand  and  clay,  the  latter 
being  dark  blue  and  very  hard.  It  was  brittle  when  quite  dry, 
but  like  leather  when  under  water.  A  dredge  was  used  to  re- 
move the  overlying  sand  but  could,  make  no  impression  on  the 
clay.  Accordingly  the  following  method  of  breaking  up  the  clay 
was  employed:  Five  double-headed  rails  each  20  ft.  long,  and 
weighing  64  Ib.  per  yd.,  were  riveted  together.  The  two  outer 
rails  were  splayed  outward  like  a  trident  and  were  sharpened. 
The  center  rail  was  also  sharpened,  and  the  two  others  were 
cut  off  at  about  2%  ft.  from  the  end.  This  arrangement  was 
worked  up  and  down  by  a  steam  hoist,  and,  being  top  heavy,  when 
it  was  driven  into  the  clay  it  tended  to  fall  over,  thus  breaking 
up  the  clay.  In  this  manner  a  hole  1  ft.  dee,p  and  13^  ft.  in 
diameter  could  be  dug  and  dredged  in  24  hrs. 

A  Method  of  Thawing  Ground  for  Trenching  is  illustrated  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  March  19,  1919,  and  is  described 
as  follows : 

In  the  construction  of  the  Rideau  River  intercepting  sewer  at 
Ottawa,  Ont.,  work  was  carried  on  during  the  winter  months. 
As  the  frost  penetrated  deeply  into  the  ground,  the  thawing 


148 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


device  shown  in  the  sketch  was  employed.  This  consists  of  a 
box  6  ft.  wide  by  1  ft.  high,  and  a  steam  pipe.  The  box  was 
placed  each  night  to  cover  a  section  of  the  proposed  trench  about 
60  ft.  in  length  —  the  amount  that  would  be  excavated  next 
day.  The  pipe  had  perforations  every  18  in.  The  steam  was 
kept  on  all  night  at  high  pressure. 


Z* ' Perforated  Steam  Pit* 


Trench  to  be  Cut 


Fig.  27.    Thawing  Device  for  Frozen  Ground. 

Boring  Horizontal  Holes  Under  Frozen  Crust  is  described  in 
Engineering  News-Record,  April  19,  1917,  as  follows: 

In  steam-shovel  excavation  required  in  frozen  ground  on 
grade-crossing-elimination  work  at  Mendenhall,  Penn.,  the  Good 
Roads  Construction  Co.  did  some  experimenting  in  blasting  the 
frozen  crust.  The  results  indicated  that  the  most  efficient  method 
was  to  bore  horizontal  holes  with  an  earth  auger  underneath  the 
crust. 

The  first  attempt  at  blasting  this  crust  was  made  by  punching 
holes  4  ft.  apart,  with  bars  and  hammers,  through  the  14-  to 
18-in.  layer  of  frost.  A  quarter-pound  of  60%  dynamite  was  used 
in  each  hole,  the  shots  being  fired  separately  with  a  fuse  and 
cap.  It  developed  that  the  holes  were  too  far  apart  and  the 
powder  too  quick  for  this  class  of  work,  the  tendency  being  to 
blow  out  small  craters  without  loosening  the  entire  crust.  Du 
Pont  low-freezing  farm  powder  was  then  substituted  and  the 
holes  placed  closer  together,  on  3^-ft.  centers.  The  loading  was 
increased  to  i^-lb.  per  hole  and  electric  firing  adopted.  This 
gave  much  better  results,  cracks  extending  from  hole  to  hole, 
which  enabled  the  steam  shovel  to  take  out  the  crust  in  chunks. 

The  best  results,  however,  were  obtained  after  a  face  had 
been  developed  in  front  of  the  shovel  by  boring  horizontal  holes 
with  an  earth  auger  at  the  bottom  of  the  frost  line,  loading 
them  with  %  Ib.  of  farm  powder  each  and  firing  them  electrically. 
These  holes  appeared  to  confine  the  expanding  gases  better  than 
the  vertical  holes  and  to  secure  the  maximum  heaving  effect  of 
the  explosive.  The  crust  was  more  thoroughly  broken  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  steam  shovel  increased  by  this  method. 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH 


149 


Blasting  Frozen  Ground  with  Gopher  Holes.  In  overburden 
stripping  on  the  Mesabi  Range  of  Minnesota  steam  shovel  opera- 
tions are  continuous  throughout  the  year.  Much  of  the  stripping 
is  done  during  the  winter  months.  The  following  description 
of  the  method  commonly  employed  in  breaking  up  the  frozen 
ground  is  taken  from  an  article  by  L.  D.  Davenport,  Chief  En- 
gineer Oliver  Mining  Co.,  in  the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal. 

Shallow  holes,  known  as  "  top  holes,"  are  used*  in  stripping  to 
break  the  frost.  These  are  sunk  with  jumper  or  hand-drills 
that  have  been  heated  to  a  dull  red;  in  badly  frozen  ground 
steam  points  have  been  used.  The  depth  of  the  holes  will  vary 
from  3  ft.  to  6  ft.  The  charge  used  in  blasting  consists  of  6  Ib. 


Removable  Box  l?"xl?'xtf 
with  Hopper  Bottom  -  1%'D/om. 
tto/e  *n  Bottom  wifh  wooden  Plug 
Capacity  l£  ~25lb.  Black  Powder 


Plan 


aes 


......  ----5'-  ----  - 


Fig.  28.     Details  of  Loading  Device  for  Gopher  Holes. 

to  8  Ib.  of  du,  Pont  black  powder  per  hole,  depending  on  the 
ground.  In  some  cases  it  is  advisable  to  loosen  the  surface  of 
the  stripping  for  a  considerable  area  by  drilling  holes  3  to  5  ft. 
deep  and  blasting  with  light  charges  of  powder  before  the  frost 
sets  in.  The  air  spaces  in  the  ground  thus  loosened  prevent  hard 
freezing. 

Stripping  banks  15  ft.  or  more  in  height  are  shaken  up  ahead 
of  the  shovel  by  blasting  "  gopher "  holes.  These  holes  are 
started  at  the  toe  of  the  bank  and  are  pointed  downward  at 
angles  of  5°  to  10°  from  the  horizontal.  "  Gopher  "  holing,  when 
first  used,  consisted  in  making  the  holes  large  enough  to  permit 
a  man  to  enter  and  work,  but  frequent  accidents  caused  this 
method  to  be  abandoned,  and  "  gopher "  holes  at  the  present 


150  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

time  have  an  average  diameter  of  about  15  in.  Loose  ground  is 
removed  with  a  No.  2  round-pointed  shovel  blade,  the  edges  of 
which  are  slightly  turned  up,  fitted  with  a  25-ft.  handle  of  2 
or  3-in.  diameter.  When  a  hard  seam  is  encountered,  it  is 
drilled  with  a  long  auger  or  with  a  moil,  and  one  or  two  sticks 
of  dynamite  are  pushed  in  with  a  pointed  loading  stick  and 
fired  with  a  blasting  machine.  The  loose  ground  is  then  removed 
with  the  shovel.  If  a  boulder  is  struck  while  the  "  gopher  "  is 
being  driven,  repeated  blasting  with  60%  dynamite  will  often 
shatter  it  sufficiently  to  allow  the  hole  to  be  continued.  Where 
it  is  impossible  to  blast  through  a  boulder,  the  hole  is  bottomed 
against  it,  or  a  new  hole  is  begun  a  few  feet  away,  depending 
on  the  length  attained.  The  limit  of  length  of  a  "  gopher  "  hole 
is  about  25  ft. 

In  winter  the  top  of  the  banks  freezes  as  deep  as  8  ft.  Un- 
less this  crust  is  broken  by  top  drilling  before  "  gopher  "  holing 
is  done,  the  latter  usually  undercuts  the  bank,  causing  slabs  of 
frozen  ground  to  slide  down  and  bury  the  loading  track.  It 
frequently  happens,  even  where  the  frost  has  been  broken,  that 
chunks  too  large  to  be  handled  by  the  steam  shovel  roll  from 
the  bank  to  the  track  and  have  to  be  block-holed  by  drilling  with 
a  steam  hose  or  hot  moils  and  then  blasted. 

The  powder  boss  determined  the  size  of  the  powder  charge 
from  the  height  of  the  bank  and  the  material  encountered  in 
digging  the  hole.  With  a  25-ft.  bank,  15  to  25  sticks  of  dyna- 
mite are  vsed  to  "spring"  or  chamber  the  hole,  which  is  then 
loaded  with  5  to  10  kegs  (25  Ib.)  of  black  powder.  Wooden 
spoons,  3  in.  x  3  in.  in  cross-section,  2^  ft.  long  and  fitted  with 
25-ft.  handles,  are  sometimes  used  to  place  the  powder  in  the 
holes.  Long  wooden  launders  2  in.  square  with  a  hopper  at  one 
end,  as  shown  in  Fig.  28,  are  in  general  use.  A  keg  of  powder 
is  emptied  into  the  hopper,  the  cover  shut  and  a  plug  closing 
the  bottom  of  the  hopper  is  pulled  by  means  of  a  cord  through 
the  cover.  The  box  is  oscillated  by  a  12-ft.  cross-handle,  causing 
the  powder  to  run  down  the  launder  into  the  chamber  of  the 
"  gopher  "  hole.  The  long  cross-handle  allows  the  powder  men  to 
stand  6  ft.  on  either  side  of  the  hole,  instead  of  directly  in 
front,  as  was  necessary  with  the  old-style  spoons.  Furthermore, 
the  closed  hopper  protects  the  powder  from  the  danger  of  sparks. 
A  detonator,  consisting  of  2  to  5  sticks  of  60%  dynamite  with 
two  exploders,  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  charge.  Two  electric 
blasting  caps,  or  else  one  electric  and  one  ordinary  blasting  cap 
and  fuse,  are  placed  in  each  hole.  The  latter  combination  is  in 
more  general  use  for  the  reason  that  tamping  sometimes  injures 
the  lead  wires  from  the  electric  caps.  Holes  are  filled  and 


LOOSENING  AND  SHOVELING  EARTH  151 

tamped  to  the  collar  with  sand  or  gravel  and  are  fired  in  bat- 
teries of  3  to  5  at  a  time.  The  distance  between  holes  is  usually 
20  to  25  ft.,  and  the  depth  of  the  holes  varies  according  to  the 
shovel  cut  to  bo  taken.  The  general  rule  is  to  make  the  horizontal 
distance  between  the  center  of  the  loading  track  and  the  chamber 
of  the  "  gopher  "  hole  5  or  6  ft.  less  than  the  reach  of  the  shovel. 
For  example,  with  a  Model  91  shovel  the  distance  from  the  center 
of  the  loading  track  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole  should  be  40  ft., 
as  the  shovel  reach  from  loading  track  to  toe  of  bank  is  about 
45  ft. 

Bibliography.  "  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation,"  H.  P.  Gillette. 
—"Cost  Data,"  H.  P.  Gillette.— "  Handbook  of  Construction 
Plant,"  R.  T.  Dana. — "  Earth  and  Rock  Excavations,"  Charles 
Prelini. 

Monograph  by  C.  Herschel  on  picking  and  shoveling,  1879. — 
Bulletin  170,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Tractor  Plowing. 

Eng.  and  Con.,  Aug.  20,  1913,  Use  of  Augers  for  Boring  Blast 
Holes  in  Clay. —  Eng.  and  Con.,  Jan.  20,  1915,  Analysis  of  Con- 
crete Curb  Construction. —  Eng.  and  Con.,  Oct.  18,  1916,  Thaw- 
ing Frozen  Gravel. 


CHAPTER  VI 
SPREADING,  TRIMMING,  AND  ROLLING  EARTH 

Spreading.  Trautwine  states  that  a  bankman  will  spread  5  to 
10  cu.  yd.  an  hour.  Ancelin  says  4.5  to  9  of  earth,  3  to  8  of 
gravel,  and  2.5  of  mud  is  the  average  cubic  yardage  spread  per 
man-hour. 

If  the  work  is  crowded,  or  not  on  a  scale  sufficiently  large  to 
warrant  using  a  leveling  scraper,  estimate  7.5  cu.  yd.  spread  per 
man-hour.  On  more  extensive  work,  where  a  team  can  turn 
around,  use  a  small  leveling  scraper;  or,  if  there  is  abundance 
of  room  for  turning,  a  road  machine  with  three  teams  may  be 
used. 

After  dumping  earth  from  slat-bottom  wagons,  each  load  in 
three  piles,  I  have  used  a  small  leveling  scraper,  which  with  one 
team  and  driver  and  a  helper  will  spread  50  cu.  yd.  per  hour. 

Three  teams  with  a  driver  and  a  helper  on  a  road  grader 
will  spread  90  cu.  yd.  of  earth  an  hour  from  piles  left  by  dump- 
wagons,  spreading  the  earth  in  6-in.  layers.  Thus  the  cost  will 
vary  from  2  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  by  hand  labor  to  i£-ct.  by  a  small 
leveling  scraper. 

See  Chapter  IX  for  illustrated  descriptions  of  leveling  scrapers 
and  road  graders. 

Cost  of  Grading  and  Trimming  an  Athletic  Field.  D.  J. 
Hai.er,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  9,  1907,  gives  the 
following : 

The  work  consisted  of  exeavating  400  cu.  yd.  of  earth  from 
one  corner  of  the  field  using  it  to  fill  up  some  low  places,  and  in 
making  a  small  running  track,  0.2  mile  long.  The  excavation 
covered  an  area  of  20,000  sq.  ft.  and  the  places  over  which  the 
earth  was  dumped  were  of  the  same  area.  The  work  was  to  be 
finished  in  18  days  after  starting,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  on 
14  of  these  days  rain  fell,  it  was  not  finished  on  time,  and  the 
wet  weather  added  somewhat  to  the  cost.  Every  mark  of  a 
cart  wheel  and  a  man's  foot  had  to  be  effaced  from  the  ground. 
The  work  was  done  by  contract  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 

The  \va<,es  paid  for  a  10-hr,  day  were  as  follows: 

Laborers      $1 .25 

Cart    and    driver    2.25 

One-horse  roller   and   driver    2.00 

The  contractor   took  direct   supervision   of  the  work. 
The  work,  listed  under  the  following  heads,  cost: 

Ditching: 

Labor     $    5.87 

Tiles 5.25 

$  11.12 

152 


SPREADING,  TRIMMING,  AND  ROLLING  EARTH       153 

Excavation: 

Labor v $133.13 

Hauling     ,...'.' 91.75 

224.88 

Trimming  and   finishing: 

Trimming     $  36.50 

Raking     6.50 

Rolling 12.00 

55.00 


Total $291.00 

The  ditches  were  only  a  foot  deep,  and  a  man  excavated  and 
backfilled  8.4  cu.  yd.  per  day  at  a  cost  of  15  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

For  the  excavation  the  earth  was  loosened  by  a  plow,  two  of 
the  cart  horses  being  used  for  this  purpose  when  needed,  the 
greater  part  of  the  plowing  being  done  after  the  men  quit  work 
for  the  day.  One-horse  carts  were  used  for  hauling,  there  being 
a  driver  to  each  cart.  The  cost  of  loosening  with  pick  and  plow 
and  of  the  loading  as  well  as  dumping  was  33  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  at 
the  wages  paid;  for  wages  of  $1.50  per  day  the  cost  would  have 
been  40  cts.  The  hauling  cost  23  ct.,  but  the  wages  of  hired 
carts  were  low  compared  to  those  paid  to-day. 

Finishing.  The  finishing  consisted  of  three  items,  trimming, 
raking  and  rolling.  The  raking  and  rolling  were  done  on  the 
embankment,  the  trimming  where  the  excavation  was  made.  The 
embankment  was  leveled  with  shovels  as  it  was  made,  and  then 
rolled,  after  which  it  was  raked  with  steel  rakes  and  then 
given  a  final  rolling.  This  cost  0.8  ct.  per  sq.  yd.,  or  4.6  per  cu. 
yd.  of  excavation. 

The  trimming  was  done  with  mattocks  and  square-pointed, 
short-handled  shovels.  Not  more  than  an  inch  or  two  had  to 
be  dug  and  the  greater  part  of  the  dirt  was  used  to  fill  small 
holes.  The  work  had  to  be  done  carefully  and  levels  were  run 
over  it  to  see  if  it  was  to  the  proper  grade.  The  cost  was  10.7 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  or  1.6  per  sq.  yd.  Each  man  trimmed  78  sq. 
yd.  per  day. 

Surfacing  and  Dressing  Earthwork.  On  contracts  for  earth 
excavation  the  matter  of  dressing  up  and  surfacing,  both  of  the 
place  excavated,  and  of  the  place  of  depositing  the  earth,  should 
be  given  more  consideration  than  it  usually  gets.  Plans  and 
specifications  for  this  work  should  be  included  among  those 
furnished  the  contractor  at  the  time  of  bidding.  Frequently, 
there  should  also  be  a  bidding  item  for  "  surfacing." 

On  wagon  road  work  the  dressing  and  surfacing  is  sometimes 
a  large  per  cent  of  the  total  cost.  On  railroads  and  large 
embankments  if  the  work  is  properly  managed  the  cost  of  dress- 
ing should  be  a  very  small  part  of  the  cost. 


154  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Contractors  should  impress  this  fact  upon  their  foremen  and 
put  into  the  hands  of  their  foremen,  hand  or  Locke  levels,  in- 
structing them  as  to  their  use,  so  that  all  cuts  can  be  taken  to 
grade,  and  embankments  carried  to  their  full  height,  including 
shrinkage,  as  the  work  is  being  done.  A  hand  level  will  be  found 
of  vast  assistance  in  this. 

If  levels  are  to  be  run  over  the  finished  work,  leveling  should 
be  done  frequently  while  it  is  in  progress.  This  may  save  a  lot 
of  costly  surfacing. 

Trimming.  Gillespie  says  that  a  man  will  trim  11  sq.  yd., 
or  about  100  sq.  ft.,  surface  measure  of  embankment  per  hr. 
The  writer  is  inclined  to  think  that  Gillespie's  estimate  of  cost 
is  altogether  too  high;  for  a  man  can  pick  and  shovel  2  cu.  yd. 
of  embankment  an  hour,  at  which  rate  he  would  be  able  to 
"trim"  to  a  depth  of  6  in.  if  he  covered  only  11  sq.  yd.  of 
surface  per  hr.,  whereas  trimming,  "  smoothing,"  or  "  sand- 
papering "  requires  a  moving  of  about  2  in.  of  earth  instead 
of  6  in. 

From  several  careful  observations  the  writer  has  found  that  a 
f^ang  of  men  under  a  good  foreman  will  each  trim  the  sod  and 
humps  off  the  hard  surface  of  a  cut  to  the  depth  of  1  or  iy2 
in.  at  the  rate  of  200  sq.  ft.  or  22  sq.  yd.  per  hour,  at  a  cost  of 
73-ct.  per  sq.  yd.;  and  where  there  was  no  sod  to  remove,  the 
soil  being  sandy  loam,  the  cost  was  one-half  as  much  or  %-ct. 
per  sq.  yd.  Prior  to  the  world  war,  Massachusetts  contractors 
bid  almost  uniformly  2  ct.  a  sq.  yd.  for  "surfacing"  (wages 
17  ct.  per  hour),  which  includes  rolling  the  finished  surface  with 
steam  roller.  A  roadway,  including  ditches,  36  ft.  wide  and  a 
mile  long,  has  21,000  sq.  yd.  of  surface,  which  at  %-ct.  is  $140, 
actual  cost  of  trimming.  If  the  total  excavation  in  a  mile  is 
3,500  cu.  yd.  (which  is  about  the  average  in  N.  Y.  State),  the 
cost  of  trimming,  distributed  over  this  3,500  cu.  yd.,  is  4  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  of  excavation,  a  cost  much  greater  than  a  mere  guess 
would  lead  one  to  expect. 

If  "  sandpapering "  is  specified,  it  is  evident  from  this  that 
the  item  of  trimming  must  not  be  overlooked;  and  the  shallower 
the  cuts,  the  greater  its  relative  importance  as  an  item  of  cost. 
A  leveling  scraper,  a  road  grader,  or  similar  tool  will  do  the 
trimming  of  comparatively  flat  surfaces  that  are  over  6  ft.  wide 
for  a  very  much  less  sum  than  by  the  shovel  and  mattock 
method;  in  fact,  the  cost  is  so  slight,  being  merely  nominal, 
that  it  may  then  be  entirely  omitted  from  the  estimate.  The 
author  has  directed  the  scraping  of  a  light  growth  of  weeds  and 
grass  off  the  4-ft.  shoulder  of  a  road  by  going  once  over  it  with  a 
"Twentieth  Century  grader"  (a  small  leveling  scraper),  at  a 


SPREADING,  TRIMMING,  AND  ROLLING  EARTH      155 

rate  of  200  sq.  yd.  per  hr.  or  ten  times  faster  than  a  man  with 
a  mattock  would  have  done  it;  making  the  actual  cost  about 
i^-et.  per  sq.  yd.  where  the  team,  driver  and  helpers'  wages  were 
50  ct.  per  hr. 

As  illustrating  both  poor  design  and  poor  management,  the 
Forbes  Hill  Reservoir  experience  may  be  referred  to;  for  very 
often  contractors  are  compelled  by  specifications  to  do  just  such 
needlessly  expensive  work  as  the  following  done  at  Forbes  Hill: 
"  In  order  that  the  portion  of  the  banks  near  the  inner  slope 
might  be  rolled  as  thoroughly  as  other  portions,  the  bank  was 
built  with  an  extra  width  of  1  ft.  and  afterward  trimmed  to 
grade."  In  trimming,  the  slope  of  the  bank  (hardpan  rolled) 
was  first  plowed,  and  the  material  was  cast  down  to  the  bottom 
with  shovels.  The  final  trimming  was  done  with  picks  and 
shovels.  Labor  cost  15  to  17  ct.  per  hr. ;  teams  45  to  50  ct. ; 
and  1,500  cu.  yd.  were  thus  trimmed  off.  The  loosening  cost 
56  ct.,  and  the  loading  into  carts  30.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  or  a  total 
of  86.6  ct.  for  loosening  and  loading  each  cubic  yard  of  earth! 

A  contractor  cannot  be  too  careful  in  examining  specifications 
for  reservoir  embankments  before  bidding. 

Cost  of  Trimming  and  Dressing  Frozen  Ground.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Jan.  29,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

About  1,500  ft.  of  roadbed  had  to  be  dressed  up  to  allow  track 
to  be  laid  at  once.  At  the  time  the  work  was  done  the  ground 
was  frozen  to  a  depth  of  about  one  foot.  Naturally  this  added 
much  to  the  cost. 

The  wages  paid  were:  Foreman,  $3.50;  laborers,  $1.50,  and 
cart  and  driver,  $2.50  for  a  10-hr,  day.  From  14  to  18  men 
worked  in  the  gang  and  while  the  ditches  were  being  dug  two 
carts  were  used,  but  after  the  bulk  of  the  earth  was  moved  only 
one  cart  was  kept  on  the  work.  The  cost  was: 

Foreman,    9%    days     $31.67 

Laborers,    145%    days    218.25 

Carts,    15    days    52.50 

Total      $302.42 

There  was  3,200  sq.  yd.  of  surface  to  be  trimmed.  About  2,300 
sq.  yd.  were  in  the  cut  and  the  rest  was  on  the  embankment. 
Only  a  few  places  on  the  fill  had  to  be  cut  down;  the  low  places 
being  raised  with  the  material  from  the  cuts.  The  cut  was 
within  a  few  inches  of  grade  throughout,  only  about  100  cu.  yd. 
being  taken  out  of  it,  making  an  average  of  about  1  in.  to  be 
trimmed  off  the  surface.  From  the  ditches  133  cu.  yd.  were 
excavated. 

The  cost  per  sq.  yd.  of  surface  dressed  was  as  follows : 


156  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Foreman     $0.010 

Laborers 0.068 

Cart  0.016 


Total $0.094 

Thus  the  cost  was  between  9  and  10  ct.,  when  it  is  frequently 
done  for  1  ct.  per  sq.  yd.  on  railroads. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  each  man  trimmed  and  dressed 
22  sq.  yd.  per  day.  Under  favorable  circumstances  he  would  do 
about  six  times  as  much.  Outside  of  the  work  in  the  ditches, 
only  a  small  piece  of  the  earth  could  be  chipped  off  the  frozen 
ground  at  a  time.  In  the  ditches  picks  could  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage, but  on  the  roadbed  it  was  necessary  to  cut  off  the 
few  inches  of  earth  with  mattocks.  Even  then  it  took  10  to  12 
pickers  to  keep  three  or  four  shovels  busy  loading  the  material 
into  carts.  The  total  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  material  so  moved  was 
$1.30.  One  man  loosened  and  shoveled  in  a  day  about  1%  cu.  yd. 

These  figures  show  conclusively  how  expensive  this  class  of 
work  becomes  when  the  ground  is  frozen.  The  original  cut  was 
shallow,  the  total  yardage  in  it  being  about  2,000.  Thus  the  cost 
of  trimming  and  dressing  distributed  over  the  yardage  of  the 
cut,  makes  a  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  15  ct. 

Trimming  a  Subgrade.  Engineering  News,  June  18,  1903, 
gives  the  following:  The  grading  was  done  with  drag-scoop 
scrapers,  wheel-scrapers  and  wagons,  each  being  used  as  de- 
manded by  the  length  of  haul.  Earth  was  loosened  with  plows 
to  within  3  in.  of  subgrade  and  this  last  layer  then  removed 
with  pick  and  shovel. 

The  cost  of  removing  the  last  3  in.  was  2  ct.  per  sq.  yd.  with 
labor  at  $1.75  per  day  of  10  hr. 

Trimming  and  Seeding  Slopes.  Engineering  News,  Oct.  19, 
1916,  gives  the  following:  A  traveling  derrick  with  skips  was 
used  in  clearing  a  long  cut  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.  R.  near 
Muirkirk,  Md.  The  north  side  of  the  cut  for  about  2,500  ft.  had 
been  badly  gullied,  and  the  material  washed  down  had  clogged 
the  track  ditch.  The  cut  is  about  30  ft.  deep.  At  the  top  of 
the  slope  was  installed  a  derrick  car  consisting  of  a  timber  plat- 
form or  truck  mounted  on  four  wheels  and  carrying  a  boiler,  a 
15-hp.  double-drum  hoisting  engine  and  a  stiff -leg  derrick  with 
30-ft.  boom.  This  car  ran  on  a  wide-gage  track,  which  was 
picked  up  in  the  rear  and  relaid  ahead  as  the  work  progressed. 
The  material  excavated  was  loaded  into  open  flat  boxes  of  12 
cu.  ft.  capacity,  which  the  derrick  raised  and  dumped  to  form 
a  broad  flat  fill  about  4  ft.  from  the  top  of  the  cut.  This  bank 
serves  to  stop  drainage  toward  the  cut  and  renders  a  top  ditch 
unnecessary.  The  ditch  was  cleared  out  and  the  slope  dressed 


SPREADING,  TRIMMING,  AND  ROLLING  EARTH       157 

to  a  uniform  surface.  The  slope  was  then  covered  with  street 
sweepings  and  sown  with  grass  seed  to  form  a  permanent  pro- 
tective covering.  The  force  and  organization  were  as  follows: 
1  foreman,  1  engineman,  16  men  trimming  the  slope  and  filling 
the  boxes,  1  or  2  men  at  guy  lines  to  guide  the  loaded  boxes 
up  the  slope  and  haul  the  empty  boxes  back  into  position,  1 
man  at  the  top  of  slope  to  trip  the  boxes  and  spread  the  ma- 
terial in  the  fill,  2  men  shifting  track,  1  cart  and  driver  to 
haul  coal  and  water,  1  water  boy,  1  night  watchman.  This 
force  co  Id  handle  about  400  boxes  per  day.  The  cost  was 
less  than  60  ct.  per  yd.  For  seeding  the  slopes  a  mixture  of 
alsike  clover,  blue  grass,  alfalfa  and  oats  is  used.  After  seeding, 
the  surface  is  covered  with  about  6  in.  of  street  dirt  or  street 
sweepings  from  the  large  cities,  this  being  shipped  in  cars  and 
distributed  by  teams  and  men  with  wheel-barrows.  This  method 
has  been  found  very  satisfactory,  and  after  the  first  season  it  is 
easy  to  maintain  the  slopes. 

Ramming  and  Rolling.  A  man  can  thoroughly  ram  or  tamp 
in  6-in.  layers  2.5  cu.  yd.  per  hr. ;  but  where  the  soil  is  not 
clayey,  consolidation  may  often  be  more  effectually  and  cheaply 
done  by  puddling  with  water. 

A  5-ton  roller  with  a  60-in.  face,  drawn  by  three  teams 
handled  by  one  driver,  will  consolidate  about  100  cu.  yd.  an  hr. 
One  team  on  a  2-ton  grooved  roller  will  travel  ten  times  over  a 
6-in.  layer  at  a  speed  of  90  ft.  a  minute  including  rests,  thus 
consolidating  at  a  cost  of  about  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  where  team 
and  driver  wages  are  70  ct.  per  hr. 

As  an  example  showing  the  highest  probable  cost  of  spread- 
ing and  rolling  a  reservoir  bank  where  extraordinary  care  is 
required,  the  Forbes  Hill  Reservoir,  described  by  Mr.  C.  M. 
Saville  in  Engineering  News,  May  13,  1902,  may  be  cited.  The 
material  was  hardpan  (clay  and  gravel)  spread  in  4-in.  layers 
by  hand,  all  cobbles  over  3  in.  in  diameter  being  removed.  The 
sprinkling  was  done  from  a  water  pipe  and  hose.  Corrugated 
rollers  weighing  two  short  tons  each,  and  drawn  by  two  horses, 
were  used.  Laborers  were  paid  15  ct.  to  17  ct.  per  hr.,  team 
(and  driver)  45  to  50  ct.  The  dumping  of  wheel-scrapers  and 
spreading  by  hand  cost  7.7  ct.  per  cu.  yd.;  and  the  rolling  cost 
3.9  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  measured  in  cut.  There  is  evidence,  however, 
indicating  poor  management  in  doing  this  work. 

In  reservoir  embankments,  harrowing  may  be  required^  in 
which  case  a  team  and  driver  upon  a  harrow  may  be  counted 
upon  to  harrow  about  100  cu.  yd.  an  hr. 

Sprinkling.  Sprinkling  of  embankments,  where  specified,  is 
usually  required  to  be  "  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  engineer  "—  a 


158  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

form  of  wording  that  always  seems  like  an  attempt  to  hide  ig- 
norance under  a  cloak  of  ambiguity.  Seldom  should  more  water 
be  required  than  would  fill  the  voids  in  the  packed  earth, 
say  8  cu.  ft.  of  water  per  cu.  yd.  of  earth;  and  as  a  rule  not 
over  half  as  much  as  required  'to  secure  satisfactory  pud- 
dling. 

On  a  large  embankment  three  sprinkling  carts,  each  drawn  by 
three  teams,  with  one  driver,  sprinkled  1,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
per  day  of  10  hr.,  with  short  haul.  Such  carts  each  held  150 
cu.  ft.  of  water  weighing  4.5  tons,  which  is  an  exceedingly  large 
cart.  A  sprinkler  of  this  capacity  can  be  loaded  from  a  tank  in 
15  min.,  and  emptied  in  the  same  length  of  time.  Knowing  the 
length  of  haul  and  speed  of  team  the  cost  of  sprinkling  is  readily 
determined.  In  the  case  just  given  the  cost  was  2.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
of  earth  for  sprinkling  and  about  5  cu.  ft.  of  water  per  cu.  yd. 
were  used. 

A  man  with  a  good  hand  pump  will  raise  1,000  cu.  ft.  of 
water  1C  ft.  high  in  10  hr.  into  a  tank,  making  the  cost  of 
pumping  in  this  case  by  five  men  for  the  1,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
sprinkled,  1.5-ct.  cu.  yd.,  when  wages  are  30  ct.  per  hr.  Had  a 
small  engine  burning  ^/2  t°n  soft  coal  a  day  and  an  engineman 
been  employed,  the  cost  would  have  been  about  half  as  much  for 
the  pumping  item. 

Cost  of  Spreading  and  Rolling  a  Reservoir  Embankment. 
The  Tabeau  Dam  in  California  is  an  earth  embankment  100 
ft.  high,  containing  370,000  cu.  yd.  of  embankment.  Mr.  Burr 
Bassell  is  authority  for  the  following: 

The  earth  (a  clay  mixed  with  gravel)  was  spread  in  6-in. 
layers,  sprinkled  and  rolled.  To  spread  the  2,000  cu.  yd.  of 
embankment  daily,  there  were  3  road  graders  operated  by  6 
horses  and  2  men  on  each  grader.  There  were  2  rollers,  each 
operated  by  6  horses  and  one  driver.  There  were  2  harrows,  and, 
while  Mr.  Bassell  does  not  so  state,  presumably  4  horses  and  a 
driver  to  each  harrow.  At  $1.50  per  10-hr,  day  for  each  man 
and  $1  for  each  horse,  we  have  following  cost: 

Per  cu.  yd. 
ct. 

Spreading      1.5 

Sprinkling     0.8 

Harrowing     0.6 

Rolling     • 0.8 

Total     3.7 

Loading   and   hauling    -•     32.3 

General    expense    (estimated) 

Plant   charge    (estimated)    ...,..;: 

'„!    ,j;.,i  .  ^.nUi'n.jv' 

Total      „.. v. -.,...>.,..,......... ^ ...j.y^i.^Yftj,  39.0 


SPREADING,  TRIMMING,  AND  ROLLING  EARTH       159 

Test  pits  dug  in  this  dam  showed  a  weight  of  133  Ib.  per 
cu.  ft.  of  compacted  earth. 

The  above  given  yardage  relates  to  the  yardage  in  the  em- 
bankment, not  in  the  barrow  pits. 

The  rates  of  wages  are  merely  assumed  for  illustration.  It  is 
probable  that  laborers  received  $2  per  day  at  that  time  and 
place. 

Smoothing  and  Leveling  Farm  Land  with  Tractors.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  June  12,  1918,  describes  some  experimental 
work  that  has  been  done  by  the  Reclamation  Service  on  the 
Truckee-Carson  project.  Land  that  is  too  rough  to  be  irrigated 
by  the  "'  boarder-check "  system  of  irrigation  is  being  roughly 
leveled  for  this  purpose,  its  final  leveling  being  left  to  the 
farmer. 

For  use  with  this  system  of  irrigation  the  land  is  divided  into 
strips  by  building  low  wide  parallel  levees  running  with  the 
slope  and  60  to  70  ft.  apart.  The  slope  of  lands  between  levees, 
where  soils  are  light,  should  not  be  less  than  0.2  ft.  per  100  ft.; 
on  heavier  soils  about  0.1  ft.  per  100  ft.  is  allowed  as  a  mini- 
mum. The  length  of  strips  is  from  330  to  660  ft.,  depending  on 
topography  and  the  economic  arrangement  for  farm  laterals  and 
for  the  removal  of  surplus  irrigation  water. 

Before  work  of  rough  leveling  is  started  a  topographic  survey 
is  made  of  the  tract.  This  is  used  in  part  to  determine  the  posi- 
tion of  the  main  and  lateral  ditches  and  drains,  but  mainly  to 
determine  the  direction  of  slope  to  be  given  the  lands  that  are 
to  be  leveled.  Where  the  general  slope  is  hard  to  determine 
with  the  eye,  0.5-ft.  contours  should  be  taken,  when  the  slope  is 
more  pronounced  intervals  of  1  ft.  are  ample,  and  where  the 
tract  as  a  whole  has  a  pronounced  slope  2-ft.  contours  are 
sufficient. 

In  preparing  a  farm  unit  for  rough  leveling  the  prevailing 
slope,  possible  water  surface  elevations  and  the  ditch  and  drain- 
age system  should  all  be  considered.  After  these  factors  have 
been  determined  roughly,  and  the  farm  is  plowed  to  agree  with 
the  general  scheme  of  the  tract,  a  line  of  levels  is  run  around  a 
5,  .10  or  20-acre  part  of  the  unit,  the  size  of  the  tract  depending 
on  the  general  slope.  Stakes  are  then  set  at  the  lower  and  upper 
end  of  the  land  as  guides  for  the  tractors'  doing  the  leveling. 
The  land  is  plowed  first,  but  not  disked.  The  sod  crumbles  under 
the  weight  of  the  equipment,  and  as  the  shaping  of  the  land 
progresses  the  lumps  disappear.  In  fact,  sandy  lands  do  not 
need  to  be  plowed  at  all.  The  land  is  generally  divided  into 
squares  or  rectangular  strips  arranged  so  as  to  give  the  minimum 
ditch  length.  The  final  leveling  and  shaping  of  the  land  is  done 


160       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

by  the  farmer  at  the  time  the  levees  and  ditches  are  constructed. 
This  work  is  usually  done  with  fresno  scrapers. 

During  the  summer  of  1917  two  tractors  were  operated,  mainly 
as  an  experiment  and  to  determine  the  costs  of  preparing  the 
land.  A  flood-lighting  system  has  been  devised  for  working  the 
machines  24  hr.  per  day.  If  this  proves  to  be  practical,  it  will 
be  possible  to  level  about  500  acres  per  month,  or  about  300 
acres  if  the  tractors  are  worked  only  16  hr.  per  day. 

The  two  machines  have  worked  16  hr.  nearly  every  working 
day  through  the  season.  The  average  amount  of  rough  leveling 
has  been  126  acres  per  month,  including  all  lost  time.  The 
average  cost  has  been  as  follows: 

Per  acre 

Operation   of   plant   and   equipment    $18.50 

Depreciation   of   plant   and   equipment    5.00 

Engineering     1.50 

General    expense     3.75 

$26.75 

To  this  must  be  added  the  $6  per  acre  for  plowing,  making  the 
total  cost  $32.75  per  acre.  This  includes  several  plowings  on 
some  land. 

In  the  tract  where  work  is  being  done  there  are  thirteen  80- 
acre  units.  Some  leveling  has  been  done  on  nearly  every  unit. 
As  the  remaining  acreage  is  noticeably  rougher  than  that  leveled, 
we  assume  that  when  the  tract  is  done  the  average  cost  will  be 
about  $40  per  acre.  So  far  the  tractors  have  worked  only  on 
unentered  public  lands.  The  leveling  of  uncultivated  settled 
lands  has  been  considered,  but  no.  decision  has  been  reached; 
In  fact,  the  terms  at  which  the  Government  will  require  the 
return  of  the  cost  for  rough  leveling  have  not  yet  been  determined. 

Smoothing  Devices  Used  in  Preparing  Land  for  Irrigation. 
These  are  described  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  31, 
1912. 

In  preparing  land  for  irrigation  it  is  essential  that  even  the 
smallest  irregularities  be  smoothed  down  so  that  an  even  dis- 
tribution of  water  can  be  obtained.  The  land  is  not  necessarily 
leveled  but  is  graded  to  an  even  and  continuous  slope.  Fresno 
scrapers  are  used  on  this  work,  but  home-made  leveling  devices 
are  preferred. 

Rectangular  Leveler.  Fig.  1  shows  a  leveler  commonly  used 
in  California.  It  is  a  heavy  tool  requiring  from  eight  to  ten 
teams  to  haul,  but  it  will  cut  down  small  hummocks,  removing 
shrubs,  roots  and  all.  It  is  solidly  built  of  4  by  12-in.  timbers. 
One  cross-piece  is  arranged  to  move  up  and  down  by  means  of  a 
lever,  so  that  the  entire  weight  of  the  machine  can  be  thrown 


SPREADING,  TKIMMING,  AND  ROLLING  EARTH       161 

on  it  for  cutting  down  hard  knolls.  All  of  the  cross-pieces  are 
shod  on  their  faces  with  %  by  6-in.  steel  plates.  Heavy  chains 
and  eveners  are  employed  to  hitch  the  teams  to  the  leveler,  and 
these  are  of  considerable  service  in  breaking  down  any  shrubs 
that  may  be  growing  on  the  land.  Altogether  the  weight  of  this 
leveler  is  not  far  from  a  ton,  including  the  driver  and  lever 


Fig.  1.     Rectangular  Leveler  for  Heavy  Grading. 

operator,   both  of  whom  ride  on  the  machine.     The   rectangular 
leveler  does  the  best  work  where  the  knolls  are  regular   in  size 
and   position.     Such   lands   are   commonly   worked   over   in   bands 
or  strips  a  half-mile  to  a  mile  long  and  300  to  1,000  ft.  wide. 
Modified  Buck  Scraper  or  Planer.     This  devke  shown  by  Fig. 


Fig.  2.     Planer  for  Smoothing  Graded  Land. 

2  is  designed  particularly  to  give  the  finishing  grade  following 
the  rough  grading  done  with  scrapers  or  with  the  rectangular 
grader,  Fig.  1,  hence  the  name  planer.  It  is  L-shaped  in  sec- 
tion, being  made  up  of  a  horizontal  4  x  12-in.  plank  14  ft.  long 
and  a  back  board  of  2-in.  plank  18  in.  high.  The  bottom  and 
back  are  bound  together  by  the  steel  plate  with  which  the  base 


1(32 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


is  shod  and  by  strap  iron  brackets.  The  front  edge  of  the  base 
plate  is  beveled  to  a  cutting  edge.  The  back  board  is  1  ft. 
shorter  than  the  base  at  each-  end  to  provide  for  the  standing 
boards  on  which  the  drivers  ride.  There  are  two  drivers  each 
handling  a  four-horse  team  hitched  to  each  end  of  the  base. 
By  throwing  their  weights  onto  the  front  or  rear  ends  of  the 
foot  boards,  the  cutting  edge  is  tilted  down  or  up  to  shave  off  a 
layer  of  earth,  or  to  ride  over  and  distribute  the  soil  smoothly. 
The  whole  manipulation  of  the  planer,  including  turning,  is  easy. 
As  ordinarily  used  the  planer  follows  the  rough  grader  shown 
in  Fig.  1.  When  the  grader  has  uprooted  and  removed  the  brush 
and  major  irregularities,  the  planer  is  employed  to  do  the  final 


"Wig.  3.  Grid-Iron  Drag  for  Heavy  Grading. 

smoothing.  Records  of  work  in  California  give  the  cost  of  re- 
moving brush  and  hummocks  by  the  rectangular  grader  as  $1  to 
$1.20  per  acre;  the  final  planing  costs  from  $1  to  $1.50  per 
acre  more,  making  a  total  cost  of  $2  to  $2.75  per  acre  for  com- 
plete grading. 

Grid-Iron  Grader.  Fig.  3  illustrates  a  home-made  grader  used 
in  Montana.  The  outside  longitudinals  or  runners  are  16  ft.  long 
and  are  made  up  each  of  two  2  x  6-in.  pieces  set  one  higher  than 
the  other  as  shown  by  the  detail  drawing.  Between  these  run- 
ners and  running  across  the  grader  are  set  eight  2  x  4-in.  pieces 
which  are  shod  with  steel  plates  to  form  scrapers.  The  inclina- 
tion of  the  2  x  4-in.  scrapers  is  t5  be  noted ;  also  the  intermediate 
longitudinals  and  the  diagonal  bracing. 


SPREADING,  TRIMMING,  AND  ROLLING  EARTH      163 

Wheeled  Planer.  For  smoothing  the  ground  after  grading  the 
device  shown  by  Fig.  4  is  an  approved  tool.  This  is  also,  a  Mon- 
tana device.  The  main  structural  features  are  shown  by  the 
drawings;  it  may  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  frame  is  raised 
about  14  in.  by  the  wheels  and  that  the  scraper  blade  is  steel 


Fig.  4.     Wheeled  Leveler  for  Smoothing  Graded  Land. 


shod.  This  planer  is  hauled  by  three  to  four  horses  and  under 
competent  handling  will  level  from  10  to  20  acres  of  graded  land 
per  day.  Bulletin  145,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  gives  the 
average  cost  in  Colorado  and  Wyoming  of  preparing  land  for 
irrigation  as  follows: 


164  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Item  Per  acre 

Grubbing   sage  brush $1.50 

Plowing     2.50 

Harrowing     0.50 

Grading     1.00 


Total    $5.50 

Bibliography.  "Cost  Data,"  H.  P.  Gillette.— "  Highway  En- 
gineer's Handbook,"  Harger  and  Bonney  (Data  on  Spreading  and 
Rolling). 

Bulletin  145,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Preparing  Land 
for  Irrigation. —  Eng.  News.,  April  28,  1901,  C.  R.  Coultee  on 
method  of  compacting  lumpy  clay  on  Soulanges  Canal. 


•jti 


CHAPTER  VII 
HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS  AND  TRUCKS 

In  selecting  the  most  economic  method  of  hauling  earth  over 
roads,  the  size  of  the  job  and  the  length  of  haul  are  two  of  the 
most  important  factors.  There  are  so  many  other  factors  that 
little  is  to  be  gained  merely  by  enumerating  them.  Perhaps  the 
best  way  to  secure  an  insight  into  the  problem  is  first  to  con- 
sider each  of  the  different  kinds  of  plant  used  in  hauling,  to- 
gether with  the  respective  methods  and  detail  costs. 

Lead  and  Haul.  The  "  lead  "  is  the  distance  between  the  cen- 
ter of  mass  of  earth  in  the  "  cut "  or  pit  and  the  center  of  mass 
of  the  embankment.  The  "  haul  "  the  distance  actually  traveled 
in  moving  the  earth  from  "  cut "  to  "  fill "  or  embankment, 
measured  one  way.  The  haul  is  half  the  round  trip  distance, 
and  is  often  considerably  greater  than  the  lead. 

Types  of  Wheelbarrows.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec. 
30,  1908,  gives  the  following:  There  are  many  styles  of  barrows 
made  for  different  classes  of  work.  Those  used  on  earthwork 
are  of  the  tray  pattern.  The  frame  is  usually  of  wood  or  of  a 


Fig.  1.     Wood  Tray  Wheelbarrow. 


Fig.  2.     Stave  Tray  Wheelbarrow. 
165 


100  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

combination  of  wood  and  steel,  wheels  are  of  wood  or  steel  from 
15  to  21  in.  in  diameter.  Large  wheels  make  the  barrow  easier 
to  propel.  Steel  wheels  are  preferable  to  wooden  wheels  on  ac- 
count of  their  greater  durability.  The  trays  are  made  either  of 
wood  or  steel.  When  only  earth  is  being  handled  steel  trays  are 


Fig.  3.     Steel  Tray  Wheelbarrow. 


to  be  preferred,  as  the  trays  do  not  sift  the  dirt  over  the  run- 
ways, and  the  dirt  dumps  easier,  especially  if  wet.  When  there 
is  much  rock  in  the  excavation  the  wooden  trays  give  better 
service  and  are  more  economical.  They  get  out  of  order  more 
easily  than  the  steel  trays  but  are  easily  repaired.  They  are  not 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       167 

so  apt  to  be  bent  out  of  shape  from  rough  handling,  and  for  that 
reason  are  superior  to  the  steel  for  handling  rock. 

All-steel  tubular  barrows  are  made,  the  entire  barrow  and 
running  gear  being  of  steel.  They  are  too  heavy  for  earth  exca- 
vation. Such  barrows  weigh  from  70  to  125  lb.,  while  steel  trays 
on  wooden  frame  or  running  gear  weigh  from  55  to  70  lb.  and 
the  wooden  tray  barrow  weighs  from  40  to  60  lb. 

Runways  of  the  same  kind  should  always  be  used  for  wheel- 
barrows. The  common  practice  for  level  short  hauls  is  to  lay 
1-in.  planks  on  the  ground  with  their  ends  butting  together. 
Where  one  man  only  has  to  wheel  a  barrow  over  the  runway, 
and  the  planks  are  changed  frequently,  such  a  runway  is  eco- 
nomical and  answers  the  purpose  very  well,  but  when  a  number 
of  barrows  are  to  go  over  the  runway  the  ends  of  the  boards 
should  be  nailed  to  a  small  sill  sunk  into  the  ground,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  boards  from  being  knocked  out  of  place.  Good  run- 
ways quickly  pay  for  themselves,  as  to  •  delay  a  long  line  of 
barrows  only  a  few  minutes,  to  straighten  out  or  repair  a  run- 
way, means  to  waste  considerable  money.  Where  runways  are 
not  laid  directly  on  the  ground,  but  are  elevated,  2-in.  planks 
should  be  used,  and  the  runway  should  be  at  least  24  in.  wide. 
They  should  be  substantially  built,  so  that  there  is  no  motion 
or  swaying  to  them,  as  the  men  wheel  over  them,  or  else  the 
barrow  pushers  will  slacken  their  pace;  this  is  especially  true 
when  going  on  an  incline.  Steep  inclines  that  are  short,  men 
go  up  easily,  but  long  inclines,  though  not  so  steep  as  short 
ones,  men  push  their  barrows  up  slowly.  In  either  case  a 
strongly  built  runway  is  needed.  To  obtain  good  work  men  must 
be  made  to  believe  they  are  safe  from  injury  while  at  their 
work. 

A  Barrow  with  Special  Dumping  Device  is  described  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Jan.  15,  1913. 

A  wheel  barrow  which  is  dumped  by  pushing  down  on  the 
handles  and  with  half  the  work,  it  is  claimed,  that  is  expended 
in  lifting  the  barrow  in  dumping  by  the  ordinary  method  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  4.  The  barrow  calls  for  little  description. 
When  loaded,  the  steel  body  rests  on  the  frame  in  virtually  the 
same  position  in  respect  to  the  wheel  and  ^handles  as  does  the 
body  of  the  ordinary  barrow.  It  can  thus  be  dumped  like  an 
ordinary  wheel  barrow  by  tipping  sidewise  or  by  lifting  the 
handles  and  dumping  over  the  front  edge,  or  it  can  be  dumped 
as  shown  by  the  illustration.  In  dumping  by  pushing  down  on 
the  handles  it  is  easy  to  regulate  the  outflow  to  a  thin  stream 
in  filling  narrow  forms  or  by  a  quick  downward  thrust  to  dis- 
charge the  whole  load  suddenly.  This  barrow  is  known  as  the 


168 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Long  Self-Dumping  Wheelbarrow  and  is  sold  by  Miller  &  Coulson, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Costs  with  Wheelbarrows.  Barrows  are  not  economic  except 
in  muddy  places  where  horses  would  mire,  or  in  narrow  confined 
places,  or  in  moving  very  stony  soils  short  distances,  or  where 
the  quantity  of  earth  is  small. 

Trautwine  assumes  that  a  man  will  load  and  dump  a  wheel- 
barrow in  1.25  min.,  the  barrow  holding  i/14  cu.  yd.,  and  that  a 
man  will  travel  200  ft.  a  minute.  He  further  allows  10% 
"  time  lost "  in  rests.  His  tables  of  cost  are  about  right  for 
hauls  of  ordinary  length,  such  as  a  100-ft.  haul,  but  'are  grossly 


Fig.  4.     Long  Self-Dumping  Wheelbarrow. 


in  error  for  short  hauls,  as  for  25  ft.,  where,  by  his  false  as- 
sumption that  a  barrow  can  be  loaded  in  1.25  min.,  he  makes 
an  output  of  25.7  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  per  man,  the  actual  output 
being  not  much  over  half  as  much.  The  error  arises  from  a 
short-time  observation  where  insufficient  time  was  allowed  for 
necessary  rests. 

From  careful  observations  the  author  has  found  that  a  man 
walks  at  a  speed  of  250  ft.  a  minute,  and  loses  %  min.  each  trip, 
dumping  load,  fixing  run  plank  and  resting;  and  that  it  takes 
2.25  min.  to  load  a  barrow  holding  1/J5  cu.  yd.  place  measure  of 
earth  already  looseried  (rate  of  loading  being  1.8  cu  yd.  an  hr.), 
and  in  this  the  author  is  confirmed  by  Cole's  observations  (see 
Gillespie)  on  the  Erie  Canal. 

Wherever  the  word  "haul"  is  used,  the  distance,  one  way, 
from  the  point  of  loading  to  the  point  of  dumping  is  meant. 

In   repairing  breaks   in   a   levee  where   the   material   was   very 


HAULING  IX  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       160 

sticky  adobe  clay,  Mr,  Specht  made  the  following  observations 
as  to  cost:  Haul  208  ft.,  rise  7  ft.,  load  in  wheelbarrow  ^  cu. 
yd.,  7.5  min.  per  round  trip;  output  per  Chinaman  on  wheel- 
harrow,  10.8  cu.  yd.  in  9.5  hr.  of  actual  working  time. 

10  Chinese  on  wheelbarrows,   at  $1.50    $15.00 

3  Chinese  a  $1.50    4.50 

1  White   foreman    2.50 


108  cu.  yd.  per  day  at  20.4  ct $22.00 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  load  of  a  wheelbarrow  given  by 
Specht  is  double  that  ordinarily  given.  The  author  believes  it  to 
be  misleading,  since  }£  cu.  yd.  of  clay  would  weigh  350  to  400  lb., 
and  not  even  a  Chinaman  would  move  such  a  load  as  that  day 
in  and  day  out.  Based  upon  the  data  given  in  this  and  pre- 
ceding chapters  we  have: 

Rule.  To  find  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  picking,  shoveling,  and 
hauling  average  earth  in  wheelbarrows,  multiply  the  wages 
of  a  laborer  per  hr.  by  one  and  one-sixth  and  add  one-third  of  an 
hr.'s  wages  for  each  100  ft.  of  haul.  When  wages  are  30  ct.  per 
hr.  this  rule  becomes:  To  a  fixed  cost  of  35  ct.  add  10  ct.  for 
each  100  ft.  hauled. 

Capacity  of  Wheelbarrows.  Mr.  James  H.  Harlow  (Engineer- 
ing News,  Sept.  21,  1905)  found,  when  removing  earth  filling 
from  one  cofferdam  and  placing  it  in  another,  that  7,959  bar- 
row loads  held  454  cu.  yd.  by  measurement,  or  0.057  cu.  yd.  or 
1.54  cu.  ftrper  barrow.  This  material  was  a  sandy  loam  weigh- 
ing 80.3  lb.  per  cu.  ft.  When  removing  gravel  from  a  bar  at 
Davis  island,  he  found  that  23,484  barrow  loads  equaled  1,228 
cu.  yd.  by  measurement,  or  0.0546  cu.  yd.  or  1.47  cu.  ft.  per 
barrow. 

Wheelbarrows  Loading  into  Cars.  At  Portland,  Oregon,  in 
1883,  a  large  bluff  was  excavated  at  the  rate  of  153,000  to  183,000 
cu.  yd.  per  month  by  wheelbarrows  and  horse-scrapers  loading 
into  cars.  This  work  is  described  in  an  illustrated  article  by 
Mr.  George  B.  Francis  in  Engineering  News,  Nov.  28,  1885. 

Two  platforms  each  700  ft.  long  and  40  ft.  wide  were  built  par- 
allel with  the  foot  of  the  bluff.  Beneath  each  platform  were  two 
standard  gage  tracks  on  which  flat  cars  with  side-dump  boxes 
were  drawn  by  locomotives;  each  car  held  about  6  cu.  yd. 
place  measure.  The  material  was  dumped  into  the  cars  through 
holes  20  in.  square. 

The  earth  was  loosened  and  thrown  down  the  slope  by  blast- 
ing with  Judson  powder  on  the  top  and  slopes  of  the  bluff.  On 
one  platform  600  Chinamen  with  wheelbarrows  loaded  the  cars, 
and  on  the  other  horses  and  scrapers.  The  rivalry  between  these 
gangs  resulted  in  efficient  work. 


170  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  first  month,  when  part  of  the  earth  was  dumped  into 
water,  the  material  shrunk  10%  from  place  measure  to  measure 
in  the  fill;  the  second  month  8%,  and  the  first  41<>,000  cu.  yd., 
3.4%. 

Cost  of  Wheelbarrow  Work  at  the  Albany  Filter  Plant.  Mr. 
Geo.  I.  Baily,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Water  Works 
Association  in  1901,  gives  the  operating  cost  of  the  Albany 
Filter  Plant.  He  states  that  the  ordinary  wages  of  $1.50  per 
day  of  8  hr.  was  paid  but  that  efficient  work  was  insisted  upon. 

"  A  part  of  the  success  is  due  to  the  attention  which  we  have 
given  to  details  of  the  work.  We  have  endeavored  to  improve 
not  only  the  work  of  the  men  and  to  simplify  it,  but  to  furnish 
them  suitable  tools.  On  the  start  for  scraping  we  i  sed  the 
ordinary  straight  edge,  D-handle  shovel.  We  learned  that  it 
lamed  the  backs  of  our  men  and  they  could  not  work  to  ad- 
vantage. We  abandoned  these  shovels  for  long-handled  shovels, 
which  would  allow  the  men  to  keep  in  a  more  erect  position, 
and  to  overcome  the  slower  handling  of  the  new  shovel  we 
widened  the  blade  to  12-in.,  and  with  these  shovels  our  men 
scraped  more  than  100  sq.  yd.  an  hr. 

"  In  the  running  plank  used  for  wheeling  out  scraped  material 
we  found  that  to  give  a  proper  foundation  and  width  we  had  to 
use  two  of  the  ordinary  10-  to  12-in.  planks,  and  then  the 
service  was  not  good.  WTe  had  planks  specially  sawed  14  in. 
in  width,  and  one  of  these  planks  answers  the  purpose  better  than 
two  of  the  others.  They  are  placed  as  speedily  as  one  of  the 
other  planks  and  the  time  is  therefore  reduced  one-half.  The 
ordinary  wheelbarrows  used  were  not  acceptable.  On  the  grades 
that  our  men  had  to  go  the  weight  was  shifted  on  the  men's 
arms  instead  of  being  carried  on  the  wheel  and  we  therefore 
re-adjusted  on  the  wheels,  giving  a  proper  distribution  of  weight 
and  saving  the  strength  of  our  men." 

Comparative  Cost  with  Wheelbarrows  and  Carts.  In  exca- 
vating for  the  filter  bed  at  Brockton,  Mass.,  wheelbarrows  and 
one-  and  two-horse  carts  were  used.  The  comparative  cost  of 
these  vehicles  is  given  in  Fig.  5.  In  many  cases  the  haul  was 
up  an  incline  and  it  was  found  that  in  wheelbarrow  work  a  lift 
as  great  as  5  ft.  per  100  made  no  apparent  difference  in  cost. 
The  time  taken  in  returning  with  the  empty  wheelbarrows  was 
60%  of  the  total  time  occupied  per  round  trip,  which  proved 
that  the  work  was  under  the  direction  of  inefficient  foremen. 

The  cost  of  spreading  earth  on  the  embankment  amounted  to 
0.75  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  is  not  included  in  the  diagram.  Wheel- 
scrapers  were  not  used  very  often,  as  the  number  of  roots  left 
in  the  ground  after  grubbing,  and  the  necessity  for  removing 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       171 

them  from  the  embankment  material,  precluded  their  use.  When 
wheelscrapers  could  be  used  the  cost  of  hauling  125  ft.  varied 
from  5  to  6  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

About   15   cu.  yd.  per  man  per  day  were  handled.     One  fore- 
man was  employed  to  each  16  shovelers. 


Length  of  Houl  in  Ft 


c  9 

$8 


Average  Number  of  Men  Loading  OneHone  Carts  =»  X 
»  n        11    n        »t       7*0  »       »     s£ 


Teamster  $?.oo 
IHorse    %  ,  2S 


Laborers  (G>  $1,50 
Wheelbarrows  cany  ?  cu.  ft 
One  Horse  Carts  ••    /5~  »  •» 
7&0  •»      v     »»    £5"  "  "i 
Extra  bood  Digging. 


(Small  Load) 


Fig.  5.     Relative  Efficiency  of  Wheelbarrows  and  One  and  Two- 
Horse  Vehicles  in  Moving  Earth   on   Brockton   Filter    Beds. 

Excavating  Earth  and  Hardpan  for  a  Creek  Change.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Aug.  19,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

The  work  described  was  the  changing  of  the  channel  of  a 
small  creek  in  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  in  connection  with 
the  construction  of  a  new  line  of  railroad.  The  located  railroad 


172  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

crossed  the  creek  twice  within  300  ft.  and  to  make  a  diversion  of 
the  stream  meant  the  saving  of  a  20-ft.  arch  culvert. 

The  new  channel  was  made  20  ft.  wide  on  top,  15  ft.  on  the 
bottom  and  had  an  average  depth  of  6  ft.  It  was  about  250  ft. 
long.  The  top  2^  ft.  was  a  sandy  .clay,  while  the  rest  of  the 
material  was  a  hard  cemented  gravel.  This  had  to  be  blasted 
before  it  could  be  shoveled. 

The  blasting  was  done  with  dynamite,  holes  being  put  down  in 
the  gravel  in  series,  being  spaced  5  to  6  ft.  apart,  and  about  15 
holes  shot  at  one  time,  with  a  battery.  Picks  were  then  used 
to  loosen  the  material. 

Under  the  specification  cemented  gravel  was  classed  as  loose 
rock,  and  the  engineers  classified  the  excavated  material  as  400 
cu.  yd.  of  earth  and  600  cu.  yd.  of  loose  rock,  there  being  in  all 
1,000  cu.  yd.  of  excavation.  The  excavated  material  was  placed 
in  an  adjoining  embankment,  the  earth  being  loaded  onto  wheel- 
barrows. The  haul  averaged  50  ft.  Boards  were  used  as  run- 
ways. When  the  work  commenced  a  man  loaded  a  wheelbarrow 
and  pushed  it  to  and  from  the  dump,  but,  as  the  trench  became 
deeper,  one  man  stayed  in  the  trench  and  loaded  the  barrow, 
while  another  operated  it.  However,  as  two  barrows  were  used, 
one  being  loaded  while  the  other  was  going  to  the  dump,  it  meant 
a  wheelbarrow  for  each '  man. 

Cost  of  Excavation.  The  total  cost  of  the  work  amounted  to 
the  following: 

Foreman,   22  days,   at  $3.00    $  66.00 

Laborers,   188%   days,   at  $1.25    235.63 

Blasting     47.68 

Total    $319.31 

The  average  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was: 

Foreman     . . .' $0.066 

Labor,   loosening,   shoveling  and  wheeling   , ...      0.236 

Blasting: 

Labor     0.025 

Explosives     0.022 

Total     $0.349 

The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  class  of  material  excavated  was 
as  follows,  being  a  comparative  cost  to  the  price  paid  for  each 
class  of  excavation: 

Earth: 

Foreman     $0  042 

Labor    '. 0.14$ 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       173 

Blasting: 

Labor    $0.015 

Explosives 0.013 

Total    $0.218 

Loose  rock  or  hardpan: 

Foreman    $0.083 

Labor 0.297 

Blasting: 

Labor     0.031 

Explosives     0.026 

Total    $0.437 

One  man  loosened,  loaded  and  wheeled  5^4  cu.  yd.  per  day, 
which  is  a  fair  day's  work  in  this  class  of  material  and  under 
the  conditions  named. 

Two  valuable  lessons  are  to  be  learned  from  this  job.  The  first 
is  a  lesson  for  the  contractor.  This  excavation  should  never  have 
been  made  by  hand,  but  instead  teams  with  drag  scrapers  should 
have  been  used. 

This  work  could  have  been  done  cheaper  with  drag  scrapers, 
even  if  they  had  to  be  bought  new  and  their  entire  cost  charged 
against  this  job. 

It  would  have  been  cheaper  yet  to  have  dammed  up  the  old 
channel  and  excavated  a  ditch  8  to  10  ft.  wide,  just  room  enough 
for  scrapers.  The  stream  could  then  be  turned  into  this  ditch 
and  would  widen  it  to  the  required  size  by  natural  erosion. 
Cheaper  material  than  cemented  gravel  could  have  been  borrowed 
for  the  embankment. 

"  Station  Work  "  on  a  Railway  Embankment.  Wilmer  Waldo, 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec.  4,  1907.  "  Station  work  " 
is  excavation  that  is  let  in  small  contracts,  covering  one  or  two 
surveyor's  "  stations "  of  100  ft.  in  length.  A  contract  is  usu- 
ally taken  by  one  or  two  laborers  in  a  gang.  Embankments 
are  built  of  material  taken  from  either  side  of  the  right  of 
way  at  a  distance  of  4  or  5  ft.  from  the  toe  of  the  fill.  No  fur- 
ther restriction  is  made  concerning  borrow  pits  except  that  they 
must  be  connected  by  ditches  for  the  sake  of  drainage. 

"  Station  work  "  is  usually  done  in  places  inaccessible  to  teams 
or  where  stumps  make  team  work  uneconomical.  It  seldom  pays 
where  the  depth  of  cut  or  height  of  fill  exceeds  4  or  5  ft. 

During  the  summer  months  the  custom  among  some  station 
men  is  to  do  their  work  partly  at  night,  laying  off  through  the 
heated  part  of  the  day.  Station  men  are  not  available  in  great 
numbers  in  seasons  of  extreme  heat  or  cold,  preferring  to  follow 


174  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  mean  temperature  either  north  or  south.  They  migrate  in 
pairs  and  often  work  in  partnership,  but  it  is  customary  to 
furnish  separate  estimates  of  equal  value  to  the  two  partners. 
The  contract  and  estimate  system  in  this  work  does  away  with 
a  general  pay  day,  which  keeps  the  majority  of  the  men  work- 
ing all  the  time  and  eliminates  the  timekeeper  and  disagree- 
ments in  regard  to  time.  The  station  man  expects  payment  of 
his  estimate  immediately  upon  completion  and  acceptance,  which 
is  arranged  by  a  draft  on  the  nearest  bank,  unless  it  is  too  far 
away.  If  no  bank  is  available,  the  paymaster  takes  up  all  esti- 
mates due  every  fifteen  days,  or  any  authorized  party  can  take 
them  up  at  any  time  on  the  work. 

In  considering  the  cost  of  this  work  it  must  be  remembered 
that  there  are  general  expenses  to  the  owner  which  would  not 
enter  into  a  larger  contract  of  the  ordinary  kind.  Camps  must 
be  maintained  and  there  must  be  some  one  to  supervise  and  esti- 
mate the  work  of  the  station  men.  The  cost  will  be  less  where 
many  men  are  employed. 

The  work  upon  which  the  following  costs  are  based  was  done 
in  Southeast  Texas  during  the  months  shown,  and  embraced 
nearly  every  kind  of  material,  the  majority  of  it  being  in  low 
swampy  country,  subject  to  overflows  in  one  season  and  getting 
very  dry  and  hard  in  others.  A  large  part  of  it  was  sticky 
clay  where  the  borrow  pits  were  filled  with  grubs,  stumps  and 
roots,  requiring  the  constant  use  of  a  mattock.  Even  in  places 
where  the  stumps  are  thick,  if  the  earth  shovels  well  without 
the  use  of  a  mattock  or  any  breaking,  station  work  can  be  done 
cheaper  than  the  ordinary  team  work  under  good  conditions. 
Team,  work  similar  and  adjacent  to  the  station  work  shown  in 
the  tables  was  done  at  an  average  cost  of  27}X>  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


WORK  BY  STATION  MEN, 
Sections  1  to  8 

Total  cu.  yd.   moved    4,800.2 

Average  rate  per  yd 14.1 

Average  yd.  moved  per  man  day  10.7 

Maximum  yd.  moved  per  man  day  20.0 

Minimum  yd.  moved  per  man  day 5.2 

Nearly  all  the  station  men  made  daily  wages  amounting  to 
more  than  $1.50,  while  one-third  of  them  made  more  than  $2.00, 
one  man  going  up  to  $2.82.  This  man  handled  20  cu.  yd.  per 
day,  loading  and  transporting  it  in  a  wheelbarrow.  The  bank 
was  a  low  one,  as  the  cubic  yards  in  a  100-ft.  section  were  only 
91. 

The  costs  for  station  men  in  Camp  No.  12  were  as  follows: 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       175 

1906.    June,  July,   August,   September,   October,   November,    December,  Janu- 
ary to  February  22,  1907. 

To   amounts   paid  station   men  — 

48397.2   cu.    yd $7,560.36 


To   amounts    paid    labor    for    grubbing,    driving   team,    etc.,    moving 

and   about  camp    $  686.00 

Team    time     166.80 

Foreman  in  charge  of  work  and  camp 620.00 

Superintendent 62.66 

$  1,535.46 

$  9,095.82 
ll-J  «. '    "U,  bawl   jjjjTKf        ===== 

To  amounts  paid  cook   : $      516.60 

Flunkey 108.15 

Groceries 2,046.44 

$  2.671.19 

Credit: 

By  board  collected  from  station  men $1,240.05 

Board  collected  from  labor,   foreman,  cook,  etc 763.90 

$  2,003.95 


$"    667.24 

To  interest  on  investment  of  tools,  etc ..$     347.90 

$10,110.96 


Cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  grubbing  and  labor  around  camp  $0.0142 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  foreman  and  superintendent  0.0141 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  hauling,   etc.,   and  excess  of  cost  of  mess  Over 

board    collected 0.0173 

Cost  per  yd.  of  interest  on  investment  in  tools,  etc 0.0072 

Average  price  paid  per  cu.  yd.  as  per  crontacts  0.1562 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.209 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  a  gang  of  laborers,  being  paid  by 
the  day,  working  under  a  foreman,  moved  1,549  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost 
of  $387.34,  making  a  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  25  ct.  This  was  4  ct. 
more  than  the  cost  of  the  work  when  let  by  contract  to  the  men. 

Carts.  The  method  of  hauling  with  one-horse  two-wheeled 
dump-carts  is  especially  adapted  to  work  in  narrow  cuts,  base- 
ment excavations,  and  wherever  the  haul  is  short ;  but  in  such 
places  wheel  scrapers  are  ordinarily  better,  unless  the  haul  is 
over  street  pavements. 

The  great  advantage  that  carts  possess  over  wagons  is  ease  of 
dumping  (one  man  can  dump  them)  and  especially  of  dumping 
into  hoppers,  scows,  .etc.  The  data  of  Morris,  who  kept  account 
of  the  cost  of  moving  150,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  with  carts,  are  the 
most  reliable  in  print.  In  his  work  one  driver  was  required  for 
each  cart.  Trautwine  erroneously  assumes  that  one  driver  can 
attend  to  four  carts.  For  the  short  hauls  upon  which  carts  are 
ordinarily  used  one  driver  can  attend  to  not  more  than  two 


170  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

single  horse  carts.  Morris  found  the  average  speed  to  be  200  ft. 
a  minute,  and  the  average  load  i£  cu.  yd.  (bank  measure, 
equivalent  to  0.37  cu.  yd.  place  measure)  on  a  level  haul;  ^  cu. 
yd.  on  steep  ascents,  and  there  were  4  min.  of  "  lost  time  "  load- 
ing and  dumping  each  trip.  As  above  stated,  the  cost  of  picking 
and  shoveling  average  earth  is  one  hour's  wages  per  cu.  yd.,  while 
if  earth  is  loosened  by  plow  the  cost  of  loosening  is  about  ^0-hr. 
wages  of  team  and  driver,  and  the  cost  of  loading  plowed  earth 
is  %-hr.  wages  of  laborer  per  cu.  yd. 

Upon  these  assumptions,  and  accrediting  a  driver  to  each  cart 
with  an  average  load  of  i£  cu.  yd.,  we  have: 

Rule.  To  find  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  plowing,  shoveling,  and 
hauling  "  average  earth  "  with  carts,  add  together  these  items : 

1/20-hr's.  wages  of  team  and  driver  and  helper  on  plow; 

2/3-hr's.   wages  of  laborer   shoveling; 

1/4-hr's.   wages  of  cart  horse   and  driver  for   "  lost  time." 

To  which  add«i£0  hr.'s  wages  of  cart,  horse  and  driver  for  each 
100  ft.  of  haul.  \Yith  wages  of  a  man  at  30  ct.  and  of  a  horse 
at  15  ct.  per  hr.,  this  rule  becomes:  To  a  fixed  cost  of  35  ct.  add 
2.25  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  per  100  ft.  of  haul. 


Fig.  6.     Two-Wheeled   Cart  Made  by  John  Deere  Plow  Co. 


If  one  driver  attends  to  two  carts,  as  is  very  often  the  case, 
the  hauling  item  is  y±0  hr.'s  wages  of  a  man  an.i  two  horses, 
or  1.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  per  100-ft.  haul  at  wages  above  given. 
In  cities  where  streets  are  level,  and  hard,  even  if  not  paved, 
one-horse  carts  holding  %  cu.  yd.  are  used;  furthermore  horses 
travel  faster  than  the  200  ft.  per  minute  given  by  Morris  on 
railroad  work,  220  to  250  ft.  a  minute  being  the  speed  at  a  walk 
over  hard  level  roads.  With  large  %-yd.  one-horse  carts  and  one 
driver  to  each  cart,  the  cost  of  hauling  per  cu.  yd.  per  100  ft. 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       177 

is  therefore,  }45  lir.'s  wages  of  horse  and  driver,  or  1  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  per  100  ft.  of  haul. 

Cost  with  Carts.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  22,  1908, 
gives  the  following: 

The  job  was  earth  excavation  in  the  construction  of  a  rail- 
road. A  cut  was  taken  out  with  carts,  which  were  loaded  by 
men  using  short  handled  shovels.  The  work  was  done  in  the 
late  fall  and  early  winter,  when  a  fair  amount  of  rain  fell, 
but  snow  falls  did  not  occur.  At  night  the  ground  froze  to  a 
depth  of  a  few  inches,  and  was  generally  thawed  out  by  the  sun 
during  the  day.  This  made,  the  runway  muddy  and  made  some  of 
the  shoveling  harder.  The  material  was  red  clay  that  readily 
absorbed  water.  The  average  length  of  the  haul  was  900  ft. 

The  earth  was  loosened  by  picks,  two  pickers  keeping  three 
shovels  going.  Three  men  shoveled  into  a  cart,  two  carts  being 
loaded  at  one  time.  Four  carts  were  used,  one  driver  attending 
to  two  carts,  which  he  took  to  the  dump  together.  One  man  on 
the  dump,  with  the  aid  of  the  driver,  dumped  the  carts. 

The  wages  paid  for  a  10-hr,  day  were  as  follows: 

Foreman     $3.50 

Laborers     1.50 

Water   boy    1.00 

2  carts  and  1  driver    4.50 

The  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  doing  the  work  was : 

Foreman     $0.050 

Picking     0.080 

Shoveling     0.130 

Dumping      0.021 

Water   boy ,  0.014 

Hauling    ' 0.110 

Total    $0.405 

The  output  of  this  gang  per  day  was  70  cu.  yd.  This  is  r 
high  cost,  as  a  greater  yardage  should  have  been  excavate,!. 
The  pickers  loosened  about  18  cu.  yd.  per  man  day,  while  aboiu 
11  cu.  yd.  per  man  day  were  shoveled.  The  man  on  the  dump 
took  care  of  70  cu.  yd.  per  day.  A  careful  analysis  of  this  and 
a  comparison  of  costs  of  similar  work  show  that  the  cost  of 
hauling  is  a  little  low,  while  the  other  costs  are  all  high.  This 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  there  were  not  enough  carts  for  this 
length  of  haul. 

As  the  foreman  was  experienced  and  realized  that  he  was  short 
of  carts,  he  did  all  he  could  to  keep  them  going  continually  and 
loaded  them  as  heavily  as  the  ground  over  which  he  had  to  haul 
would  permit.  The  result  was  that  he  worked  the  horses  harder 
than  they  are  ordinarily  worked,  as  will  be  noticed  from  the  cost 


178  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  hauling,  which  was  11  ct.  for  a  distance  of  900  ft.  With  the 
wages  given  above,  the  cost  of  hauling  per  100  ft.  with  carts 
would  be  about  1  ct.,  and  adding  to  this  the  lost  team  time  the 
total  cost  should  have  been  for  a  900-ft.  haul  about  12  or  13 
ct.,  while  the  cost,  as  stated,  actually  was  11  ct.  That  the  fore- 
man did  his  work  well  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  with  a  lack 
of  carts  that  was  bound  to  make  his  men  idle  at  times  waiting 
for  the  carts  to  come  back  from  the  dump,  he  got  an  output  of 
about  11  cu.  yd.  from  his  shovelmen  per  day. 

If  two  more  carts  had  been  used,  the  shovelers  could  no  doubt 
have  loaded  14  cu.  yd.  to  the  man,  and  instead  of  using  only 
three  men  loading  to  the  carts  four  men  could  have  been  em- 
ployed. This  would  have  made  the  output  per  day  112  cu.  yd. 
instead  of  70.  Thus  a  saving  on  the  total  cost  of  nearly  20% 
could  have  been  effected. 

With  the  material  that  had  to  be  excavated,  a  man  could 
readily  loosen  with*  a  pick,  by  caving  in  a  bank,  from  25  to  30 
cu.  yd.  per  day,  and  a  man  could  load  into  a  cart  with  a  shovel 
14  cu.  yd.  The  dumpman  could  easily  have  cared  for  the  112  cu. 
yd.  that  were  sent  to  the  dump. 

The  costs  as  given  illustrate  in  a  striking  manner  how  one 
detail  of  a  job  that  is  not  properly  managed  can  materially 
increase  the  cost  of  all  the  other  details  and  that  of  the  whole 
job  and  yet  that  particular  cost  may  be  low.  Such  facts  can 
only  be  learned  by  keeping  detail  cost  data  and  then  carefully 
analysing  them. 

High  Cost  of  Railway  Excavation  with  Dump  Carts.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Feb.  10,  1909,  gives  the  following 
data: 

The  excavation  was  made  on  the  grade  of  a  railroad  in  taking 
ot:t  several  small  cuts,  there  being  1,743  cu.  yd.  in  the  combined 
cuts.  The  material  was  a  sandy  clay,  and  the  average  haul  was 
500  ft.  The  work  was  done  in  the  fall  of  the  year  with  good 
weather  conditions,  there  being  but  one  rainy  day  during  the 
time.  With  this  class  of  material,  without  any  stones  in  it  and 
the  depth  of  cutting  and  length  of  haul,  the  excavation  was  ideal 
wheel  scraper  work,  but  as  the  railroad  company  did  not  own 
any  scrapers,  it  was  decided  to  hire  carts  and  do  the  work  with 
them. 

The  earth  was  loosened  by  a  plow,  but  the  plowing  was  not 
done  well  enough,  so  that  some  of  the  men  had  to  pick  it.  Nat- 
urally using  a  plow  prevented  the  material  being  worked  to  a 
breast  and  the  carts  were  hauled  over  the  loosened  material. 
This  made  the  hauling  hard  for  the  horses  and  prevented  full 
loads  from  being  carried,  and  also  compacted  the  loosened  mate- 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       179 

rial  somewhat.  An  average  of  17  carts  were  worked  with  58 
men  and  3  foremen.  A  single  foreman  in  charge  of  29  men,  with 
men  and  carts  scattered  over  a  cut,  resulted  in  poor  work.  The 
men  clustered  around  a  cart  and  loaded  it  as  they  would  a 
wagon,  and,  using  short  handled  shovels,  the  amount  of  work 
that  could  be  done  in  a  day  was  reduced  over  the  number  of 
cu.  yd.  that  could  be  loaded  into  a  cart  at  the  end  with  the  tail 
gate  out.  With  such  a  large  number  of  men  per  foreman  it  was 
also  possible  for  the  men  to  loaf. 

A  10-hr,  day  was  worked  and  the  following  wages  were  paid: 

Foremen     $2.50 

Laborers     1.50 

Carts   and  driver    3.00 

Plow    team    9.00 

'",*-  't'*L   '  "•:'   -->'•'<    !!-,•;<«•;/    •"«,}']',      .'M'f1,.1 

The  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows: 

Foremen    $     52.50 

Laborers     610.50 

Cart    work    357.00 

Plowing     36.00 

Extra   work    11.50 


Total     $1,067.50 

This  gives  a  cost  per  cu.  yd.  as  follows: 

Foremen     $0.030 

Plowing    0.020 

Laborers      0.350 

Hauling    0.205 

Extra  work    0.005 


Total $0.610 

The  extra  work  consisted  of  digging  some  ditches  after  a  rain 
to  drain  off  the  water,  two  foremen  and  12  men  being  engaged 
on  this  for  half  a  day. 

The  very  high  cost  and  poor  work  is  shown,  by  the  fact  that  a 
man  only  shoveled  4*4  cu.  yd.  of  a  material,  that  could  be  classed 
as  average  earth,  in  10  hr.  A  man  should  have  shoveled,  after 
the  material  was  loosened,  14  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr. 

If  scrapers  had  been  used  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  should  not  have 
exceeded  25  ct. 

Types  of  Wagons.  A  series  of  articles  appearing  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Feb.  3.  to  Apr.  14,  1909,  describes  the  various 
types  of  wagons  and  name  of  manufacturers  on  the  market  at 
that  time  at  considerable  length.  A  brief  abstract  of  these  ar- 
ticles is  here  given. 

The  first  style  of  wagon  used  for  earth  transportation  was  the 
kind  now  found  in  common  use  on  farms.  This  wagon  consists 
of  the  ordinary  running  gear  with  front  and  back  wheels  con- 


180  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

nected  by  a  coupling  pole  and  with  wheels  having  2-in.  tires.  The 
body  is  a  rectangular  box  made  of  1-in.  planed  boards  bound 
on  top  with  strap  iron.  The  difficulty  of  dumping  this  wagon 
led  to  cutting  holes  in  the  bottom  which  were  covered  with 
boards.  These  were  lifted  with  a  pick,  spilling  part  of  the  load 
and  leaving  holes  through  which  the  rest  could  be  easily  shov- 
eled. 

The  idea  of  dumping  through  the  bottom  brought  into  use  the 
slat  bottom  wagon.  This  consisted  of  the  same  style  running 
gear.  On  the  bolsters  2-  by  4-in.  scantlings  were  placed  to  make 
the  bottom  of  the  wagon  body;  12-  to  14-in.  boards  were  used 
for  the  sides  of  the  body.  Bottom  and  side  boards  were  worked 
down  at  their  ends  with  a  draw  knife  so  as  to  offer  a  convenient 
grip.  The  wagon  was  dumped  by  the  driver  and  dumpman  lift- 
ing these  boards  one  by  one.  Dumping  required  about  3  min. 

The  running  gear  of  farm  wagons  being  found  too  light  for 
continuous  use  with  heavy  loads  of  earth,  heavier  running  gear 
with  3-  and  4-in.  tread  tires  was  made  for  use  on  construction 
work.  For  many  years  this  heavy  running  gear  with  the  slat 
bottom  body  was  the  standard  wagon  for  earth  work. 

Bottom  Dump  Wagon.  The  slat  bottom  wagon  has  been 
largely  replaced  by  various  patent  self-dumping  wagons  of  which 
the  bottom  dump  forms  the  largest  class.  The  bottoms  of  these 
wagons  consist  of  two  hinged  doors  which  are  usually  held  in 
place  by  chains  and  are  released  to  dump  the  load.  They  are 
built  of  wood  and  steel,  in  capacities  of  from  1  to  5  cu.  yd. 
The  front  wheels  go  under  the  body,  making  it  possible  for  a 
team  to  turn  in  its  own  length.  Mechanism  is  provided  by  means 
of  which  the  driver  can  close  the  hinged  bottom  while  the  wagon 
is  in  motion. 

End  Dump  Wagons  can  be  divided  into  two  divisions,  namely 
those  with  tail  gates  and  those  without  tail  gates.  Those  with- 
out tail  gates  generally  have  the  bodies  built  of,  steel,  and  the 
body  is  built  of  such  a  shape  that  the  load  is  discharged  by 
gravity  when  the  wagon  bed  is  tilted  for  dumping.  One  advan- 
tage that  this  style  of  wagon  possesses  is  that  none  of  the  load 
can  spill  or  leak  out  unless  too  much  of  a  load  is  placed  on  the 
wagon.  This  style  of  wagon  is  not  often  used  for  earth  exca- 
vation as  the  wagon  is  quite  heavy,  and  owing  to  the  shape 
that  is  given  it,  so  it  will  dump,  its  carrying  capacity  is  reduced. 

Those  with  tail  gates  are  used  for  earth  transportation,  and 
several  styles  of  this  class  of  wagon  are  in  common  use  in  New 
York  City.  For  dumping  into  hoppers  or  bins,  and  through 
chutes,  or  onto  scows  and  barges  or  into  railroad  cars  they  are 
better  adapted  than  bottom  dump  wagons,  as  the  horses  can  be 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       181 

backed  up  to  the  dumping  place.  For  the  above  listed  classes 
of  work  and  for  dumping  on  piers  and  wharves  this  style  of 
wagon  is  well  adapted. 

In  loading  wagons  by  hand  the  height  of  the  wagon  body  is  of 
great,  consideration.  Every  inch  additional  height  decreases  in 
the  amount  of  earth  that  a  man  can  load  in  a  day. 

The  height  of  the  top  of  the  sides  of  the  ordinary  dump  wagon, 


Cat 


Fig.  7.     Bottom  Dump  Wagon  Made  by  the  Watson  Wagon  Co. 

of  1  cu.  yd.  or  iy2  cu.  yd.  capacity,  is  from  4.5  to  5  ft.  A  man 
at  this  height  will  shovel  with  a  short  handled  shovel  about  13 
cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  Over  this  height  to  increase  the  height  of  the 
sides  of  the  wagon  by  6  in.  decreases  the  amo  nt  shoveled  per 
man  day  by  about  10%.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  in  order  to 
cast  the  earth  into  the  wagon  the  man  must  first  straighten  up 
his  back,  after  he  has  filled  his  shovel,  and  then  by  another  mo- 
tion he  casts  his  load  into  the  wagon.  With  long  handled  shovels, 


Fig.  8.     End  Dump  Wagon. 

in  average  earth  or  good  clay,  men  have  been  known  to  load  into 
wagons  between  14  and  15  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.,  and  to  increase  the 
height  of  the  wagon  6  in.  decreased  the  amount  loaded  per  man 
day  by  about  7%,  until  the  height  reached  8  ft. 

Special  Dump  Wagons.  One  of  these,  the  invention  of  George 
'Penine  and  D.  L.  Hough,  was  used  in  the  building  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania R.  R.  tunnels  under  New  York  City.  A  lar<<e  derrick 


182      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

skip  made  in  two  sections,  which  were  hinged  at  the  top  and 
fitted  with  latches  at  each  end  near  the  bottom,  was  used  in  the 
tunnels  on  trucks  as  the  body  of  a  car.  This  was  hoisted  to  the 
surface.  On  the  street  level  the  skip  was  placed  on  a  wagon, 
thus  becoming  a  wagon  body.  At  the  dump  the  skip  was  dumped 
into  a  scow  by  a  derrick,  a  light  rope  being  used  to  trip  it  in 
dumping.  The  capacity  of  the  skip  was  3  cu.  yd. 

Similarly  on  the  Illinois  tunnels  in  Chicago  a  wagon  invented 
by  Wm.  J.  Newman  was  used  to  carry  spoil  to  the  dump.  The 
body  of  the  wagon  was  a  square  box  made  of  steel  and  was 
picked  up  from  the  running  gear  by  a  derrick  and  raised  over  the 


Fig.    9.     Center    Dump    Wagon    Made   by   Russell   and    Company 
Capacity  8  to  10  Tons. 

stock  pile  where  the  bottom  of  the  box  dropped  down,  spilling  the 
load.  ~ 

Another  type  of  wagon,  requiring  a  machine  to  dump  it,  is 
made  by  the  Bergen  Point  Iron  Works,  149  Broadway,  N.  Y. 
Not  being  required  to  clear  a  dumped  load,  it  can  be  built  very 
low.  Side  dump  wagons  are  made  with  the  body  mounted  on 
trunnions  and  can  be  dumped  to  either  side. 

Dump- Boxes.  In  addition  to  the  various  types  of  dump  wagons, 
dump  boxes  are  made  by  some  manufacturers  that  can  be  used 
on  the  running  gear  of  any  heavy  wagon.  Such  boxes  are  made 
in  capacities  of  1}£  and  2  cu.  yd.  and  weigh  about  650  Ib. 

The  Use  of  Dump  Boxes  Handled  by  Derricks  is  discussed  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  March  24,  1909,  as  follows: 

There  is  a  much  greater  field  of  usefulness   for  dump   boxes, 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       183 

than  either  manufacturers  or  contractors  ordinarily  suspect, 
as  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  be  treated  as  skips 
and  be  handled  by  derricks,  locomotive  cranes,  or  cableways,  and 
thus  loaded  and  dumped. 

Under  the  head  of  special  wagons  we  have  referred  to  the  New- 
man wagon  or  car  as  used  in  Chicago.  Any  dump  box  with  the 
proper  dumping  device  and  lever  on  it  can  be  used  in  a  similar 
manner. 

The  first  dump  box  to  be  so  used,  to  the  best  of  our  knowledge, 
was  the  Chicago  Quick  Dumper.  On  the  new  depot  in  Chicago, 
being  built  by  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern  Ry.,  the  Bates  & 
Rogers  Construction  Co.  being  the  contractors,  the  sand  and 
gravel  for  concrete  is  hauled  in  these  dump  boxes.  A  large  hop- 


Fig.   10.     Dump   Box  Made  by  the  Baker  Mfg.   Co. 

per  is  built  over  the  mixing  plant.  The  load  is  driven  up  to  the 
hopper  and  a  bridle  attached  to  a  derrick  is  hooked  onto  the 
box,  which  is  raised  over  the  hopper  and  dumped,  after  which  it 
is  returned  to  the  gear.  It  is  stated  that  only  one  minute  is 
consumed  in  raising,  dumping  the  box  and  'returning  it  to  the 
gear. 

One  of  the  editors  of  this  journal  timed  a  Newman  wagon  in 
unloading  onto  a  large  stock  pile  and  with  three  men  to  hook 
on  the  bridle  a  box  was  unloa  ed  and  returned  to  the  wagon  or 
car  every  1%  min.  These  boxes  were  of  3  cu.  yd.  capacity,  as 
were  the  Chicago  Quick  Dumper  boxes.  The  bridle  used  is  shown 
by  the  accompanying  sketch,  and  can  be  made  at  any  shop.  Four 
pieces  of  steel  with  eyes  in  them  to  receive  the  hooks  on  the 
bridle  must  be  fastened  to  the  dump  box. 


184 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


In  excavating  cellars  and  similar  deep  pits,  these  boxes  could 
be  used  in  connection  with  derricks  to  eliminate  the  steep,  hard 
pull  from  the  pit  or  cellar  and  save  the  use  of  a  snatch  team, 
as  by  having  several  extra  boxes  they  could  be  lowered  by  the 
derrick  and  loaded  ready  to  be  placed  on  the  wagon  when  it 
returned  with  an  empty  box  from  the  dump.  This  would  mean 
less  delay  to  the  wagon  than  when  loaded  by  other  means.  In 
loading  these  boxes  they  could  be  placed  near  abreast  and  ma- 
terial caved  directly  into  the  box.  Other  material  could  be 
shoveled  into  the  box  easily,  as  the  sides  are  low. 


Corf  3 earns 


fnqr- 
Fig.  11.     Sling  for  Handling  Dump  Wagon  Bodies  with  Derricks. 

Wagon  Work.  There  are  two  sizes  of  wagon  boxes  for  two- 
horse  slat-bottom  wagons  which  are  still  used  by  contractors 
to  a  considerable  extent;  the  small  box  3  ft.  wide,  9  ft.  long, 
and  12  in.  deep  inside  measure;  and  the  large  box  with  sides 
4  to  6  in.  deeper.  The  small  box  holds  just  1  cu.  yd.  struck 
measure  of  loose  earth,  which  is^  equivalent  to  about  0.8  cu. 
yd.  measured  in  cut;  and  this  is  all  that  a  team  can  haul  over 
temporary  or  soft  roads  such  as  are  encountered  in  railroad,  res- 
ervoir work,  or  the  like,  where  steep  uphill  pulls  are  common. 
Cole  (see  Gillespie)  gives  the  average  load  at  %  cu.  yd.  place 
measure,  on  canal  work  that  he  was  in  charge  of.  In  city 
work,  and  generally  in  any  road  improvement  work,  where  the 
roads  are  hard  earth,  even  though  there  may  be  occasional  short 
level  pulls  at  each  end  of  the  haul  through  plowed  earth,  the  large 
wagon  box  may  be  used  with  a  load  varying  from  1.25  to  1.5 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       185 

cu.  yd.  place  measure;  the  average  given  in  the  Seventh  Annual 
Mass.  Highway  Comr's  Report  was  1.4  cu.  yd. 

The  average  speed  of  a  team  walking  steadily  over  hard  roads 
with  a  large  load,  and  returning  at  a  walk  empty,  is  about 
2i£  miles  an  hour,  or  220  ft.  a  minute,  ff  there  are  any  delays 
in  loading  or  unloading,  a  team  can  usually  make  up  for  such 
delays  by  trotting  back  at  4  or  5  miles  an  hour,  if  the  roads  are 
hard  and  level;  so  that  where  engineers  often  criticise  contractors 
who  appear  to  be  losing  money  when  teams  are  standing  idle, 
the  truth  may  be  that  the  team  is  daily  covering  its  20  miles  on 
earth  roads  to  25  miles  on  paved  roads  —  all  that  can  be  expected 
anyway.  Thus  with  a  haul  of  1.25  miles  or  more  from  a  sand 
pit,  it  does  not  pay  to  employ  shovelers  to  load  the  wagons,  for 
each  driver  can  load  his  own  wagon  in  52  min.  with  1.33  cu. 
yd.  of  sand.  The  driver  then  gets  a  long  rest  while  the  team 
works;  and  by  trotting  the  team  back  it  will  cover  20  to  25  miles 
in  the  day,  unless  it  happens  that  the  length  of  haul  is  such  that 
an  even  number  of  round  trips  cannot  be  made  in  the  8  or  10 
hr.  available.  Where  the  hauls  are  long,  contractors  should 
bear  this  last  fact  in  mind,  otherwise  it  may  transpire  that  the 
hauling  will  cost  some  20%  more  than  is  es'timated,  unless 
the  teams  can  be  used  in  plowing  or  otherwise  for  an  hour  or  so 
daily,  to  piece  out  the  full  day.  Ordinarily  15  to  30  min.  are 
lost  each  morning  in  waiting  to  be  loaded. 

Where  the  hauls  are  0.5  mile  to  1.25  miles,  one  man  in  a  sand 
pit  to  help  the  drivers  load  is  all  that  is  needed  for  economy. 

On  short  hauls,  under  favorable  conditions,  the  method  of  using 
extra  wagons  is  especially  to  be  recommended.  The  extra  wagons 
are  left  in  the  pit,  and  one  or  more  men  load  them  while  the 
team  is  gone;  upon  its  return,  the  teamster  changes  from  the 
empty  to  the  loaded  wagon  in  about  1.5  min.  By  this  method 
both  shovelers  and  teamsters  are  in  a  treadmill  where  it  is  easy 
to  fix  responsibility  for  loaiing,  so  that  one  foreman,  or  even  no 
foreman  at  "all,  is  needed  for  constant  supervision  of  both 
gangs.  This  plan  is  good  also  where  hauls  are  long  and  over 
soft  roads  where  teams  cannot  trot  back  making  up  for  lost 
time. 

Where  teamsters'  unions  exist,  as  in  some  cities,  teamsters 
will  frequently  refuse  to  do  any  shoveling  at  all.  Unless  team- 
sters are  distinctly  given  to  understand  at  the  start  that  they 
must  shovel  when  ordered,  and  must  use  the  kind  of  wagon 
box  designated  by  the  contractor,  there  may  be  a  strike  unless 
work  is  scarce. 

A  contractor  should  always  be  guarded  in  counting  upon  any 
money-saving  methods  wherever  he  finds  wages  are  high;  for  high 


186  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

wages  generally  indicate  a  scarcity  of  men,  which  in  turn  means 
that  they  will  leave  at  the  slightest  provocation.  While  well- 
paid  men  are  the  most  cheerful  workers,  a  rising  labor  market 
breeds  an  independence  among  the  laborers  that  makes  it  often 
impossible  to  secure  a  fair  day's  work.  For  example,  well-paid 
.teamsters  had  been  hauling  1.25  cu.  yd.  of  stone  over  hard  earth 
roads  and  steep  grades,  but  upon  changing  them  to  level  ma- 
cadam roads  they  refused  to  haul  any  greater  loads,  despite  the 
fact  that  with  no  greater  exertion  a  team  could  haul  2.5  cu.  yd. 
Nothing  but  the  purchase  of  a  few  teams  by  the  contractor  pre- 
vented a  strike,  and  secured  proper  loading. 

It  is  human  nature  apparently  to  "  make  the  job  last,"  although 
it  is  a  mistaken  economy  in  the  end  to  do  so.  Dishonest  team- 
sters will  frequently  pull  out-  one  of  the  bottom  slats  of  their 
wagon,  and  drop  the  side  boards  so  that  the  wagon  will  hold 
about  14  cu.  yd.  less  than  it  is  supposed  to.  Binding  chains 
around  the  body  are  often  drawn  up  so  tight  as  to  pinch  the 
top  of  the  side  boards  in  6  in.  The  seat  may  not  be  removed  in 
loading,  leaving  a  large  unfilled  space  at  the  front  end  of  the 
wagon.  An  inexperienced  or  inefficient  foreman,  by  not  guard- 
ing against  these  things,  will  cost  his  employers  several  times 
his  salary. 

Large  wagon  boxes  should  be  used  wherever  possible,  and 
occasionally  it  may  pay  to  have  a  "  snatch  team "  ( an  extra 
team)  to  get  a  load  out  of  the  pit,  or  over  steep  hills;  but  a 
snatch  team  never  pays  where  the  haul  is  much  less  than  1/4 
mile.  Where  the  hauls  are  very  long,  teams  can  travel  in  pairs 
and  upon  coming  to  a  steep  grade  can  help  one  another  over  it, 
each  acting  in  turn  as  the  snatch  team  for  the  other. 

As  another  expedient  for  increasing  the  size  of  wagon  loads 
there  is  the  use  of  a  three-horse  team,  three  horses  being  worked 
abreast;  thus  the  fixed  expense  of  the  driver  is  reduced  by  one- 
third,  since  a  load  fully  50%  greater  can  be  hauled  by  three 
horses  than  by  two.  Three  horses  cannot  pull  exactly  together, 
but  this  is  made  up  for  by  the  decrease  in  the  proportionate  dead 
load  of  the  wagon,  and  by  the  decrease  in  the  coefficient  of  fric- 
tion under  greater  wheel  loads. 

In  the  far  West  two  teams  are  often  hitched  to  one  wagon, 
driven  by  one  man ;  but  it  is  not  easy  in  the  East  to  find  "  four- 
up  "  drivers. 

Rule.  To  find  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  average  earth  moved 
in  %-cu.  yd.  wagons,  add  the  following  items: 

y2Q  hr.'s  wages  of  team  with  driver  and  helper  plowing; 
%  hr.'s  wages  of  laborer  shoveling; 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       187 

1/7  lir.'s  wages  of  team  with  driver,  "lost  time"; 
1/J5  nr-'s  wages  of  laborer  dumping  wagons. 

Then  add  finally  %0  hr.'s  wages  of  team  with  driver  for  each 
100  ft.  of  haul.  With  wages  of  man  at  30  ct.  and  of  team  with 
driver  at  60  ct.  per  hr.  this  rule  becomes:  To  a  fixed  cost  of 
35  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  add  1.2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  100  ft.  of  haul 
over  soft  earth  roads  with  steep  ascents. 

If  the  road  is  hard  earth  and  fairly  level,  a  1.5  cu.  yd.  load 
may  be  hauled;  then  the  hauling  cost,  exclusive  of  loading,  etc., 
is  0.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  per  100  ft.  of  haul. 

The  "  haul "  is  to  be  measured  along  the  road  from  pit  to 
dump,  one  way  only. 

Work  of  Teams.  A  "  team,"  as  used  in  this  book,  means  a  pair 
of  horses  and  their  driver.  Even  where  the  word  driver  is 
omitted  in  speaking  of  the  cost  of  team  work,  the  wages  of  the 
driver  are  always  included  under  the  word  "  team." 

A  good  average  team  is  capable  of  traveling  20  miles  in  10  hr., 
going  10  miles  loaded  and  returning  10  miles  empty,  over  fairly 
hard  earth  roads.  If  the  team  is  traveling  constantly  over  soft 
ground,  15  miles  is  a  good  day's  work.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
team  is  traveling  over  good  gravel  or  macadam  roads,  or  paved 
streets,  it  is  possible  to  average  25  miles  per  10-hr.'  day.  These 
rates  include  the  occasional  stops  made  for  rests,  etc.,  and  include 
the  climbing  of  an  occasional  hill. 

When  traveling  at  the  rate  of  2^  miles  an  hour,  which  is  the 
ordinary  walking  gait  of  horses,  the  distance  covered  in  1  min.  is 
220  ft.  Over  good  hard  roads  a  team  may  trot  with  an  empty 
wagon  at  the  rate  of  5  miles  per  hr.,  and  thus  make  up  for  delays 
in  loading  and  unloading,  so  as  to  cover  the  full  20  miles  of  daily 
work;  but  over  soft  ground  a  team  should  not  trot. 

The  loads  that  a  team  can  haul  (in  addition  to  the  weight  of 
the  wragon)  over  different  kinds  of  roads  are  as  follows: 

Earth 
Short  tons  cu.  yd. 

Very  poor  earth  road    1.0  0.8 

Poor  earth  road    1.25  1.0 

Good  hard   earth   road    1.6 

Good   clean   macadam  road    3.0  2.4 

It  is  not  possible  to  haul  much  greater  loads  over  an  asphalt  or 
brick  pavement  than  over  a  first-class,  clean  macadam.  On  all 
the  kinds  of  roads  to  which  the  above  averages  apply,  there  may 
be  occasional  steep  grades  to  ascend,  and  occasional  "bad  spots 
to  pass  over. 

The  pulling  power  of  a  horse  averages  about  one-tenth  of  his 
weight  when  exerted  steadily  for  10  hr.;  that  is,  a  1,200-lb.  horse 


188  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

will  exert  an  average  pull  of  120  Ib.  on  the  traces.  But  for  a 
short  space  of  time  the  horse  can  exert  a  pull  (if  he  has  a  good 
foothold)  equal  to  about  four-tenths  his  weight,  that  is,  four 
times  his  average  all^day  pull.  This  I  have  tested  with  teams, 
not  only  in  ascending  steep  grades  but  in  lifting  the  hammer  of  a 
horse-operated  pile  driver. 

Where  teams  are  traveling  long  distances,  it  is  customary  to 
have  two  wagons  keep  together,  so  that  one  team  can  help  the 
other  up  a  steep  hill  by  acting  as  a  "  snatch  team."  A  "  snatch 
team,"  or  helping  team,  may  often  be  kept  busy  to  advantage  in 
pulling  heavily  loaded  teams  out  of  a  pit,  or  onto  a  soft  em- 
bankment, or  up  a  steep  grade.  Three-horse  snatch  teams  are 
frequently  used  A  small  hoisting  engine  may  replace  a  snatch 
team  to  advantage  in  many  places.  By  laying  channel  irons  for 
rails  up  a  steep  hill,  and  having  a  hoisting  engine  at  the  top, 
very  heavy  loads  can  be  assisted  over  bad  roads.  In  this  case, 
a  boy  mounted  on  a  pony  can  drag  the  hoisting  rope  back  to 
the  foot  of  the  hill  ready  for  the  next  team.  Plank  roads  can 
often  be  built  to  advantage  for  short  distances  up  steep  grades, 
or  over  bad  spots. 

In  the  far  West  it  is  customary  for  three  or  more  teams  to  be 
hitched  to  a  train  of  two  or  more  wagons;  and,  when  a  steep  hill 
is  to  be  ascended,  to  haul  one  wagon  up  at  a  time.  This  saves 
wages  of  drivers. 

See  Gillette's  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data  "  for  further  informa- 
tion on  the  work  of  teams  and  on  the  cost  of  detail  feeding  and 
maintaining  horses  and  mules. 

Use  of  Snatch  Teams.  When  wagon  teams  have  to  go  up  heavy 
grades,  as  from  cellar  excavations  and  deep  pits,  or  even  on 
hilly  roads  a  snatch  team  should  be  used  to  assist  the  regular 
team.  It  must  be  remembered  in  all  hauling,  that  the  heaviest 
grade  on  the  road  or  runway,  sets  the  limit  on  the  size  of  the 
load,  hence  in  most  hauling  and  especially  in  hauling  excavated 
material,  the  use  of  a  snatch  team  means  the  increasing  of  the 
regular  loads  hauled,  thus  reducing  the  cost  of  transportation. 
Many  contractors  use  a  three-horse  snatch  team,  and  as  a  rule 
for  wagon  work  such  a  team  is  better  than  two  horses,  but  for 
most  work,  the  writer  prefers  a  four-horse  snatch  team,  worked 
in  two  pairs.  Such  a  team  with  a  limited  number  of  wagons 
means  a  larger  load  hauled  without  fatigue  to  the  wagon  team, 
and  with  a  large  number  of  wagons,  it  frequently  happens  that 
two  wagons  are  loaded  at  about  the  same  time,  when  the  four- 
horse  team  can  be  divided  into  two  snatch  teams  and  the  two 
loads  are  started  to  the  dump  without  waste  of  time.  Then,  too, 
with  a  four-horse  team,  two  of  the  horses  can  be  used  as  a  load 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      180 


team  for  the  plow,  having  only  two  horses  on  the  plow  regu- 
larly. Four  horses  may  be  needed  on  the  plow  to  break  the 
ground  for  the  first  plowing,  but  the  second  time  the  material 
is  plowed,  only  two  horses  need  be  used,  dispensing  with  the 
load  team,  which  can  be  again  joined  to  the  snatch  team. 

The  four-horse  snatch  team  is  well  adapted  to  do  this  kind  of 
work  when  three  horses  are  used  on  the  wagons.  Most  contrac- 
tors work  only  two  horses  on  their  wagons,  and  the  writer  be- 

,C-.. 


1 
1 


uf^w 


NEWS. 


Fig.  12.     Roadway  for  Contractor's  Wagons. 

lieves  that  this  is  a  mistake.  Most  of  the  coal  dealers  in  our 
larger  cities  have  learned  that  much  better  work  is  done  by  a 
three-horse  team  than  with  two,  and  to-day  it  is  a  common 
sight  to  see  three  horses  hitched  to  a  coal  wagon.  The  same 
principle  applies  to  a  contractor's  hauling.  In  keeping  the 
records  of  many  thousand  loads  of  earth  hauled  in  bottom  wagons 
of  \y<z  and  2  cu.  yd.  capacity,  it  was  found  that  the  average  load 
hauled  with  two  horses  was  1  cu.  yd.,  place  measurement.  With 


100 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


three  horses  even  with  a  2  cu.  yd.  capacity  wagon  a  load  from 
1^4  to  1}£  cu.  yd.  could  be  hauled  and  on  good  roads  or  streets 
with  a  larger  capacity  wagon  a  larger  load  could  be  carried. 
The  dead  weight  would  remain  nominally  the  same,  the  extra 
load  being  entirely  of  the  material  being  hauled.  The  increased 
cost  is  the  hire  of  an  extra  horse,  or  the  expense  of  feeding  and 
caring  for  this  horse.  Thus  with  the  cost  of  a  horse  at  $1.00 
per  day  and  a  driver  at  $1.50  per  day,  the  cost  of  a  three-horse 


Fig.  13.    Plan  of  Movable  Hopper. 

team,  making  an  allowance  of  25  ct.  for  the  wagon,  is  $4.75 
against  $3.75  for  a  two-horse  team.  Thus  with  a  two-horse  team, 
hauling  10  cu.  yd.  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  37.5  ct.  per  yd.,  a  three- 
horse  team  will  haul  15  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost  of  31.7  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
Special  Wagon  Track.  A  track  of  I  beams  and  timbers  was 
used  on  the  soft  fill  at  Grant  Park,  Chicago.  This  device  was 
patented  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Newman.  It  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  12, 
which  is  taken  from  Engineering  News,  Aug.  24,  1905. 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       191 

A  Movable  Hopper  for  Excavated  Material.  When  excavated 
material  must  be  removed  rapidly  in  wagons  because  of  the  lack 
of  space  and  facilities  for  storing  it,  and  when  the  machinery 
or  the  work  is  of  such  character  that  it  is  not  possible  or  eco- 
nomical to  cease  working  when  waiting  for  wagons,  a  storage  bin 


Fig.  14.     Section  A-A  of  Movable  Hopper. 


is  advisable.  Such  a  bin  was  used  to  store  sand  excavated  from 
the  foundation  caissons  of  the  New  York  Municipal  building. 
It  was  described  and  illustrated  by  Mr.  Maurice  Deutsch,  in  the 
School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  Nov.,  1910.  See  Figs  13-15.  Another 
movable  hopper  for  use  with  derricks  is  described  in  Chap. 
XII. 


102 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


A  Wagon  Gravel  Screen  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  16.  This  de- 
vice was  designed  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Earle,  Highway  Commissioner 
of  Michigan.  In  operation  the  bank  mixture  of  sand  and  gravel 
is  thrown  across  the  wagon  onto  the  screen;  the  sand  drops 
through  the  meshes  and  the  gravel  falls  into  the  wagon.  In 
order  to  obtain  a  proper  mixture  of  sand  and  gravel,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  throw  a  certain  number  of  shovelfuls  as  1  in  3  or 


Section  B-B 

Fig.  15.     Section  B-B  of  Movable  Hopper. 

4,  directly  into  the  wagon.  The  Fig.  is  taken  from  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Aug.  18,  1909. 

A  similar  device  with  the  addition  of  a  target  on  the  screen 
is  shown  in  Fig.  17.  This  does  away  with  having  to  throw 
material  across  the  wagon  and  so  keeps,  the  material  cleaner  and 
lightens  labor.  The  addition  of  the  target  is  suggested  by  F.  M. 
Hough  in  Engineering  ~S eics-Record,  Aug.  16,  1017. 

Car  Side  Wagon  Loaders,  or  "  Skip  Loaders."  These  are  of  in- 
terest to  every  owner  of  hauling  equipment.  One  or  two  men  left 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       193 

in  a  car  of  sand,  broken  stone,  etc.,  can  charge  the  wagon  loaders 
in  the  absence  of  the  teams;  thus  no  time  is  lost  by  teams  waiting 
to  be  loaded  at  the  car. 

The  Lee  tilting  wagon  loader  consists  of  a  set  of  folding  stand- 


Fig.    16.    Device  for  Screening  Gravel  Used  with   Slat  Bottom 
Dump  Wagon. 


Fig.  17.    Target  Attachment  for  Gravel  Screen. 

ards  of  any  length  desired  supporting  a  tilting  bucket  of  1.5,  2, 
2.5,  or  3  cu.  yd.  capacity.  Dumping  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  levers  operated  by  one  man  on  the  car. 

'Several  other  makes  of  car  side  loaders  are  available.     Most 
of  these  are  designed  to  be  attached  to  the  side  of  the  car  to  which 


194 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


they  doubtless  impart  a  load  that  the  car  was  never  designed  to 
sustain. 

Fig.  20  shows  a  car  side  wagon  loader  made  by  the  Heltzel 
Steel  Form  and  Iron  Co.  of  Warren,  Ohio. 

Air  Jet  Used  to  Load  Wagons  from  a  Hopper.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  July  15,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

In  excavating  the  foundations  for  the  Hudson  Terminal  Build- 
ings, the  material  was  loaded  into  a  bucket  suspended  from  a 
carriage  that  ran  on  an  I-beam.  The  bucket  was  run  over  a  hop- 


Fig.  18.     Lee  Tilting  Wagon  Loader. 

per,  into  which  it  discharged  its  load.  Wagons  were  loaded  from 
the  hopper.  The  excavated  material  consisted  'of  stiff  wet  clay 
and  quicksand. 

The  water  from  the  quicksand  puddled  the  clay  and  compacted 
it  so  solidly  that  when  the  sliding  door  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hopper  (see  illustration)  was  opened  to  discharge  the  material 
into  a  waiting  wagon  below,  the  clay  arched  itself  and  it  would 
not  slip  by  gravity.  This  made  it  necessary  to  keep  three  to 
four  men  on  a  platform  over  the  hopper  to  cut  the  material  out 
by  poking  it  with  heavy  slice  bars.  To  load  a  2-cu.  yd.  wagon 
in  this  manner,  took  about  10  min.,  there  seldom  being  loaded 
more  than  60  loads  a  day  from  one  hopper. 

It  was  accordingly  decided  to  try  an   air  jet  to  relieve  these 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS     105 

conditions.  A  pipe  was  run  from  the  compressor  plant,  and  a 
valve  placed  on  it  convenient  to  the  platform  on  which  the  men 
worked.  A  hose  was  attached  to  the  pipe  and  at  the  end  of  the 
hose  a  piece  of  1-in.  pipe  4  or  5  ft.  long  was  fastened.  This 
short  piece  of  pipe  was  run  down  into  the  dirt  and  when  a  wagon 
was  ready  to  be  loaded  the  air  was  turned  on.  The  air  ..caused  the 
earth  to  slide  and  the  wagon  was  quickly  loaded. 

The   number  of   teams   were   at   once   increased   and   in    10   hr. 
from  100  to  120  wagons  were  now  loaded  at  a  single  hopper.     The 


Fig.  19.     Insley  Carside  Hopper. 

largest  day's  work  was  143  wagons  loaded  in  a  day  at  each  hop- 
per, or  429  at  the  three  hoppers.  At  times  as  high  as  20  wagons 
were  loaded  in  an  hr.,  being  at  the  rate  of  one  every  3  min. 

Only  one  man  was  needed  at  the  hopper,  thus  saving  the  labor 
of  nine  men  for  the  three  hoppers.  A  2-in.  pipe  ran  from  the 
compressor  with  air  at  80  Ib. 

Dumping  Wagons  with  a  Derrick.  Engineering  News,  June 
17,  1915,  gives  an  account  of  an  unusual  method  of  unloading 
wagons  in  back-filling  a  pier  of  the  Detroit-Superior  viaduct  in 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  The  horses  were  unhitched,  the  loaded  wagon 
was  hooked  to  slings,  lifted  by  a  derrick  and  swung  out  over  the 


196 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      197 

CARRIAGE   CABLE. 
13*1  BEAM 


REVERSIBLE 
ELECTRIC  HOST 


Fig.  21.     Arrangement  for  Loading  Wagons  with  Air  Jet. 

fill  by  a  derrick.  A  man  riding  the  wagon  dumped  it  at  the 
proper  time  and  returned  with  it  to  land. 

Miscellaneous  Data  on  Handling  Earth  with  Wagons.  J.  M. 
Brown,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Iowa  Society  of  Engineers, 
1885,  gave  the  following: 

The  earth  was  Iowa  surface  soil  excavated  to  make  a  railroad 
embankment.  Two-horse  wagons  holding  1.6  cu.  yd.  were  used 
when  hauls  became  800  ft.  or  more;  for  shorter  hauls  wheel 
scrapers  were  used.  There  were  five  to  seven  shovelers  to  load  a 
wagon,  each  man  shoveling  15  to  20  cu.  yd.,  average  17  cu.'yd. 
per  day  of  10  hr.  For  an  800-ft.  haul  the  force  used  was: 

1  plow  team,  driver  and  man  holding  plow. 
21  shovelers    (3  gangs  of  7  each). 
9  wagons   (3  gangs  of  3  each). 
1  foreman. 

Jiq    ••  .  ,'iit      l-itftl,    "I^'AO     ~.JV  fVf»fl  4     ^B"//    I  ••:••!•'    •ML) 

The  earth  moved  by  this  force  was  360  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  With 
wages  at  15  ct.  an  hr.  for  laborers  and  35  ct.  for  team  with 
driver,  including  an  allowance  for  wear  and  tear  on  tools,  the 

cost  was: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Plowing     1.66  ct. 

Shoveling    (17  cu.  yd.  per  man)    8.75  ct. 

Foreman   and  dumping 1.20  ct. 

Total     11.61  ct. 

Hauling    (including  lost  time)    800  ft 9.03  ct. 

Grand   total    20.64  ct.  - 


198  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Since  each  team  hauled  only  40  cu.  yd.  800  ft.  in  10  hr. 
at  a  cost  of  1.12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  per  100  ft.  it  would  appear  at 
first  sight  that  the  wagons  could  not  have  held  1.6  cu.  yd.  each 
as  stated;  but  when  team  time  lost  at  each  end  of  haul  in  waiting 
to  load  and  dump  is  considered,  we  have  an  explanation  of  the 
high  cost  of  9  ct.  for  an  800-ft.  haul.  Mr.  Brown  adds  that 
for  every  200  ft.  of  added  haul,  one  more  team  must  be  added  to 
the  force  above  given,  which  is  about  right,  but  indicates  that  no 
such  load  as  1.6  cu.  yd.  place  measure  was  carried. 

As  illustrating  what  can  be  done  when  work  is  rushed  and  the 
force  driven  to  its  limiting  capacity,  Mr.  Brown  gives  an  example 
of  an  embankment  1.25  miles  long,  10  ft.  high,,  containing  1P,500 
cu.  yd.  built  in  20  days.  The  haul  was  by  wagons  from  borrow 
pits  1,300  ft.  away.  Each  team  made  40  trips  a  day,  or  nearly 
20  miles;  each  man  loaded  28  cu.  yd.  The  cost  was  5.46  ct.  for 
shoveling,  6.25  ct.  for  team  time  on  wagons,  and  6.87  ct.  for 
plowing,  clearing,  foremen,  etc.  Estimating  backward  from  these 
data  it  appears  that  each  wagon  carried  about  1.25  cu.  yd., 
which  is  in  accord  with  the  author's  experience. 

The  following  examples  of  the  cost  of  loading  and  hauling 
with  wagons  are  taken  from  the  author's  time-books: 

Cellar  Excavation,  No.  1.  35  men  shoveling,  10  men  picking 
and  trimming,  output  500  wagon  loads  of  sandy  earth  in  10 
hr. ;  each  wagon  averaged  1.5  cu.  yd.  loose  measure,  so  that  each 
shoveler  loaded  21  cu.  yd.  of  loose  earth  per  day,  which  was  prob- 
ably equivalent  to  16  cu.  yd.  in  cut. 

Cellar  No.  2.  14  shovelers  loaded  23  wagon  loads  in  75  min., 
or  at  the  rate  of  one  wagon  load  per  shoveler  in  45  min.  Wagons 
held  1.5  cu.  yd.  loose  measure,  hence  each  shoveler  averaged 
20  cu.  yd.  loose  measure  in  10  hr.  which  is  probably  equivalent 
to.  16  cu.  yd.  in  cut.  Later,  8  shovelers  loaded  the  same  wagons 
in  from  3  to  5  min.  time  for  each  wagon  load,  the  average  of  10 
loads  being  4  min.,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  rate  of  27  cu.  yd. 
loose  earth  shoveled  per  man-day  or  say  21  cu.  yd.  in  place. 
The  haul  was  4,350  ft.,  over  level  pavements,  except  at  the  pit 
and  at  the  dump,  and  the  round  trip  took  29  min.  on  an  average, 
teams  jogging  back  part  of  the  way  at  a  trot,  so  that  the  average 
speed  going  and  coming  was  300  ft.  per  min.  The  earth  was 
easily  plowed  by  one  team  with  a  driver  and  a  plow  holder  who 
loosened  300  cu.  yd.  a  day.  It  will  be  noted  that  when  14  shov- 
elers were  crowded  about  each  wagon,  each  she  Jer  loaded  at  the 
rate  of  a  wagon  load  in  45  min.  as  compared  with  32  min.  when 
only  8  shovelers  were  engaged,  showing  the  poor  economy  result- 
ing from  crowding  the  men  about  the  wagon. 

Embankment  Approach  to  Bridge.     8  shovelers  in  pit,  1  man 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       199 

on  dump,  7  teams  hauling  wagons,  1  team  plowing;  output,  140 
wagon  loads  of  gravel  per  10-hr,  day,  with  a  3,000-ft.  haul.  Road 
level,  except  coming  out  oi  pit,  wagon  load,  1  cu.  yd.  loose 
measure,  17.5  cu.  yd.  loose  gravel  loaded  per  shoveler  which  is 
probably  equivalent  to  13  cu.  yd.  in  place;  each  team  traveled 
22.5  miles  daily;  time  lost  in  dumping  was  1  min. 

Dike  No.  1.  3,800  cu.  yd.  sandy  gravel  measured  in  fill,  hauled 
2,000  ft.,  required  300  man-days  and  150  team-  (with  driver) 
days,  at  a  cost  of  25.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.;  12.75  cu.  yd.  per  man-day, 
including  dump  men,  and  25.3  cu.  yd.  per  team-day,  including 
plow  teams. 

Dike  No.  2.  6,500  cu.  yd.  of  loam,  measured  in  fill,  moved  800 
ft.  on  an  average  with  wagons  and  No.  2  wheel-scrapers,  of  which 
3,700  cu.  yd.  were  hauled  1,100  ft.  with  wagons,  and  2,800  cu.  yd. 
were  hauled  400  ft.  with  wheelers,  380  man-days  (10  hr.)  at 
$1.50,  and  280  team-days  at  $3.50  were  required,  making  the  cost 
24  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  as  the  average  of  both  wheel-scraper  and  wagon 
work.  6  shovelers  load  a  wagon  with  1.25  cu.  yd.  loose  measure 
in  3.5  min.,  and  the  man  on  the  dump  helped  by  the  driver  dump 
wagon  in  1  min. 

Dike  No.  3.  5  shovelers  at  $1.50  per  10-hr,  day,  2  teams  at 
$3.50  and  1  man  dumping  and  spreading,  moved  540  cu.  yd.  coarse 
gravel,  measured  in  fill,  a  distance  of  1,600  ft.,  in  8.5  days;  12.75 
cu.  yd.  per  day  per  shoveler;  31.75  cu.  yd.  per  day  per  team;  63.5 
cu.  yd.  per  day  per  dump  man. 

Loading  Dump  Wagons  with  Scrapers  and  "  Traps."  In  the 
work  described,  Troy  dump  wagons  were  driven  under  a  platform, 


Fig.  22.     Trap  for  Loading  Wagons  by  Drag  Scrapers. 

or  "  trap,"  Fig.  22,  and  loaded  by  drag  scrapers,  which  were 
dumped  through  a  hole  in  the  platform.  The  work  was  the  ex- 
cavation of  a  street  in  a  Western  city,  and  the  methods  and  costs 
were  noted  by  a  representative  of  Engineering-Contracting, 


200  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Jan.  23,  1907.  The  street  in  question  had  a  grade  of  about 
6%,  and  the  average  cut  was  2  ft.  The  drag  scrapers  were 
loaded  and  hauled  down  hill  to  the  loading  platform. 

In  the  center  of  the  platform  was  a  hole  2  ft.  square,  and  in 
front  of  the  hole  was  nailed  a  cleat.  This  cleat  served  to  catch 
the  front  edge  of  the  drag  scraper  and  dumped  it  automatically. 
Still  it  was  found  advisable  to  have  a  dump  man  on  the  platform 
to  assist  in  dumping  the  scraper  and  to  shovel  any  scattered  dirt 
into  the  hole.  On  the  side  of  the  hole  opposite  the  cleat  was 
nailed  a  board  which  hung  downward  below  the  hole.  This  board 
served  to  prevent  any  dirt  from  spilling  over  the  side  of  the 
wagon  which  stood  under  the  hole. 

On  each  end  of  the  platform  was  an  inclined  runway.  The  run- 
way on  the  left  side  was  very  steep,  as  shown  in  the  drawing, 
and  earth  was  piled  up  against  it.  The  runway  on  the  right  side 
had  a  slope  of  7y2  ft.  in  20  ft.  The  teams  came  up  on  the  left 
side  and  descended  on  the  right  side  of  the  platform. 

Those  who  are  used  to  handling  drag  scrapers  know  that  a 
scraper  can  readily  be  hauled  up  a  slope  of  1  ft.  rise  in  2X£  ft., 
which  makes  it  unnecessary  to  have  long  runways. 

The  platform  need  not  have  a  height  of  more  than  7  or  7^ 
ft.  in  the  clear.  If  the  ground  is  very  soft,  it  is  often  desirable 
to  lay  a  plank  roadway  under  the  platform,  for  the  wagons  to 
travel  over. 

On  this  particular  job  there  were  5  scraper  teams  and  1  plow 
team,  beside  the  wagons.  The  wagon  loads  were  very  large,  prob- 
ably averaging  2  cu.  yd.  of  earth  measured  in  place,  and  it  took 
12  drag  scraper  loads  to  fill  a  wagon,  which  was  done  at  an  aver- 
age rate  of  5i£  to  6  minutes  per  wagon.  This  is  at  the  rate  of 
more  than  20  cu.  yd.  loaded  per  hr.  The  average  distance  from 
the  point  of  loading  to  the  platform  in  a  direct  line  (the  "  lead  ") 
was  120  ft.,  which  was  an  unus  ally  long  "  lead  "  for  drag  scraper 
work. 

The  cost  of  loading  the  earth  was  as  follows: 

Per  hour 

1  plow    team    $0.40 

1  man  holding  plow   0.20 

5  scraper    teams   at   $0.40    2.00 

1  man  loading  scrapers    0.20 

1  man   dumping  scrapers    0.20 

Total,   20  cu.  yd.   at  15  ct $3.00 

It  will  be  'seen  that  each  scraper  averaged  4  cu.  yd.  loaded  per 
hr. 

On  another  job  where  the  traps  were  moved  more  frequently, 
the  lead  was  about  50  ft.,  and  3  scraper  teams  loaded  a  wagon 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      201 

with  12  scraper  loads  every  6  min.  This  was  at  the  rate  of  6.7 
cu.  yd.  per  team  per  hr.,  but  it  is  too  high  an  output  to  be 
counted  on  even  with  so  short  a  haul  and  the  easiest  kind  of  dirt. 
For  a  trap  10  x  12  ft.  and  two  runways  10  ft.  wide  and  20  ft. 
long,  the  following  is  a  bill  of  material: 

Ft.  B.  M. 

50  planks,  2  x  12  in.  x  10  ft 1,000 

5  stringers,  6  x  6  in.  x  12  ft 180 

5  stringers,   6  x  6  in.  x  20  ft 300 

2  caps,  6  x  6  in.  x  10  ft 60 

6  posts,  6  x  6  in.  x  8  ft 144 

Total     1,684 

The  material,  at  $25  per  M,  would  cost  about  $42.  There  is 
practically  no  framing,  hence  the  cost  of  erecting  and  taking  down 
a  platform  does  not  exceed  $2.50  per  M,  or  $4  each  time  the  plat- 
form is  moved.  Assume  that  a  street  30  ft.  wide  is  to  be  exca- 
vated to  a  depth  of  2  ft.,  and  that  the  earth  is  to  be  hauled  to 
the  platform  for  a  distance  of  130  ft.  on  each  side  of  the  plat- 
form. Then 

2  X  30  X  270  -=-  27  =  600  cu.  yd. 

Hence  600  cu.  yd.  would  be  loaded  before  moving  the  platform, 
and,  since  it  costs  only  $4  to  move  and  erect  the  platform,  we 
have  a  cost  of  $4  -^  600,  or  two-thirds  of  a  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Frequently  it  is  desired  to  load  earth  from  a  hillside.  Fig. 
23  shows  a  trap  used  for  this  purpose,  where  wagons  were  loaded 


' 


B 


Fig.  23.     Method  of  Loading  Wagons  on  a  Side  Hill. 

with  sand.  In  this  case  the  wagons  were  not  driven  under  the 
platform,  but  were  driven  in  front  of  it,  and  a  chute  from  the 
hole  in  the  platform  served  to  deliver  the  sand  into  the  wagon. 
The  driver  used  a  hoe  to  assist  the  sand  in  running  and  to  "  trim  " 
the  load. 

It  suggests  itself  to  us  that  in  a  case  like  this,  if  a  large  quan- 
tity of  sand  or  gravel  were  to  be  loaded  at  one  spot,  it  might  be 


202  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

well  to  provide  storage  bins  into  which  the  scrapers  would  dump 
their  loads.  A  wagon  can  be  loaded  from  a  bin  in  1  to  l]fa  rain. 

Wagons  Loaded  Through  a  Trap  by  Fresno  Scrapers.  Contrib- 
uted by  W.  A.  Gillette  to  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  17, 
1912. 

I  have  taken  the  following  data  from  my  daily  reports  on  an 
earth  job  running  for  four  months  and  involving  the  moving  of 
206,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  on  a  section  of  the  main  canal  on  the 
Yuma  reclamation  work.  The  work  consisted  in  building  a  canal 
84  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  124  ft.  on  the  top,  10  ft.  deep,  top  of 
embankment  20  ft.  wide,  inside  slopes  2  to  1,  outside  slope  3  to  1. 
The  cuts  averaged  about  5  ft.  However,  we  had  one  hillside  cut 
32  ft.,  and  much  of  the  work  was  hillside  cut  12  ft.  to  16  ft.,  the 
deepest  through  cut  being  about  12  ft.;  average  haul  was  about 
150  ft.,  extreme  haul  about  500  ft. 

The  material  was  largely  sand  and  gravel,  although  some  was 
so-called  volcanic  ash,  a  light  yellow  soil.  Very  little  plowing 
was  necessary,  most  of  it  being  done  with  a  farm  plow  and  two 
mules.  A  small  amount  required  four  mules  and  some  required 
six  mules. 

The  cost  per  yd.  was  nearly  18  ct.,  including  the  entire  cost  of 
moving  on  to  the  work  and  away,  which  was  about  2,500;  brush- 
ing and  clearing  cost  about  $800. 

In  California,  we  are  much  in  favor  of  the  fresnos  for  hauls 
up  to  200  ft.,  although  1  believe  150  ft.  is  their  economic  limit. 
Many  contractors  contend  that  a  fresno  is  good  up  to  400  ft., 
and  some  contractors  hold  that  a  fresno  will  beat  a  wheeler  at 
any  distance.  I  proved  to  my  satisfaction  on  this  work  that  a 
wheeler,  even  with  a  drop  front  gate,  is  practically  no  good  at  all, 
and  this  in  spite  of  my  previous  preference  for  wheelers.  I  do 
not  mean  to  condemn  the  self-loading  wheelers  with  the  tongue 
arranged  so  as  to  take  the  weight  off  the  neck  of  the  mules  be- 
cause I  have  never  used  them. 

I  can't  say  that  in  this  work  the  elevating  grader  had  a  fair 
chance,  because  the  soil  was  so  sandy  it  would  hardly  elevate, 
and  most  of  it  would  not  elevate  at  all,  besides  it  was  impossible 
to  maintain  or  form  a  firm  road  for  the  dump  wagons  to  travel 
over,  though  three  mules  were  used  on  a  2-cu.  yd.  dump  wagon. 

Upon  the  economic  failure  of  grader  and  wagons  for  hauls  of 
200  ft.  and  over,  I  tried  wheelers  up  to  400-ft.  haul.  I  soon 
found  that  it  was  costing  as  high  as  28  ct.  a  cu.  yd.;  and,  as  the 
bidding  price  was  21%  ct.,  I  knew  that  I  must  try  some  other 
method.  I  tried  the  fresnos  on  these  long  hauls  up  to  400  ft.,  and 
that  was  worse,  costing  as  high  as  33  ct.  a  cu.  yd.  Loading  in 
wagons  by  hand  was  out  of  the  question,  so  finally  I  decided  to 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      203 

try  loading  wagons  through  a  trap,  using  the  fresnos  to  load 
through  the  trap.  The  cut  was  about  12  ft.  in  which  there  were 
about  30,000  cu.  yd. 

The  first  move  was  to  make  a  trench  wide  enough  to  drive  a 
wagon  through  and  under  the  trap  and  deep  enough  to  place 
the  top  of  the  trap  4  ft.  above  the  finished  canal  bottom.  This 
was  done  so  as  not  to  be  compelled  to  lower  the  trap  or  raise 
the  bottom  dirt  over  4  ft.  to  the  top  of  the  trap.  The  trap  floor, 
which  rested  on  6  x  6-in.  posts,  eight  on  each  side,  was  24  ft. 
wide,  with  a  hole  24  x  30  in.  in  the  center,  through  which  the 
dirt  was  dumped.  On  each  side  of  the  hole  was  bolted  a  2  x  4-in. 


Fig.  24.     View  of  Trap  for  Loading  Dump  Wagons  by  Fresnos. 


cleat,  same  length  as  the  hole  (30  in.),  on  which  the  fresno 
blade  would  strike  to  assist  in  dumping  it.  Much  of  the  time" 
the  fresno  crossed  the  trap,  which  was  in  the  center  of  the  pit, 
from  both  directions. 

I  used  five  5-ft.  fresnos,  four  mules  each  and  driver,  two  fresno 
loaders,  one  dumper,  one  "  two-up "  plow,  and  five  "  three-up " 
wagons,  2  cu.  yd.,  most  of  the  time.  On  the  extreme  haul  six 
wagons  were  used. 

The  fixed  cost  for  loading  was  22  mules,  $22.00;  five  fresno 
drivers  at  $2.00,  $10.00;  sub-foreman,  $2.50;  one  plow  driver, 
$2.25;  two  fresno  loaders  at  $2.00,  $4.00;  one  dumper,  $2.00;  or 
a  total  of  $42.75  a  day.  We  loaded  on  the  average  one  wagon 
about  every  70  seconds  with  an  estimated  average  of  1%  cu.  yd., 
which  checked  closely  with  the  monthly  estimates,  or  730  cu.  yd. 


204  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

in  eight  hours,  or  146  cu.  yd.  per  fresno,  which  is  about  5i£  ct. 
a  cu.  yd.  for  loading  by  trap. 

With  an  elevating  grader  we  have  the  following  itemized  cost 
of  operation:  16  mules,  $16.00;  elevator  man,  $4.00;  conveyor 
man,  $2.50;  lead  driver,  $3.00;  push  driver,  $2.50;  or  total  $28.00; 
and,  based  on  the  same  amount  loaded,  which  would  also  be  a 
fair  average,  730  cu.  yd.  in  eight  hours,  we  have  a  loading  cost 
of  4  ct.  a  cu.  yd.  Therefore  where  there  is  room  for  a  grader, 
and  the  material  is  favorable,  the  grader  has  an  advantage  of 
1%  ct.  a  cu.  yd. 

It  can  be  seen  that  in  sand  or  loose  gravel,  or  where  the  lay 
of  the  ground  is  unfavorable,  or  the  quantity  of  excavation  is 
not  sufficient  to  warrant  the  purchase  of  an  elevating  grader,  the 
trap  method  is  excellent. 

The  hauling  cost  was  as  follows :  Five  "  three-up  "  wagons, 
15  mules,  $15.00;  5  wagon  drivers  at  $2.00,  $10.00;  1  dump  man, 
$2.50,  or  $27.50  per  day,  or  a  total  of  $70.25  per  day  of  8  hr.; 
about  8^  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

My  average  overhead  cost  chargeable  to  the  trap  gang  was 
$14.00  per  day,  and  this  included  superintendent,  time-keeper, 
blacksmith  and  helper,  camp  and  stable  help,  waterboy,  camp 
stock  working,  and  camp  stock  idle,  etc.  Adding  this  overhead 
item  made  $84.25  to  move  730  cu.  yd.  or  11^  ct.  a  cu.  yd. 

The  haul  increased  as  the  embankment  was  built  out,  so  that, 
at  the  last,  six  wagons  were  used.  From  the  trap  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  embankment  was  about  125  ft.,  and  the  dump  ex- 
tended out  about  300  ft.  further. 

We  were  able  to  load  as  high  as  1,000  cu.  yd.  many  days  with 
the  five  loading  fresnos,  or  200  cu.  yd.  per  fresno,  and  on  some 
days  more.  This  only  occurred  when  the  dirt  was  bucked  down 
hill  to  the  trap. 

.  I  think  the  reason  why  the  average  output  per  day  per  fresno 
was  only  146  cu.  yd.  was  due  to  a  shortage  of  wagons  under  the 
trap  more  than  to  inability  of  the  loading  outfit. 

This  low  cost  of  moving  dirt  by  trap  and  wagon  brings  out 
another  interesting  point,  namely  the  amor.nt  of  earth  which 
can  be  moved  by  fresnos  on  short  hauls.  This  pit  was,  on  an 
average,  104  ft.  wide.  The  extreme  distance  from  the  trap  hole 
to  end  of  pit  was  about  100  ft.,  showing  that  a  fresno  will  move 
200  cu.  yd.  in  eight  hours  on  a  down  hill  pull. 

Scrapers  Used  to  Load  Dump  Wagons.  The  Tabeaud  Dam 
near  Jackson,  Cal.,  was  constructed  of  earth  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Burr  Bassell.  In  the  beginning  a  steam  shovel  loading 
dump  wagons  was  employed,  but  the  large  percentage  of  stone  re- 
tained in  the  earth  by  this  method  of  excavation  did  not  meet  the 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      205 

requirements  of  the  engineers,  and  buck  scrapers  of  the  Fresno 
pattern  were  substituted.  These  scrapers  loaded  wagons  through 
a  trap  in  a  platform,  the  hole  being  20  by  40  in.  in  size.  In 
good  material  8  scrapers  filled  25  dump  wagons  per  hour,  the 
wagons  being  of  3-cu.  yd.  capacity.  All  rock  of  4  in.  in  diameter 
was  picked  out  by  hand.  The  haul  was  ^4  mile  long. 

Six  horse-power  graders  leveled  the  loads  of  dumped  material. 
Harrows  and  sprinklers  and  rollers  followed.  The  dam  was  made 
in  6  to  8-in.  layers.  One  roller  was  5  ft.  wide  and  weighed  5 
tons,  and  the  other  weighed  8  tons  and  had  a  40-in.  face,  neither 
roller  being  grooved.  The  loaded  wagons  weighed  6  tons  each,  and 
materially  assisted  in  compacting  the  fill. 

Mr.  James  C.  Schuyler  examined  the  embankment  and  reported 
that  the  test  pits  showed  that  there  was  no  distinct  line  trace- 
able between  the  layers,  and  no  loose  or  dry  spots,  but  the  whole 
mass  was  solid  and  homogeneous. 

The  contract  price  of  the  work  was  40  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of 
embankment. 

A  High  Cost  for  Wagon  Work.  The  following  is  taken  from 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.  21,  1909.  The  work  con- 
sisted of  excavating  earth  fronva  barrow  pit,  to  be  used  in  making 
an  embankment  on  a  railroad.  The  material  was  sandy  with 
but  a  little  clay  in  it,  yet  stiff  enough  to  be  loaded  by  an  ele- 
vating grader,  but  easily  loosened  by  plowing,  so  that  a  deep 
furrow  loosened  a  large  mass  for  shoveling.  A  National  ele- 
vating grader  was  used  to  load  National  dump  wagons,  the  aver- 
age lead  on  the  material  being  about  2,300  ft.,  thus  making  an 
average  haul  of  2,600  ft.  when  using  a  grader,  or  a  haul  of  2,300 
ft.  when  loading  by  hand,  the  difference  being  that  the  wagon  must 
follow  the  grader  to  be  loaded  and  must  go  to  one  end  or  the 
other  of  the  pit  to  enter  and  leave  it. 

When  the  embankment  wTas  about  half  made,  the  contractor 
was  compelled  to  move  the  grader  to  another  section  of  the 
road,  in  order  to  hasten  the  construction  there,  and  in  an  en- 
deavor to  continue  the  work  in  the  borrow  pit,  he  put  a  force 
of  men  at  work  there,  loading  some  dump  wagons  by  hand. 
This  was  done  in  the  early  part  of  the  winter. 

A  plow  was  used  to  loosen  the  ground,  but  more  than  half  the 
time  it  was  employed  in  plowing  for  a  gang  of 'wheel  scrapers  in 
a  nearby  cut.  Only  the  actual  time  of  plowing  is  charged  against 
the  wagon  work.  About  12  men  did  the  shoveling,  and  as  the 
material  was  dumped  in  layers  on  the  embankment  two  men 
were  used  to  spread  the  earth.  Seven  wagons  were  used  in  the 
run. 

The  following  wages  were  paid  for  a   10-hour  day: 


206  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Foreman $3.00 

Laborers    1.50 

Wagon,    team   and   driver    f>.00 

Four-horse  plow  team   9.00 

The  work  was  continued  for  17  days,  the  gang  excavating  in 
that  time  1,293  cu.  yd. 

The  daily  cost  records  from  the  star£  showed  a  high  cost,  and 
although  every  effort  was  made  to  reduce  these  costs,  and  they 
were  reduced  somewhat  from  day  to  day,  yet  at  the  end  of  the 
17  days  they  were  still  so  excessive  that  it  was  decided  to  with- 
draw the  gang  and  wait  until  the  grader  could  be  put  back  into 
the  barrow  pit. 

The  cost  of  doing  the  work  was  as  follows: 

Foreman,    17   days    $     51 00 

Laborers,  201  days   301.50 

Wagons,    125   days    625.00 

Plow,    7    days    63.00 

Dump  men,  36  days    54.00 


Total     $1,094.50 

This  gave  an  average  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  the  following: 

Foreman     $0.040 

Loading    0.233 

Hauling      0.483 

Loosening      0048 

Spreading    on    dump    0.042 

Total     $0.846 

It  is  evident  that  this  is  a  high  cost.  An  analysis  shows  that 
each  man  shoveled  6.4  cu.  yd.  Working  against  a  breast  and 
casting  into  dump  carts,  a  man  should  have  loaded  from  12  to 
13  cu.  yd.  of  this  material  in  10  hr.  JEach  man  on  the  dump 
spread  36  cu.  yd.  of  earth  in  10  hr. 

Each  team  traveled  on  an  average  of  10  miles  per  day  and 
hauled  about  11  cu.  yd.  About  1  cu.  yd.  was  hauled  to  the  load, 
place  measurement,  although  the  wagons  were  of  1^  cu.  yd. 
capacity.  These  figures  show  that  the  great  trouble  was  in  the 
gait  set,  both  by  a  few  men  in  loading  and  by  the  teams  in  making 
a  fairly  long  haul.  The  loading  was  slow,  so  the  teams,  not  being 
pushed,  traveled  at  a  slow  pace. 

As  soon  as  the  grader  was  put  to  work,  the  wagons  were 
loaded  quickly;  they  went  off  to  the  dump  at  a  faster  pace,  and 
a  toot  from  the  traction  engine  pulling  the  grader  caused  them 
to  come  back  from  the  pit  at  a  trot.  A  large  number  of  wagons 
were  used  with  the  grader,  and  there  was  bound  to  be  much 
greater  interest  and  enthusiasm  in  the  work  and  the  rate  at 
which  it  was  done, 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  Vv'AGONS,  TRUCKS      207 

This  is  evidenced  by  the  cost  of  excavating  a  yard  of  the 
material  with  the  grader,  which  was  as  follows: 

Foreman $0.01 

Loading     0.04 

Hauling    0.25 

Spreading    on    dump    0.02 

Total $0.32 

This  shows  a  saving  of  over  52  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  yet  the 
grader  excavated  only  300  cu.  yd.  per  day,  as  it  frequently  had 
to  wait  on  the  wagons  to  return  from  the  dump. 

Cost  of  Earth  Excavation  with  Wagons  During  Winter 
Weather  is  given  in  Engineeering  and  Contracting,  Feb.  5,  1908, 
as  follows:  The  work  was  done  in  constructing  a  railroad  in 
the  month  of  February,  when  frequent  snows  and  rain  occurred, 
and  for  a  number  of  days,  the  ground  was  freezing  throughout 
the  day.  The  work  was  started  near  a  large  body  of  water  and 
a  cold  wind  blew  from  over  this  water  chilling  the  men  and 
animals. 

The  ground  was  a  sandy  loam;  and  little  or  no  loosening  of 
the  material  would  have  been  necessary  if  the  weather  had  not 
been  so  cold.  The  material  was  taken  from  a  large  borrow  pit 
and  a  few  days'  work  with  a  plow  would  have  loosened  the  1.293 
cu.  yd.  excavated;  but,  owing  to  the  ground  freezing,  the  plow 
had  to  be  used  7  days.  This  alone  added  4  or  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
to  the  cost. 

The  earth  was  hauled  in  wagons  an  average  distance  of  2,500 
ft.  The  dump  was  over  a  marsh,  and  an  extra  man  was  needed 
on  the  embankment  to  help  cast  the  earth  ahead,  so  the  horses 
could  walk  over  the  marsh.  The  dumpmen  also  had  to  knock 
some  of  the  earth  out  of  the  wagons  on  account  of  its  being 
frozen.  For  tAvo  days  a  third  man  was  needed  to  assist  in  this 
work.  This  added  to  the  cost  of  dumping.  The  wagons  used 
were  1^  cu.  yd.  dump  wagons,  and  they  carried  about  1  cu.  yd. 
place  measurement.  Ten  round  trips  were  made  a  day  so  each 
wagon  took  10  yd.  to  the  dump,  and  the  lost  time  and  time 
consumed  in  making  the  trip  averaged  one  hour  for  each  load. 
This  show's  how  the  cost  of  hauling  was  increased  as  the  teams  . 
should  have  traveled  from  17  to  20  miles  per  day,  instead  of 
10  miles. 

The  men  shoveled  6.4  cu.  yd.  per  day.  With  this  kind  of 
material  from  12  to  14  cu.  yd.  per  man-day  should  have  been 
loaded,  showing  conclusively  how  the  weather  affected  the  physi- 
cal exertions  of  the  men.  This  small  output  of  the  men  increased 
the  supervision  cost  per  cu.  yd. 


208  HANDBOOK  OF  EAETH  EXCAVATION 

The  wages  paid  on  the  job  for  a  10  hr.  flay  were  as  follows: 

Foreman     ................................................  v  .  $  .50 

Laborers    ............  ......................................  1  50 

Teams,  driver  and  2  horses   ..............................  4.50 

Plow,  2  men  and  4  horses   ...........................  .  ----  9.00 

The  total  cost  of  excavating  and  transporting  the  1,293  cu.  yd. 
2,500  ft.  was: 

Foreman     ..............................................  $      41.00 

Laborers     ..............................................  301.50 

Teams    .................................................  562.50 

Plowing    ...............................................  63.00 

Dumpmen    .............................................  54.00 


Total     ...................  .  ..........................     $1,023.50 

This  gives  a  cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  the  various  items  as  follows  : 

Foreman    .................................................  $0.032 

Loosening     ...............................................  0.050 

Loading     .................................................  0.233 

Dumping     ................................................  0.0  '1 

Hauling     .................................................  0.435 

Total    .....................  i  ...........................     $0.791 

To  illustrate  how  the  weather  affected  the  cost  of  this  work,  a 
comparison  of  this  unit  cost  with  some  work  done  on  the  same 
job  during  the  previous  autumn  will  be  made.  The  weather  con- 
ditions were  ideal.  The  same  wages  were  paid.  The  cost  per  cu. 
yd.  for  the  2,500  ft.  haul  was: 

Foreman    .......  .  ..........................................  $0.016 

Loosening    ................................................  0.000 

Loading    ..................................................  0.125 

Dumping   .................................................  0.019 

Hauling    ..................................................  0.260 

Total    .................................................     $0.420 

No  plowing  was  done  as  the  sandy  loam  was  readily  shoveled 
by  the  men  without  any  loosening.  The  men  shoveled  12  cu.  yd. 
per  day,  and  the  teams  carried  1  cu.  yd.  (place  measurement),  for 
a  load.  They  traveled  17  miles  per  day.  Two  men  were  used 
on  the  dump,  as  during  February. 

.  Economical  Handling  of  Teams  with  a  Jerk  Line.  In  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Apr.  14,  1909,  W.  A.  Gillette  describes 
the  method  of  handling  teams  with  a  jerk  line,  as  practised  in 
the  extreme  West.  When  three  or  four  teams  are  used,  as  on 
road-grader,  plow  or  wagon,  this  practice  should  be  followed 
in  order  to  do  away  with  the  unnecessary  cost  of  extra  drivers. 
One  driver  is  used  for  one,  two,  three,  four,  five  or  more  teams, 
and  the  driver  will  handle  three,  four  or  more  teams  with  one 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS    CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      209 

rein  or  jerk  >line,  with  as  much  ease  as  the  ordinary  driver 
handles  one  team.  It  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  train 
teams  to  respond  to  a  jerk  line  and  to  the  shouts  of  "  gee  "  and 
"  haw." 

It  is  customary  to  use  a  strong  braided  clothes  line  for  a 
"jerk  line."  This  line  reaches  from  the  "nigh"  wheel  animal 
to  the  "  nigh  "  lead  animal,  and  is  fastened  to  the  left  hand  side 
of  the  bit;  from  this  main  line  a  short  piece  of  the  line  passes 
under  the  jaw  to  the  right  side  of  the  bit,  making  a  "  Y."  Fas- 
tened to  the  hames  on  the  right  side  of  the  "nigh"  lead  is  a 
"jockey  stick"  (a  short  piece  of  wood  or  iron)  which  reaches 
to  a  curb  strap  fastened  to  the  bit  of  the  "  off  "  lead  animal.  A 
straight  pull  on  the  jerk  line  pulls  the  "  jerk  "  line  or  "  nigh  " 
animal  to  the  left,  or  "haw,"  and  the  "jockey  stick"  guides 
the  "off"  animal.  A  succession  of  jerks  on  the  line  causes  the 
"  nigh  "  or  left  lead  animal  instinctively  to  throw  its  head  to 
the  right,  to  escape  from  the  jerking,  and  the  "  jockey  stick " 
guides  the  "  off  "  animal  to  the  right  also,  or  "  gee." 

A  little  patience  will  teach  the  lead  team  to  "  gee  "  or  "  haw  " 
if  ths  guiding  words  "  gee  "  or  "  haw  "  are  shouted  every  time  the 
line  is  used.  By  fastening  the  following  teams  to  the  double 
trees  of  the  team  ahead,  they  will  soon  learn  to  follow  the  team 
ahead  without  being  tied,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  not  as 
handy  in  turning  around  if  each  team  is  fastened,  as  it  does  not 
permit  them  to  cross  over  and  out  of  the  way  of  the  chain  while 
turning. 

When  a  team  has  been  properly  trained  in  turning  to  the  right 
or  "gee,"  for  example,  the  teams  following  the  lead  teams  will 
step  over  on  the  left  of  the  draft  chain  and  follow  it  around 
until  the  chain  is  straight  for  the  return  trip;  then  each  animal 
will  cross  over  to  his  place  on  the  right  side  of  the  chain. 

Handling  Excavation  from  a  Large  Cellar.  According  to 
Engineering  News,  October  8,  1914,  cellar  excavation  for  the 
William  Penn  Hotel  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  amounted  to  about  55,000 
cu.  yd.  The  depth  of  cut  ranged  from  40  to  60  ft.  The  excava- 
tion was  made  by  a  1-yd.  Thew  steam  shovel  loading  into  1.5-cu. 
;•  1.  Koppel  steel  i\\  mp  cars  hauled  by  mules  on  narrow-gage 
track.  These  cars  dumped  into  a  5-yd.  skip  at  the  bottom  of 
an  inclined  hoist  tower.  This  skip  when  at  the'  top  of  the  hoist 
tower,  tripped  its  load  into  motor  trucks.  Three  trucks  and 
three  trailers  were  in  use,  each  of  about  5  cu.  yd.  capacity.  The 
haul  to  the  dumping-board,  at  the  river's  edge,  was  about  1  mile, 
and  some  400  trips  were  made  in  24  hr.,  about  75%  of  the  total 
number  of  trips  being  handled  during  the  night  on  account  of 
the  clearer  streets. 


210 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  dumping-board  consisted  of  a  pontoon  bridge  (with  a 
planked  roadway)  built  up  of  girders  whose  outshore  end  was 
supported  by  two  scows.  Under  the  bridge  was  a  bin,  into  which 
the  trucks  dumped  through  a  trap.  At  the  end  of  the  bridge  a 
turntable  was  built  up  on  the  scows.  The  truck  after  dumping 
was  turned  on  this  and  returned  to  shore  running  forward.  The 
spoil  was  taken  away  on  barges  carrying  3-yd.  boxes,  filled  from 
the  bin.  At  the  dump  the  boxes  were  lifted  off  by  a  derrick. 


Fig.   25.     Tipple   Used    for   Removing   Excavated   Material    from 
Wm.  Penn  Hotel  Foundations. 


The  Economy  of  Wagon  Train  Haulage  with  Motor  Trucks. 
The  motor  truck  cannot  always  go  where  a  team  can  go,  and  it 
cannot  wait  like  a  team  without  excessive  cost  for  loading  and 
unloading.  In  order  to  successfully  compete  with  teams  on 
er~*h  hauling,  the  motor  truck  must  have  haulage  conditions 
which  make  the  ratio  of  running  time  to  standing  time  large  and 
high  average  speeds  possible.  The  following,  taken  from  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Dec.  3,  1913,  indicates  that  the  great- 
est economy  of  motor  truck  haulage  often  lies  in  using  the  truck 
as  a  locomotive  in  connection  with  wagon  trains. 

During   the   past   two   years   extensive   experiments   have   been 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       211 

made  by  the  Troy  Wagon  Works  Co.  of  Troy,  Ohio,  to  adapt  the 
wagons,  now  commonly  pulled  as  trailers  by  traction  engines,  to 


Cherry    Way 


6ran-r     St. 


M  /T/i  \y '  V/ V  \  M/ '  VV<  \  /,<)  //  V/fF  |Y 

.Sfi.c-t-iQn.     A  -  B 
Fig.  26.     Layout  of  Plant  for  Excavating  for  Wm.  Penn  Hotel. 

use  with  motor  trucks.     In  studying  the  problem  of  th?  ability 
of    motor    trucks    to    pull    one    or    more    trailers,    the    conclusion 


212 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


reached  was  that  the  average  truck  loaded  to  its  rated  capacity, 
in  addition  to  carrying  its  rated  load,  develops  a  drawbar  pull 
equal  to  about  one-half  of  its  rated  load.  A  team  of  horses  will 
develop  a  maximum  sustained  drawbar  pull  equal  to  about  one- 
fourth  of  their  weight.  It  was  estimated  from  the  tests  that  the 
drawbar  pull  required  to  move  a  ton  of  material  varies  from  50 
Ib.  on  a  brick  street  to  150  Ib.  on  a  hard  surfaced  country  road,  no 
grades  of  consequence  considered.  Further  variations  are  in  pro- 
portion to  grades,  road  conditions,  etc.  On  average  roads  with 
average  grades  the  drawbar  pull  required  is  about  250  Ib.  per 
ton  of  live  load  moved  on  a  properly  constructed  vehicle.  This 
was  another  conclusion  drawn  from  the  tests.  On  this  basis  an 


Fig.  27.     Turntable  Used  on  Wm.  Penn  Hotel  Job. 

average  3-ton  truck  will  pull  10  tons  live  load  in  addition  to  the 
rated  load  on  the  truck  proper,  in  other  words  the  drawbar  pull 
of  the  average  3-ton  truck  equals  that  of  three  3,000-lb.  teams. 

Figure  28  shows  "draft  per  ton  curves  for  various  road  con- 
ditions" from  actual  tests.  In  order  to  take  care  of  possible 
conditions  not  obtained  in  the  actual  tests,  the  per  ton  drawbar 
p;  11  given  in  the  paragraph  above  is  placed  considerably  in  excess 
of  that  shown  by  the  tests. 

Tests  were  made  in  which  the  trailer  plant  was  three  times  the 
number  being  pulled,  %  of  the  plant  at  the  loading  point,  ^  in 
transit  and  }£  being  unloaded,  in  order  to  keep  the  motor  truck 
from  being  delayed. 

Table  I  shows  the  conclusions  reached  from  actual  tests  in 
tons  delivered,  comparing  teams  with  motor  alone,  with  motor 
hauling  one  trailer  and  motor  hauling  two  trailers.  In  con- 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      213 


^Average  Drafts  in  Pounds  per  Ton  cf 
'  Total  Live  and  Dead  Load  Hauled 


Grades 


Fig.  28.     Draft  per  Ton  Curves  for  Various  Road  Conditions. 


TABLE  I  —  DAILY  TONNAGE  DELIVERED 


Length 
of  haul 
%  mile 

1  mile 

2  miles 

3  miles 

4  miles 

5  miles 


One 

team 

one 

wagon 

27 

18 

12 


Motor 
alone 

42 


Motor 
hauling 

one 

trailer 

160 

140 


rt 


Motor 
hauling 

two 

trailers 

280 

260 

160 

110 

100 

70 


TABLE  II  — TON-MILE  COSTS 


Distance 
of  loaded 

haul 
in  miles 

% 

2 
4 
6 
8 
10 


One 

team. 

One 

wagon. 

Cost  per 

ton-mile 

0.444 

0.319 

0.256 

0.221 

0.214 

0.209 


Motor 

alone. 
Cost  per 
ton-mile 

0.480 

0.319 

0.240 

0200 

0.186 

0.179 

0.176 


Motor 

hauling 

One 

trailer. 

Cost  per 

ton-mile 

0.210 

0.154 

0.143 

0.137 

0.135 

0.134 

0.134 


Motor 

hauling 

Two 

trailers. 

Cost  per 

ton-mile 
0.258 
0.167 
0.118 
0.106 
0.104 
0.103 
0.103 


214 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


nection  with  Fig.  29,  Table  II  indicates  ton-mile  cost  for  various 
outfits  and  shows  considerable  economy  by  the  use  of  trailers. 
The  tabulated  results  of  the  tests  indicate  a  saving  through  the 
use  of  trailers. 


m 

40 

1 

c  « 

| 

A 

•  One  Team  handling  One  Wagon. 
'One  Team  handling  Two  Wagons  alter  not 
'*  Three-  Ton  Truck  without  Trailers. 
>•  Motor  and  Tr.ee  Trailers, 
One  in  Transit.  One  Loading  and  ( 
'.--Motor  and  Six  Trailers. 
Two  in  Transit,  Two  Loading  and 

I 

t 

c 

ttj 

I 

?/7ff  fn/o«//>> 
Two  Unload  ir 

a 

f 

j 

\ 

^- 

l\ 

1 

\ 

Cost  per  Ion-Mile 
•»  6  S  5 

\ 

1 

) 

, 

^> 

^ 

^ 

^ 

•^ 

1 

^ 

^    . 

•we 

^ 

•^-^ 

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"—^» 

"~" 

m 

rr 

izr 

zz 

iz: 

in 

«BS= 

.^  — 

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-- 

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^ 

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"*-*. 

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OMB 

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r= 

—  — 

J  4  6  tS  7 

Distance  of  Loaded  Haul  in  Miles 


Fig.   29.     Curves   Showing  Ton-Mile   Costs  for   Various  Outfits. 


After  making  a  study  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  trailers  for  motor  trucks  the  truck  shown 
by  Fig.  30  was  designed,  and  is  now  placed  on  the  market  by 
the  company  making  the  investigations.  The  specifications  for 
Troy  trailers  are  as  follows: 

Length  over  all  14  ft.  5  in. 

Width  over  all  7  ft.  %  in. 

Wheel  base  is  6  ft  9  in. 

Wheel  height  3  ft. 

Width  of  track  from  center  to  center  of  tires,  5  ft.  4%  in. 

Dimensions  of  frame  3  ft.  5%  in.  by  11  ft.  10  in. 

Dimensions  of  tires  4  x  %   in. 

Height  from  ground  to  top  of  frame  2  ft.  10V£  in.     (No  load.) 

Road  clearance  under  axles  17  in. 

Clear  space  between  steering  bars  4  ft.  8  in. 

Length  from  end  to  end  of  drawbar  14  ft.  8  in. 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      215 

Springs   4   ft.   by  3%   in. 

Diameter   of  spindle,    2%   in. 

Bower  roller  bearings. 

Weight  of  chassis  3,330  Ib. 

Capacity  2  to  5  tons  —  factor  of  safety  25%  overload. 

Some  of  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  trailer  are  shown  in 
Fig.  30.  The  draw  bar  is  equipped  with  springs  which  provide 
resiliency  on  grades  and  prevent  shocks  to  the  motor  on  starting 
an  A  stopping  the  truck.  Special  heads  are  used  on  the  draw  bars 
to  act  as  bumpers  between  trailers  when  operated  in  trains. 


Fig.  30.     End  View,  Showing  Construction  of  Trailer  for  Motor 

Trucks. 


Types  of  Tractors.  The  tractors  now  on  the  market  can  be 
roughly  classified  into  three  divisions.  The  first  includes  those 
types  developed  from  the  earlier  steam  farm  tractor  engines 
which  were  an  adaption  of  the  locomotive.  They  are  built  with 
steel  tires  and  are  driven  either  by  steam  or  internal  combustion 
engines.  The  second  division  includes  rubber  tired  tractors  driven 
by  internal  combustion  engines  which  are  a  development  of  the 
heavier  motor  trucks.  These  machines  are  commonly  used  in 
connection  with  a  trailer  which  is  usually  mounted  on  two  steel 
tired  wheels.  The  third  division  includes  caterpillar  tractors, 
or  machines  with  ''  platform  wheels." 

A  Traction  Engine  Whose  Four  Wheels  are  Driving  Wheels 
is  described  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  13,  1913. 


216  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

On  this  traetor  all  four  wheels  are  of  the  same  size  and  each 
carries  one-fourth  of  the  total  weight  of  the  machine.  As  no 
weight  is  carried  which  is  not  useful  in  producing  tractive  effort 
it  is  claimed  that  this  tractor  is  "very  economical  in  fuel  con- 
sumption, and  because  of  the  better  distribution  of  the  weight 
and  the  driving  action  of  the  forward  wheels,  it  has  shown  ability 
t,o  work  in  places  where  it  would  be  impossible  to  use  tractors 
of  the  rear  wheel  type. 

As  both  axles  turn  in  going  around  curves  the  radius  of  turning 


Fig.    31.     35-hp.    Steam    Tractor    Suitable    for    Hauling    Heavy 
Grading  Machinery. 

can  be  very  small  in  the  25-hp.  machine,  the  smallest  radius  to  the 
inside  wheel  is  8  ft. 

The  drive  wheels  are  also  novel  in  that  the  face  is  of  open 
lattice  work  so  that  soft  mud  squeezes  through  and  allows  the 
cleats  to  reach  a  solid  footing.  For  work  in  exceptionally  soft 
mud  or  sand  extension  rims  are  provided. 

The  tractor  has  three  speeds  forward  and  one  reverse,  the 
three  forward  being  1%,  2*4  and  4  miles  per  hr.  while  the  reverse 
is  2}<r>  miles  per  hr.  The  fuel  used  is  either  gasoline,  kerosene  or 
distillate. 

A   Tractor   and    Semi-Trailer   Contractors'    Hauling   Outfit    is 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      217 

described   in  Engineering  and   Contracting,   Aug.    10,    11)10.     The 
trailer    carries    the    load,    about    70%    of    the    weight    of    which 


Fig.   32.     Tractor  with  Four  Drive  Wheels  Made  by  the  Heer 
Engine  Co.,  Portsmouth,  O. 

is  on  the  rear  steel-tired  wheels  and  the  tractor  pulls  the 
load.  The  trailer  shown  has  a  120-cu.  ft.  dump  body,  but  any 
special  form  of  body  required  by  the  character  of  the  load  can 
be  used.  The  trailer  is  quickly  coupled  and  uncoupled  and  it 


Fig.  33.     Tractor  and  Semi-Trailer. 

is  common  practice  to  use  three  trailers  with  one  tractor,  one 
being  loaded,  one  being  hauled  and  one  at  destination  being  un- 


218 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


loaded.  Any  other  of  several  similar  combinations  of  trailer 
and  more  than  one  trailer  can  be  effected  to  suit  the  conditions. 
With  the  combination  as  shown  by  the  illustration  a  turn  can  be 
made  without  backing  in  a  31-ft.  circle  and  by  backing  the  train 
can  be  turned  in  a  20-ft.  street.  The  wheel  base  of  the  tractor 
is  only  80  in.,  and  that  of  the  trailer  is  11  ft.  3i/£  in.  In  addi- 
tion to  its  short  wheel  base  the  tractor  has  the  feature  of  an 
independent  spring  supported  from  plant  sub-frame.  None  of  the 
load  comes  on  the  springs  of  this  sub-frame,  but  on  the  heavy 


Fig.    34.        Caterpillar   Tractor    with    30-in.    Plates    Attached    to 
Platform  Wheel. 


springs  of  the  main  frame.  There  are  two  separate  sets  of 
springs,  one  set  adjusted  to  the  light  constant  load  of  the  power 
plant,  gasoline  tank  and  driver's  seat,  and  a  second  set  for  the 
tractor  frame  proper.  The  tractor  hauling  unit  as  illustrated 
has  been  tried  out  for  a  season  on  actual  contract  work  and  is 
marketed  with  full  assurance  by  the  builders  of  its  efficiency. 
The  builders  are  the  Watson  Wagon  Co.,  Canastota,  N.  Y. 

A  "  Caterpillar  Tractor "  for  Hauling  Over  Soft  Ground.  A 
nine  ton  traction  engine  with  its  weight  so  carried  that  the  load 
upon  the  ground  is  only  4i£  Ib.  per  sq.  in.,  or  about  650  Ib. 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      210 

per  sq.  ft.  of  bearing  surface,  is  shown  in  Fig.  34.  This  machine 
is  operated  by  a  45  hp.  gasoline  motor  and  has  been  in  actual 
use  for  a  number  of  years,  chiefly  in  the  West  and  South.  It  is 
called  the  "  Holt  Caterpillar  Tractor." 

The  chief  feature  x>f  the  tractor  is  the  platform  wheel  shown 
by  Fig.  35.  Two  sprocket  wheels,  supported  by  the  frame,  serve 
to  carry  an  endless  track  consisting  of  cast  steel  rails  cut  in 
short  lengths  and  linked  together  with  manganese  steel  pins. 
To  the  bases  of  these  rails  steel  shoes  are  fastened  which  transmit 
the  weight  of  the  machine  to  the  ground.  These  shoes  are  made 
in  16-,  24-  and  30-in.  widths  so  that  the  bearing  per  unit  area 
may  be  suited  to  the  condition  of  the  ground.  The  widest  plates 
(30  in.)  give  the  bearing  of  4%  Ib.  per  sq.  in.,  and  the  16-in. 
plates  lessen  the  bearing  area  so  that  the  weight  per  sq.  in.  id 


Fig.   35.     Platform   Wheel   of  Holt   Caterpillar  Tractor. 

increased  to  8  Ib.  For  very  soft  ground  the  shoes  may  be  pro- 
vided with  projecting  cleats  which  increase  their  bearing  sur- 
face. 

The  four  small  wheels  shown  by  Fig.  35  support  the  weight  of 
the  machine  upon  the  rails.  These  wheels  are  of  semi-steel  with 
a  chilled  face  and  run  on  roller  bearings.  It  will  be  seen  that 
this  platform  wheel  arrangement  is  a  device  for  laying  its  own 
track  in  front  of  the  wheels  and  picking  up  the  track  after  the 
wheels  pass  over  it. 

A  general  view  of  the  tractor  is  shown  by  Fig.  34.  The  ma- 
chine is  18  ft.  long,  over  all,  and  weighs  about  9  tons.  The  45 
hp.  motor,  when  traveling  at  a  speed  of  2%  miles  per  hr.,  is 
capable  of  pulling  a  load  equal  to  that  which  can  be  pulled  by 
30  horses.  The  machine  can  turn  in  a  30-ft.  circle. 

This  tractor  will  haul  trains  of  wagons  for  construction  work, 


220  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

road  machines  and  elevating  graders,  gang  plows,  etc.,  over 
roads  on  which  the  ordinary  tractor  cannot  he  worked.  It  is  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  the  hauling  *f  plows  and  in  this  task  has 
shown  some  remarkable  records  of  earth  broken  up.  Mr.  D.  H. 
Nelson  of  Pendleton,  Ore.,  states  that  960  acres  were  plowed  in 
32  days  to  a  depth  of  8  or  9  in.  This  was  done  at  a  cost  of  47 
ct.  per  acre,  or  more  than  20  cu.  yd.  were  loosened  for  1  ct.  A 
machine  owned  by  J.  J.  Hicky  of  Thornton,  Cal.,  has  plowed  3,000 
acres  in  two  seasons  and  the  repair  costs  have  amounted  to  $425. 

The  tractor  described  is  manufactured  by  the  Holt  Manufactur- 
ing Co.,  and  the  Holt  Caterpillar  Co.,  whose  New  York  offices 
are  at  50  Church  St. 

Caterpillar  Wheels.  When  wagons  are  hauled  over  soft  ground 
by  a  tractor,  not  only  the  traction  engine,  but  the  wagons  them- 
selves may  be  fitted  with  "  caterpillar "  traction  wheels.  Such 
a  wagon  train  is  described  in  Engineering  News,  May  20,  1915. 
The  traction  engine  is  of  the  three-wheel  type,  with  a  single  wide 
steering-wheel  having  ribs  to  give  it  a  hold  in  soft  ground. 
The  wagons  are  11.5  by  9  ft.  over  all,  and  5  ft.  814  in-  in  height 
to  the  top  of  the  body.  The  carrying  capacity  of  each  wagon  is 
about  180  cu.  ft.,  or  10  tons. 

Miscellaneous  Costs  of  Excavation  in  Construction  of  a 
Smelter.  E.  H.  Jones,  Bulletin  of  the  American  Institute  of  Min- 
ing Engineers,  July,  1914  gives  the  average  cost  of  131,371  cu. 
yd.  of  excavation  in  the  construction  of  a  large  smelter  at  Clifton, 
Ariz,  as  79  ct.  a  cu.  yd.  Teamsters  were  paid  from  $2.25  to 
$2.70  per  10-hr,  day  and  ordinary  laborer  received*  $2.00  per  10-hr, 
day. 

Excavation  was  divided  into  nine  classes  according  to  haul  and 
tools  used. 

Class  1.  Shallow  excavation  with  picks,  shovels,  wheelbarrow 
and  slips.  Hauls  were  less  than  100  ft. 

A  trestle  approach  was  excavated  through  cemented  sand  and 
gravel  permeated  with  calcine.  All  the  work  was  done  by  hand 
using  picks  and  shovels.  The  excavated  material  was  cast  to 
the  side  of  the  holes  and  in  some  cases  it  was  handled  three  times. 
There  were  277  cu.  yd.  of  earth  moved  at  a  cost  of  $1.30  per 
cu.  yd. 

A  track  scale  foundation  was  excavated,  being  a  long  narrow 
cut  through  earth  fill  and  sand  and  gravel.  It  was  taken  out 
with  picks  and  shovels  and  transported  200  ft.  with  slips  or  drag 
scrapers.  There  were  118  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  at  $0.92  per  cu. 

yd. 

A  trestle  foundation  for  a  siding  was  excavated  through  tight 
red  soil  filled  with  large  stones.  The  excavation  consisted  of  a 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      221 

shallow  rectangular  cut.  It  was  picked,  shoveled,  and  wheeled 
in  barrows  50  ft.  There  were  589  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  at  $0.93 
per  cu.  yd. 

A  building  foundation  was  excavated  and  the  necessary  back 
fill  tamped  in  5-in.  layers  in  the  low  part  where  the  basement  con- 
crete floor  was  to  be  cast.  It  was  done  with  picks,  shovels,  and 
wheelbarrows  in  earth,  sand  and  gravel.  There  were  322  cu.  yd. 
excavated  at  $0.89  per  cu.  yd. 

An  air  pipe  line  trench  with  a  large  slice  through  red  clay  and 
boulders  into  sand  and  gravel  tightened  with  calcine.  It  was 
shaken  up  with  powder,  plowed,  transported  to  a  trap  in  narrow 
gage  side-dump  cars  and  conveyed  1,000  to  2,000  ft.  by  a  narrow 
gaged  locomotive.  There  were  331  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  at  68  ct. 

A  floor  foundation  for  a  warehouse  was  excavated,  which  en- 
tailed cutting  down  the  floor  of  the  warehouse  6  to  8  in.  and  back 
filling  in  places.  There  were  66  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  at  $1.96. 

Class  2.  This  type  covers  excavations  made  with  picks,  shovels, 
slips  and  carts.  The  haul  was  over  100  ft.  in  every  case. 

A  track  scale  foundation  was  excavated  in  tight  sand  and 
gravel.  It  was  done  with  pick  and  shovel  handled  in  the  cars  and 
hauled  500  ft.  There  were  388  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.90. 

A  wall  foundation  was  excavated,  being  a  long  narrow  cut 
through  earth  fill  and  sand  and  gravel.  It  was  taken  out  with 
picks  and  shovels  and  transported  200  ft.  with  slips.  There 
were  60  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $1.29. 

A  boiler  foundation  was  excavated.  This  work  was  digging' 
shallow  trenches  for  small  foundations  through  red  clay  and  small 
boulders.  The  ground  was  picked,  shoveled  and  hauled  600  ft. 
There  were  120  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $1.65. 

A  storage  tank  foundation  was  excavated  consisting  of  making 
a  top  slice  to  prepare  the  site  for  foundations  of  two  500,000  gal. 
oil  tanks.  It  was  done  with  plows,  picks,  slips  and  shovels  and 
was  hauled  150  ft.  There  were  544  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.56. 

Class  3.  This  class  covers  excavations  made  with  powder, 
picks,  shovels  and  wheelbarrows.  The  haul  was  less  than  100  ft. 
There  were  4,211  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  of  this  type  moved  at  $0.84 
per  cu.  yd. 

Conglomerate  rock  was  graded  off  in  preparing  the  site  for  a 
well.  Large  blasts  of  dynamite  were  used.  .There  were  2,600 
cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.80. 

Wagon  roads  were  made  for  construction  purposes.  There  were 
951  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  at  $0.97. 

Water  supply  tank  foundations  were  graded,  a  3-ft.  slice  being 
removed  with  powder,  picks,  shovels  and  wheelbarrows.  There 
were  116  cu.  yd.  of  earth  moved  at  $1.24. 


222      ,  ,,|  >  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Class  4-  This  class  covers  excavation  made  with  powder,  picks, 
shovels,  fresnos  and  carts. _  The  haul  was  over  100  ft.  There 
were  15,541  cu.  yd.  of  this  type  of  excavation  moved  at  $1.00  per 
cu.  yd. 

Bin  foundations  were  excavated  through  earth,  sand  and  gravel 
bonded  with  calcine.  The  excavations  consisted  of  long,  narrow, 
deep  cuts.  Powder  and  plows  were  used  to  loosen  the  ground. 
Part  of  the  work  was  done  with  slips  and  fresnos;  another  part 
by  picks,  shovels  and  wagons.  The  average  haul  was  600  ft. 
There  were  12,319  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.99. 

Building  foundations  were  excavated  to  grade  with  fresnos 
hauling  the  earth  450  ft.  Deep  cuts  were  then  made  through 
red  clay  and  boulders  to  gravel  to  provide  for  steel  foundations. 
There  were  1,216  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $1.27. 

Retaining  wall  foundations  were  excavated  through  2  ft.  of 
clay  followed  by  sand  and  gravel  and  boulders  with  calcine.  The 
ground  was  partly  blasted,  all  picked,  shoveled  into  wagons  and 
hauled  600  ft.  There  were  306  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.93. 

Another  retaining  wall  foundation  was  a  deep  cut  through 
sand  and  gravel  made  with  picks  and  shovels.  The  material  was 
hauled  300  ft.  There  were  404  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $1.00. 

Class  5.  This  class  includes  excavation  with  plows,  slips, 
fresnos  and  in  some  cases,  powder.  The  haul  was  less  than  100 
ft.  There  were  11,210  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  of  this  type  moved  at 
$0.93  per  cu.  yd. 

Building  foundation  excavation  consisted  of  a  6-ft.  slice  to  get 
the  proper  grade  for  the  site,  together  with  piers  and  small  wall 
excavation.  Earth  was  plowed  and  moved  400  ft.  in  fresnos. 
There  were  1,458  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  at  $0.82. 

Another  building  excavation  was  a  cut  55  by  280  by  10  ft.  for 
the  basement,  machine  foundation  and  piers  of  a  power  house. 
The  material  was  red  clay  and  boulders  on  top,  with  sand  and 
gravel  beneath  which  was  saved  for  concrete  material.  Powder 
was  used,  followed  by  plowing,  picks,  shovels,  fresnos  and  carts. 
The  material  was  hauled  450  ft.  There  were  7,313  cu.  yd.  ex- 
cavated at  $1.07. 

Railroad  grade  was  formed  along  each  side  of  an  oil  sump. 
There  were  2,439  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.61. 

Class  6.  This  class  includes  excavation  with  plows,  slips, 
fresnos  and  in  some  cases  powder.  The  haul  was  over  100  ft. 
There  were  13,160  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  of  this  type  moved  at 
$0.89  per  cu.  yd. 

Chimney  foundation  excavation  consisted  of  a  deep  hexagonal 
cut  through  clay,  calcine  and  "sand  and  gravel  containing  big 
boulders.  The  material  was  loosened  with  picks,  moved  in 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS'  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       223 

fresnos,  dumped  through  a  trap  into  carts  and  hauled  2,700  ft. 
There  were  597  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.61.  ^;;<I!.' 

Building  foundations  were  excavated  through  red  clay  and 
boulders  into  sand  and  gravel  tightened  with  calcine.  The  earth 
was  a  large  slice  similar  to  sidehill  excavation.  It  was  shaken 
up  with  powder,  plowed,  fresnoed  through  a  trap  into  side  dump 
cars  and  hauled  1,000  to  2,000  ft.  by  a  narrow-gage  locomotive. 
There  were  6,330  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.91. 

Boiler  foundations  were  excavated  consisting  of  shallow 
trenches  for  small  walls  through  red  clay  and  boulders.  The 
earth  was  picked,  shoveled  and  hauled  600  ft.  There  were  97 
cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.76. 

Class  7.  These  were  miscellaneous  jobs  where  a  variety  of 
methods  were  used.  There  were  58,685  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  of 
this  type  moved  at  $0.64  per  cu.  yd. 

Yard  track  excavation  consisted  of  excavation  and  borrow  in- 
cluding rock  (Gila  conglomerate),  hard  clay  soil  filled  with  lime- 
stone and  light  loam.  Plows,  powder,  picks,  shovels,  slips  and 
fresnos  were  used.  The  work  was  not  carried  on  continuously, 
but  the  unit  cost  represents  fairly  the  average  cost  of  shallow 
excavation.  There  were  55,405  cu.  yd.  moved  at  $0.64. 

Water  pipe  trenches  were  about  3  ft.  deep  through  red  clay 
and  boulders.  A  16-in.  wood  stave  pipe  1,104  ft.  long  was  laid 
and  backfilled.  There  were  2,406  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.62. 

titeam  pipe  trenches  were  excavated  through  red  clay.  There 
were  228  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $0.73. 

Class  8.  This  class  of  excavation  was  done  with  picks,  shovels, 
wheelbarrows  and  carts.  Excavations  for  piers  7  by  7  ft.  in  size 
were  made  from  16  to  25  ft.  deep  in  gravel.  The  dirt  was  easily 
dug  but  had  to  be  handled  from  the  lower  half  of  the  holes  with 
windlasses.  It  was  carted  away  at  the  top  a  distance  of  225  ft. 
There  were  1,428  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  $1.64  per  cu.  yd. 

Class  (J.  This  includes  backfilling  and  tamping  in  4  to  5  in. 
layers.  There  were  7,195  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  of  this  type  moved 
at  a  cost  of  $0.66.  Adobe  was  backfilled  behind  a  long  retaining 
wall,  wetted  and  tamped  in  5-in.  layers.  The  dirt  was  wheeled 
60  ft.  to  place.  There  were  972  cu.  yd.  moved  at  $0.56. 

Red  clay  was  plowed,  hauled  in  wagons,  dumped,  shoveled  into 
a  derrick  box,  lifted  by  a  locomotive  crane  and  dumped  near  the 
place  it  was  to  be  used.  It  was  then  distributed  with  wheelbar- 
rows and  tamped  in  4-in.  layers.  There  were  3,679  cu.  yd.  moved 
at  $0.75. 

Sand  and  gravel  was  backfilled  behind  a  wall  300  ft.  long.  The 
material  lay  8  to  10  ft.  from  the  wall.  There  were  129  cu.  yd. 
moved  at  $0.53. 


224 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Analysis  of  Hauling  Costs.  In  a  paper  read  by  Prof.  T.  R. 
Agg  at  the  Good-Roads  Congress  at  Chicago,  Dec.  15,  -1914,  a 
method  of  analyzing  the  cost  of  hauling  materials  for  construction 
work  was  given. 

The  following  are  the  principal  factors  affecting  the  problem: 
( 1 )  length  of  haul ;  ( 2 )  rate  of  travel ;  ( 3 )  time  lost  while  load- 
ing at  cars  and  unloading  at  the  work;  (4)  time  lost  in  travel 
on  account  of  bad  roads;  (5)  capacity  of  the  outfit  per  trip;  (6) 
cost  of  operation. 


1  234-56 

Distance    Hauled,    Miles* 

Fig.  36.     Diagram  for  Analyzing  the  Cost  of  Different  Methods  of 
Hauling  Road  Material. 

The  following  rates  of  speed  have  been  assumed. 

For  teams  2.5  miles  per  hour. 

For  traction  outfit,  3  miles  per  hour. 

For  motor  trucks  and  industrial  railways,  10  miles  per  hour. 

The  amount  of  time  lost  at  cars  depends  upon  the  method  of 
loading.  This  time  should  be  eliminated  as  far  as  possible,  espe- 
cially on  short  hauls.  The  average  loss  of  time  per  trip  in  load- 
ing and  unloading  has  been  assumed  as  follows : 

With  team  hauling,   18  min. 

With  motor  trucks   (loaded  from  bins  or  hoppers),  6  min. 

Traction  outfits  and  industrial  railways,  30  min. 

The  time  lost  due  to  the  condition  of  the  road  varies  with  the 
reason,  the  locality  and  the  kind  of  road.  It  is  greatest  with  the 
traction  outfit,  is  about  the  same  for  team  and  motor-truck  haul- 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS      225 


ing,  and  is  a  negligible  factor  for  the  industrial  railway    (with 
locomotive ) . 

The  following  capacities  have  been  assumed: 

For  team  hauling  with  wagons,  2  ton. 
Motor  truck,  5  tons. 
Traction  outfits,  15  ton. 
Industrial  railway  trains,  20  tons. 


Fig.  37. 


I     23456789   10 

Length  of  Haul,  Miles 
Capacity  Diagram  for  Assumed  Conditions. 


The  cost  of  operation  of  each  of  these  out  'ts  will  vary  prin- 
cipally with  the  skill  of  the  superintendent  and  the  operator,  the 
kind  of  weather,  and  the  nature  of  the  road.  It  should  comprise 
the  following  items: 

Interest  on  investment. 
Depreciation  on  outfit. 
Maintenance  of  outfit. 
Fuel,  oil,  supplies  and  labor  cost; 

The  following  values  have  been  assumed: 

For  team   (and  driver),  per  hour,  50  ct. 
For  motor  truck,  per  hour,  $2.00. 
For  traction  outfit,  per  hour.   $3.00. 
For  industrial  railway  per  hour,  $4.00. 

The  cost  per  ton  may  be  obtained  through  the  following  equation: 
rd      Tr 


226  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Where  0  =  cost  per  ton  for  a  length  of  haul   (=  V2d). 
d  —  distance  in  miles  per  round  trip. 
u  =  tons  hauled  for  trip, 
s  •=  speed  of  vehicle,   mi.   per  hr. 
T  =  time  lost   in  loading  and  unloading. 
r  =  cost  of  operation  in  dollars  per  hour. 

Fig.  36  shows  a  curve  drawn  on  the  assumptions  noted.  Fig.  37 
is  a  diagram  of  capacities  based  on  the  same  assumptions. 

Methods  and  Cost  of  Hauling.  A  formula  for  figuring  trans- 
portation costs  with  animals,  that  has  been  worked  up  by  R.  T. 
Dana,  of  the  Construction  Service  Co.,  is  here  given. 

Speed  of  horses.  A  team  (2  horses)  can  travel  10  miles  loaded 
and  return  10  miles  empty,  or  a  total  of  20  miles,  in  10  hr.  over 
fairly  good  earth  roads;  15  miles  over  poor  ground;  and  25 
miles  over  good  macadam,  gravel,  or  paved  streets.  This  gives 
the  following  rates  of  travelling  in  ft.  per  min. :  Poor  roads, 
132  ft.  per  min.;  fair  earth  roads,  176  ft.  per  min.;  best  roads, 
220  ft.  per  min.  A  speed  of  220  ft.  per  min.,  or  2.5  miles  per  hr., 
may  be  expected  as  an  average  rate  of  teams  when  actually  walk- 
ing not  including  time  due  to  delays  and  rests.  Cost  tables  fig- 
ured by  these  formulas  for  wagons  and  carts  are  given. 

FORMULA  FOR  TRANSPORTATION 
(R.  T.  Dana) 

C  —  The  total  expense  per  day  in  ct. 
w  rr  The  net  load  for  the  average  trip  in  Ib. 
S  =  The  speed   (average)  when  loaded,  in  ft.  per  min. 
KS  —  The  speed    (average)    when  returning,    in   ft.  per  min. 
D  =  The  length  of  haul  in  ft. 
1  =  The  time  lost  in  turning,  resting,  and  wasted  for  an  average 

round  trip,   in  min. 

RT  —  The   total  cost  in   ct.   per  ton   for  transportation. 
W  =  The  number  of  minutes  in  the  working  day. 

L  —  A  constant  representing  the  cost  of  loading. 
-•:'  •',.  Sin    r<;    ;h;;9   ^   nou  £•;*«, 

The  following  facts  are  deducible  algebraically.  !< !,  !- 

D 

—  —  Time  for  a  loaded  trip  in  minutes. 

S 

D 

—  Time  for  the  empty  haul. 

KS 

D 

1  -\ —  Actual  time  not  occupied  in  transporting  material  in  minutes. 

KS 

D 

(-  l  —  Average  time  for  one  round  trip  in  minutes. 

S  (1  +  -) 


HAULING  IN  BARROWS,  CARTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS 
W 


D          i 

—  (1  -\  --  )  -f-  1  =  Average  number  of  trips  per  day.    This  value  must  be  an 

S  K 

integral  quantity  for  the  average  work  of  any  one  day. 
Ww 
-  =•  Average  total  amount  transported  per  day. 


R  =  G  -  =  Cost  of  transportation  per  Ib. 
Ww 

D  1 

»8  JT  fcfc?  7 

R  =  C  --  h  L  —  Cost  of  picking,  loading  and  transporting. 
Ww 

Value  of  Factors  in  Transportation  in  Formula  for  2-Horse 
Wagon  Work:  C  (=  total  expense  per  day)  on  average  work  is 
given  in  Tables  I  and  II. 

TABLE  I  —  VALUE  OF  SERVICES  OP  AVERAGE  HORSE 

Depreciation    per    annum    ..............................  $22.50 

Feed,  10  working  months   @  $15.50  ....................  155.00 

Feed,  2  idle  months   @   $5.00   ..........................  10.00 

Straw,   12  months  @   $1.00   .............................  12.00 

Shoes  and  medicine,  10  working  months  ..............  20.00 

Shoes  and  medicine,  2  idle  months   ....................  1.00 

Interest  on  $150  @  6%  .....  ............................  9.00 

Stable  man  at  $45  per  month  for  15  horses  ............  36.00 

Stable  rent  and  miscellaneous   .........................  15.00 


Total  per  annum $280.50 

Cost  per  working  day  (187.5  days)   $1.50 

TABLE  II  —  COST  OF  TEAM  AND  DRIVER  PER  DAY 

2   horses    @    $1.50    $3.000 

Depreciation  on  wagon   (value  $110)    0.124 

Interest    . .  / 0.044 

Repairs     0.150 

Miscellaneous    ( including  harness )    0.182 

Driver     1.500 


Total  per  day  per  team $5.00 

w  =  (the  total  load)  varies  widely  according  to  the  grade,  state 
of  the  road,  and  other  conditions.  It  averages  about  1.4  cu.  yd. 
place  measure  for  earth. 

s  =  200 ;  ks  =  240  ft.  per  min. 

1  varies  greatly  mainly  according  to  the  method  of  loading  and 
the  quality  of  the  superintendence.  When  the  material  is  loaded 
by  hand  it  takes  from  5  to  20  min.  (average  8  or  9  min.)  to  load 


228  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

a  wagon,  depending  on  the  number  of  loaders.  Dumping  with 
bottom  dump  wagons  should  consume  no  time,  but  usually  takes 
about  0.33  min.  On  most  excavation  work  there  is  considerable 
time  spent  waiting  to  get  into  position  for  loading  due  to  the 
unequal  spacing  of  the  teams.  The  total  time  not  occupied  in 
transportation  ranges  from  5  to  30  min.,  averaging  about  10  min. 
per  trip. 

L  for  wagon  work  equals  about  15  ct. 

The  formula  then  becomes. 

R  =  0.00382  D  —   4.1666  — 15,  when  w  =  2.00 
R  =  0.00546  D  —    5.9523  —  15,  when  w  =  1.4 
R  =  0.00955  D  —  10.4167  —  15,  when  w  =  0.8 

TABLE  III  — COST  OF  HAULING  WITH  2-HORSE  WAGON  IN  CENTS 
PER  CUBIC  YARD 

(Wages  of  man,  15  ct.  per  hr. ;  horse,  15  ct.  per  hr.) 

Length  of  haul  ft.                 50  100  150  200  250  500  1,000  1,500  5,280 

Load,   2  cu.  yd 19.4  19.5  19.7  19.9  20.1  21.1  23.0  14.9  39.4 

Load,    1.4   cu.   yd 21.2  21.5  21.8  22.0  22.3  23.7  26.4  29.2  49.8 

Load,   0.8  cu.   yd 25.9  26.4  26.9  27.3  27.8  30.2  35.0  39.7  75.8 

Capacity  of  Carts.  One-horse,  two-wheeled  dump  carts  hold 
from  0.3  to  0.6  cu.  yd.  Over  poor  roads  loads  of  earth  seldom 
exceed  0.4  cu.  yd.  (place  measure),  but  loads  of  0.48  cu.  yd.  of 
gravel  and  0.52  cu.  yd.  of  sand  are  common  while  0.59  cu.  yd.  and 
0.63  cu.  yd.  may  be  carried  easily.  Double  carts  and  wagons 
hold  about  twice  as  much  as  single  carts,  the  quantity  of  earth 
carried  being  limited  by  the  condition  of  the  road. 

With  hauls  of  300  ft.  or  less  one  driver  can  attend  to  two  carts, 
by  leading  one  to  the  dump  while  the  other  is  being  loaded;  on 
long  hauls,  where  the  relative  positions  of  pit  and  dump  are 
fairly  constant,  the  horses  may  be  quickly  trained  to  travel  with- 
out a  driver. 

Cost  by  Carts.  The  factors  in  the  transportation  formula  on 
average  work  are  as  follows: 

E  =  $3.25    (  =  1   horse,    $1.50  —  depreciation,    0.083,    interest,    0.02. 
repairs,   $0.10,    on    $50   cost  -j-  harness   and   miscel- 
laneous, $0.047,+ driver,  $1.50). 
w  =  0.6,  0.4  or  0.3. 
s  =  200. 
ks  =  240. 

1  =      4  (3  for  loading  and  1  for  dumping). 
W  =  600 
L  =    15   (cost  of  picking  and  loading). 

The  formula  then  becomes: 

»i   ..     .:;. ;..oi     ki    ii.,!l*  .':-<;i     '(it    •>/    l}Hif>fOV>tt   v!: 
R  =  .00827  D  —  3.6111  +  15,  when  w  -  0.6 
R  =  .01241  D  —  5.4167  +  15,  when  w  =  0.4 
R  =  .01644  D  —  7.2222  +  15,  when  w  =  0.3 


HAULING  IN  BARPvOWS,  CAPxTS,  WAGONS,  TRUCKS       229 

TABLE    IV  —  COST    OF    LOADING    AND    HAULING    WITH    1-HORSE 
CART  IN  CENTS  PER  CU.  YD. 

(Wages  of  man,  15  ct.  ]>er  hr. ;  horse,  15  ct.  per  hr.) 

Length   of  haul   ft.             ?5  50  100  150  200  250  500  1,000  1,500 

Load,    0.6  cu.  yd 18.9  19.0  19.4  19.9  20.3  20.7  22.7  26.9  31.0 

Load.    0.4  cu.   vd 20.7  21.0  21.7  22.3  22.9  23.5  26.6  32.8  39.0 

Load,   0.3  cu.   yd 22.6  23.1  23.9  24.7  25.5  26.4  30.5  38.8  41.0 

Bibliography.  "  Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  Richard  T. 
Dana.  "  Earth  and  Rock  Excavations,"  Charles  Prelim. 

A  Report  by  the  Construction  Service  Co.  on  the  cost  of  Haul- 
ing by  Horses  and  Traction  Engines,  Troy  Wagon  Works,  Troy, 
New  York.  "  Haulage  by  Horses,"  Thomas  H.  Brigg,  Transac- 
tions Am.  Soc.  M.  E.,  Vol.  14  (1893).  "Notes  on  the  Cost  of 
Motor  Trucking,"  Bulletin  2,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. 

Engineering  and  Contracting,  March,  1906,  "  Itemized  Cost 
Excavation  on  Seven  Jobs,"  Daniel  J.  Hauer;  Dec.  18,  1907,  "Ad- 
vantage of  Oxen  over  Horses,"  D.  H.  Winslow;  Feb.  to  April, 
1909,  Comments  on  the  use  of  wagons  in  transporting  earth; 
June  9,  1909,  Moving  contractor's  plant  over  ice;  Feb.  19,  1913, 
Observations  and  experiments  on  tractive  power  of  horses; 
April  23,  1913,  A  study  of  comparative  upkeep  cost  of  horse- 
drawn  vehicles  and  electric  motor  trucks;  Feb.  17,  1915,  Selec- 
tion of  hauling  machinery  and  graphical  method  of  estimating 
the  comparative  cost  of  hauling. 

Hauling  400  tons  of  stone  per  day  with  auto  trucks,  Engineer- 
ing Record,  Dec.  5,  1914.  "  Notes  on  the  Cost  of  Loading  Motor 
Trucks  from  Ground  Storage  Piles,"  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Feb.  11,  1914.  "Cost  of  Operating  Motor  Trucks  in  Road  Main- 
tenance with  Methods  of  Up  Keep,"  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
June  17,  1914.  "  Motor  Trucks  Cheaper  than  Teams  on  Hauling 
Gravel,"  F.  P.  Scott,  Engineering  News  Record,  May  16,  1918. 


s  IM     >•;/     . 

ar.2       ,  , 


CHAPTER  VIII 

METHODS   AND   COST   WITH   ELEVATING  GRADERS   AND 
WAGON  LOADERS 

An  elevating  grader  consists  of  a  plow  casting  a  furrow  upon 
a  transversely  traveling  belt  that  elevates  the  earth,  dumping  it 
into  wagons  traveling  alongside  the  grader. 

In  sand  or  gravel,  where  a  plow  will  not  turn  a  good  furrow, 
the  elevating  grader  cannot  be  used.  There  must  be  few  boulders 
or  roots  to  stop  the  plow  of  the  machine;  and  there  must  be 
considerable  room  in  which  to  turn  the  machine,  and  manoeuver 
the  teams  going  and  coming.  The  machine  is  not  well  adapted 
to  loading  wagons  on  road  work,  but  is  especially  suitable  for 
reservoir  work  and  the  like. 

The  machine  is  used  in  prairie  soils  for  digging  ditches  and 
carting  the  material  directly  into  the  road,  but  the  material 
must  afterward  be  leveled  with  a  leveling  scraper  or  road  ma- 
chine; and  it  would  seem  better  practice  to  use  the  road  scraper 
entirely  for  this  class  of  grading  without  resort  to  the  elevating 
grader  at  all. 

In  moving  fairly  soft  clayey  loam  of  the  Chicago  Drainage 
Canal  with  New  Era  grader  and  wagons,  haul  being  500  ft.,  the 
output  was:  Section  I,  September,  485  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day; 
Section  K,  August,  490;  September,  515  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day. 
The  plant  consisted  of  7  wagons,  28  horses  and  17  men  and  one 
grader.  With  wages  at  30  ct.  per  hr.  for  men  and  15  ct.  per 
hr.  for  a  horse,  we  have  a  labor  cost  of  $9.30  per  hr.  With  an 
output  of  50  cu.  yd.  per  hr.,  the  labor  cost  would  be  18.6  ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

An  elevating  grader  costs  $1,400,  and  the  seven  dump  wagons 
cost  $1,800.  This  $3,200  plant  we  may  assume  can  be  rented 
some  years,  and  some  it  cannot,  so  that  its  owner  may  perhaps 
estimate  using  it  or  renting  it  for  64  working  days  annually;  with 
annual  interest,  repairs  and  depreciation  at  20%,  we  have  $640 
a  year,  or  $10  as  the  charge  to  be  made  for  each  working  day. 
The  cost  of  plant,  therefore,  adds  about  2  ct.  to  each  cu.  yd. 
moved. 

Where  the  work  is  of  great  magnitude,  the  cost  of  the  plant 
may  be  divided  by  the  total  number  of  cu.  yd.  to  be  moved  with 
it,  which  is  a  common  way  of  estimating  work  upon  the  part  of 
contractors.  Summing  up  we  may  put  the  cost  of  moving  earth 
with  elevating  graders  thus,  assuming  an  output  of  500  cu.  yd 
moved  500  ft.  in  10  hr.: 

230 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS       231 

Ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

10  horses  and  5  men  on  grades  6.0 

18  horses  and  6  men  on  6  wagons  9.0 

5  men  on  the  dump  and  grubbing   3.0 

Total  labor  18.0 

Plant  rental    2.0 


Total 


Due  to  the  fact  that  room  must  be  had  in  which  to  move  the 
grader  and  the  string  of  teams  on  the  wagons,  we  are  not  safe 
in  figuring  on  a  haul  of  less  than  500  ft.  no  matter  how  short 
the  "  lead  "  actually  may  be. 

Using   three-horse    dump    wagons    holding    1.25    cu.    yd.    place 
-  measure  for   hauling,    an   elevating  grader   with    five  teams   and 
five  drivers  and  helpers,  and  one  man  on  the  dump  for  every  100 
cu.  yd.  delivered,  we  have : 

Rule.     To  find  the  labor  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  average  earth 
loaded  with  an  elevating  grader  and  hauled  with  three-horse  dump 
wagons,  add  together  the  following  items: 
i/i0-hr.'s  wages  of  a  2-horse  team  with  driver  on  the  grader; 
%-hr.'s  wages  of  a  3-horse  team  with  driver  for  "  lost  time  " ; 
i/10-hr.'s  wages  of  man  dumping; 

then  add  J,£0-hr.'s  wages  of  a  3-horse  team  with  driver  for  each 
100  ft.  of  haul  over  500  ft.  With  wages  at  30  ct.  for  labor,  15 
ct.  for  a  horse,  this  rule  becomes:  To  a  fixed  cost  of  17.5  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  for  all  hauls  under  500  ft.  (corresponding  to  a  "lead  " 
of  200  ft.) ,  add  1  ct.  for  each  additional  100-ft.  haul.  To  this  add 
2  ct.  for  plant  rental. 

Traction  Engine  and  Grader.  The  writer  kept  the  following 
records  of  cost,  using  a  25  HP.  traction  engine  for  hauling  an 
elevating  grader.  Soil  was  easily  plowed  earth  taken  from  "  pits  " 
alongside  the  railroad  fill.  The  crew  was  one  engineman,  two  men 
operating  the  elevating  grader,  one  team  on  water  tank,  nine  two- 
horse  dump  wagons,  four  men  on  dump  spreading,  one  water  boy 
and  one  foreman.  The  "  lead "  was  only  100  ft.  The  grader 
traveled  600  ft.,  in1  which  distance  it  loaded  15  wagons  and  then 
turned  around,  the  turn  taking  1  to  2  min.  Each  wagon  had 
about  1  cu.  yd.  of  loose  earth,  equivalent  to  about  0.7  cu.  yd. 
in  "  cut,"  and  700  wagons  were  loaded  per  10-hr,  day.  It  took 
about  15  sec.  to  load  a  wagon  (the  grader  traveling  about  150  ft. 
per  min.),  then  the  grader  stopped  for  15  sec.  until  the  next 
wagon  came  up  into  place.  It  required  a  width  of  about  50  ft.  in 
which  to  turn  the  grader  and  engine.  Six  three-horse  wagons 
would  have  served  much  better  than  the  nine  two-horse  wagons 
used. 

The  traction  engine  uses  about  0.7  ton  of  coal  per  day  of  10 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


O 
2 

w  ^ 

If 

DQ 


II 


ELEVATING  GRADKRS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS      233 


234 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


hr.  Annual  interest,  repairs  and  depreciation  may  be  estimated 
at  20%  of  the  first  cost.  Ordinarily  a  tractor  can  not  be  counted 
upon  to  work  more  than  about  100  days  each  year,  year  in  and 
year  out. 

Widening  Wheels  of  Grader  for  Work  Over  Soft  Ground.  A 
method  of  increasing  the  bearing  areas  of  elevating  graders  that 
should  be  of  interest  to  dirt  movers  was  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Sieberling  Division  of  the  Lincoln  Highway 
across  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Desert  of  Utah.  Heavy  rains  made 
the  soil  so  soft  that  it  was  difficult  to  operate  the  road  ma- 
chinery. Extra  bearings  were  accordingly  piaced  on  the  wheels 


Fig.  3.     Paddles  on  Wheels  of  Elevating  Grader. 

of  the  elevating  graders  and  the  caterpillar  treads  of  tractors. 
On  the  graders  the  outer  ends  of  the  planks  were  supported  by  a 
ring.  Diagonal  brace  rods  extended  from  the  hubs  of  the  wheels 
to  the  planks.  The  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration,  which  is  taken  from  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
March  10,  1919. 

Method  of  Using  Elevating  Graders  on  Earth  Roads.  In  road 
building,  an  elevating  grader  will  take  the  earth  from  the  ditch 
and  deposit  it  directly  into  the  grade  where  wanted,  in  one  opera- 
tion. Fig.  4  taken  from  the  catalog  of  the  Russell  Grader  Mfg. 
Co.  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  shows  the  method  of  building  a  road 
grade.  The  figures  and  letters  indicate  the  order  in  which  the 
furrows  are  plowed  up  in  the  ditch  and  the  respective  points 
of  delivery  in  the  grade  by  use  of  16-ft.  carrier.  For  instance, 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS       235 

furrow  No.  1  indicates  the  first  one  handled  and  is  delivered 
about  four  ft.  across  the  center  of  the  road  to  the  point  indicated 
by  the  Fig.  1.  Furrow  A  is  taken  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
road  and  delivered  to  a  similar  position  about  four  ft.  across  the 
center.  (This  method  is  called  crossfiring. )  Each  respective 
furrow  is  taken  out  of  the  ditch  in  the  order  numbered,  the  fifth 
and  sixth  furrows  doubling  up  in  the  center  and  the  first  plowing 
in  itself  leaves  a  substantial  grade  with  ten  furrows  or  rounds. 
The  second  plowing  takes  out  furrows  11  to  17  respectively, 


Fig.  4.    Method  of  Building  a  Dirt  Road  by  "  Crossfiring"  with 
an  Elevating  Grader. 

bringing  the  grade  up  to  a  height  of  approximately  30  in. 
With  a  berm  as  shown  it  will  permit  driving  on  the  side  until 
the  grade  is  ready  for  travel.  As  the  grade  is  dressed  down  and 
as  the  roadbed  becomes  firmer  the  earth  will  work  out  toward 
the  edges  onto  the  berm  and  eventually  becomes  a  grade  with 
a  gradual  curve  from  the  ditch  to  the  crest.  According  to  the 
manufacturers  a  mile  of  road  such  as  shown  by  the  diagram 
can  be  built  by  17  rounds  or  hauling  the  machine  a  distance  of 
34  miles,  or  in  about  2  days'  time. 

Data  on  Elevating  Grader  Work.  I  have  seen  700  two-horse 
wagons,  holding  %  cu.  yd.  each,  loaded  per  10-hr,  day;  and,  I 
am  informed,  that  with  good  management  and  an  easy  soil,  700 
wagons,  holding  more  than  1  cu.  yd.  each,  can  be  loaded  per  10-hr, 
day.  With  three-horse  wagons  the  average  10-hr,  day's  output  on 
the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  was  500  cu.  yd.  of  top  soil. 

Mr.  N.  Adelbert  Brown,  C.  E.,  of  Rochester,  informs  me  that 
an  elevating  grader  was  used  by  Thomas  Holihan,  in  grading 
streets  at  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.  The  streets  were  60  to  75  ft.  wide 
between  property  lines,  and  36  ft.  between  curbs.  A  traction 
engine  was  used  to  haul  the  grader,  and  there  was  no  trouble  in 
turning  the  engine  and  grader  between  the  walk  lines,  which  was 
easily  within  50  ft.  of  space.  "  The  efficiency  of  the  machine  was 
not  tested  fully,  due  to  a  lack  of  teams;  but,  when  teams  were 
available,  50  wagon  loads,  of  1^  cu.  yd.  each,  were  readily  loaded 
in  an  hour.  The  machine  was  satisfactory  in  stone  and  gravel 


236  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

roads  and  stiff  clay,  but  in  light  sand  in  some  cases  refused  to 
elevate."  This  latter  is  true,  however,  of  all  elevating  graders 
in  any  dry  sand  that  will  not  turn  a  furrow. 

Fred  T.  Ley  &  Co.,  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  inform  me  that  ele- 
vating graders  were  used  by  them  on  electric  railway  work  in  cen- 
tral New  York  state,  both  with  traction  engines  and  with  horses. 
They  averaged  400  to  500  cu.  yd.  loaded  into  wagons  per  grader 
per  day. 

No  matter  how  short  the  lead,  a  team  hauling  earth  from  a 
grader  must  perform  a  large  percentage  of  waste  labor  following 
the  grader,  and  this  is  equivalent  to  adding  about  400  ft.  to  the 
"  lead." 

It  is  necessary  to  spread  the  earth  on  the  dump  to  prevent 
stalling  of  the  dump  wagons,  but  by  using  a  leveling  scraper  the 
cost  of  this  item  can  be  reduced  below  the  cost  of  hand  leveling. 

In  Engineering-Contracting,  Apr.,  1906,  there  is  an  article 
by  Mr.  Daniel  J.  Hauer,  giving  costs  of  elevating  grader  work  on 
7  railroad  jobs.  The  limitations  of  the  grader  for  narrow  through 
cuts  are  well  shown.  The  average  cost  was  as  follows  for 
an  average  "  lead  "  of  800  ft.,  with  an  average  daily  output  of 
288  cu.  yd.  per  elevating  grader: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Loading     $0.100 

Hauling     0.127 

Dumping  and  spreading  0.029 

Water  boy   0.002 

Foreman    0.010 

Total $0.268 

The  wages  of  the  grader  operators  were  $1.50  per  10-hr,  day; 
laborers,  $1.50;  two-horse  team  and  driver,  $4.60;  three-horse 
team  and  driver,  $6.25.  The  $0.268  does  not  include  any  allow- 
ance for  interest,  repairs  and  depreciation.  This  is  probably  as 
high  a  cost  for  elevating  grader  work  as  will  be  likely  to  occur 
with  the  same  length  of  haul  and  the  same  rates  of  wages. 

Cost  of  Elevating  Grader  Work  on  the  Belle  Fourche  Dam. 
In  Engineering  News,  Apr.  2,  1908,  Mr.  F.  W.  Hanna  gives  the 
cost  of  work  during  1906-07  on  the  Belle  Fourche  Dam,  South 
Dakota.  The  material,  consisting  of  a  heavy  adobe  clay  with 
occasional  layers  of  shale,  was  excavated  and  placed  by  graders 
and  wagons  and  by  steam  shovels,  cars  and  locomotives  simul- 
taneously. The  cost  of  the  steam  shovel  work  is  given  in  Chap- 
ter XIII. 

Two  Western  elevating  graders  of  standard  size  were  drawn 
by  .16  horses  or  by  two  32  hp.  21-ton  traction  engines.  Material 
was  loaded  into  24  3-horse  dump  wagons,  each  holding  1.1  cu. 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS       237 

yd.  of  material  as  measured  in  place.  The  water-measure  ca- 
pacity was  1.5  cu.  yd.  The  average  length  of  haul  was  approx- 
imately 1,300  ft.  The  material  after  being  dumped  was  spread 
with  a  6-horse  road  leveler  and  rolled  in  6-in.  layers  by  a  21-ton 
traction  engine  and  road  roller. 

The  cost  of  common  labor  was  $2.25  to  $2.50  and  of  horses 
$1.15  per  day  of  10  hr.  Coal  cost  $10.50  per  ton  delivered. 
The  cost  as  given  in  the  accompanying  table  includes  superin- 
tendence and  overhead  charges,  which  amounted  to  about  2.2  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

TABLE   COST  OF  GRADER  WORK  ON  BELLE  FOURCHE   DAM  EM- 
BANKMENT FOR  1906  AND  1907. 

(Total  yardage  for  both  years,  199,000  cu.  yd.  Daily  10-hr,  average  per 
grader,  566  cu.  yd.) 

Cost  per  cu.  yd. 
Excavating  — 

Labor    $0.047 

Depreciation  and  repairs   0.017 

Supplies     , 0.012 

Total    excavating    $0.076 

Hauling  — 

Labor    $0.126 

Total  hauling   $0.126  n;ju;» 

Spreading  — 

Labor    $0.016 

Depreciation  and  repairs   0.001 

Total   spreading $0.017 

Rolling  — 

Labor    $0.008 

Depreciation  and  repairs   0.005 

Supplies     0.008 

Total  rolling   $0.021 

Watering  — 

Labor    /.  .V::;:i  WJi $0.011 

Depreciation  and  repairs   0.011 

Supplies     0.003 

Total    watering    • $0.025 

Grand  totals  — 

Labor    $0-208 

Depreciation  and  repairs    0.034 

Supplies     0-023 

Total    $0.265 

Cost  of  Stripping  a  Gravel  Pit.  George  Rathjens  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Jan.  19,  1910,  gives  the  following: 


238  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

During  the  month  of  September,  1909,  the  following  record  was 
made  in  stripping  a  gravel  pit  in  the  Dakotas.  The  pit  in 
question  was  evidently  of  glacial  origin  and  was  covered  with 
a  sandy  loam,  there  being  a  number  of  pockets  of  varying  depths, 
the  maximum  about  10  in.  The  length  on  the  railroad  right  of 
way  was  3,000  ft.,  the  width  50  ft.  and  the  length  at  the  back 
2,000  ft.,  one  end  being  square  with  the  railroad.  The  contract 
called  for  stripping  a  width  of  250  ft.,  the  material  being  car- 
ried from  the  track  towards  the  back  of  the  pit  and  deposited 
in  winrows  with  a  base  of  45  ft.  A  part  of  the  material  was 
used  for  grading  the  straight  storage  tracks  paralleling  the  main 
line,  the  pit  being  on  a  curve. 

The  outfit  consisted  of  1  Austin  grader,  6  11/4  cu.  yd.  dump 
wagons,  4  No.  2  wheelers  and  2  plows.  Two  more  wagons  could 
have  been  used  to  advantage,  as  the  grader  sometimes  had  to 
wait  for  wagons. 

The  grader  usually  worked  a  strip  or  line  about  350  ft.  long 
by  35  ft.  wide,  with  an  average  haul  of  about  150  ft.,  the  longest 
haul  being  220  ft.  Wheelers  were  used  where  pockets  were  found. 
The  contractor  owned  his  teams,  but  teams  with  drivers  were 
worth  $5  per  day  when  hired.  Hay  and  other  feed  was  pur- 
chased from  nearby  farmers.  During  the  month  mentioned  the 
contractor  stripped  19,970  cu.  yd.  at  the  costs  here  given: 

Austin  Grader: 

2%  teams  on  push,*  24  days  at  $5  $    300 

8  teams  on  machine,  24  days  at  $5  960 

Dump  Wagons : 

5V2  teams,  24  days  at  $5  660 

Wheelers : 

3  teams  on  wheelers,  11  days  at  $5 165 

1  team  on  plow,  11  days  at  $5  55 

1  team  on  scraper,  11  days  at  $5  55 

Labor : 

1  foreman,  straight  time  .^    \      85 

1  mucker,  24  days  at  $2  A,y'<'r 

1  corral  man,  28  days  at  $2  ffrtyr*      ^ 

2  Austin  grader  drivers,  24  days  at  $2.25  108 

Total    $2,492 

*  Teams  on  push   operated  the  elevator,   team  power  being 
the  only  power  used. 

. . .;    ^IU^IITI 

The  cost  is  almost  12i£  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  total  time  was  28  days,  as  shown  by  corral  man's  pay, 
but  2  working  days  were  lost  on  account  of  rain  and  2  on  ac- 
count of  dust.  The  expense  of  feeding  teams  and  cost  of  repairs 
and  interest  are  not  included. 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS      239 

Coal  Stripping  with  an  Elevating  Grader.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  June  ID,  1018,  describes  the  methods  employed  in 
stripping  an  80-acre  track  of  coal  land  in  Kansas. 

The  coal  property  is  a  rectangular  piece  of  land,  extending 
throughout  its  full  length  along  the  railroad  right  of  way.  The 
two  small  preliminary  pits  taken  out  with  fresnoes  comprise  the 
corner  nearest  the  railroad  and  highway.  The  remainder  of  this 
strip  bordering  the  railroad  was  to  be  left  to  the  last,  when  it 
would  be  taken  out  with  an  elevating  grader. 

in  his  plans  the  contractor  divided  the  remainder  of  the  tract 
into  five  box  pits  about  700  ft.  long,  as  shown  in  the  diagram. 
The  first  of  these  box-pits,  to  be  stripped,  is  72  ft.  wide  at  the 
top  and  60  ft.  at  the  bottom.  The  next  pit  will  bottom  40  ft. 


60  x  7oo 


75  x  7oo 


Box  PIT    6o«7oo  Now 


Fig.  5.    Diagram  of  Stripping  Operation. 

wide;  the  third,  75  ft.;  the  fourth,  40  ft.,  and  the  last,  running 
to  the  edge  of  the  property  under  lease,  60  ft. 

These  five  box-pits  will  not  be  stripped  in  continuous  suc- 
cession but  alternately,  the  two  inside  pits  (shaded  in  the  dia- 
gram) each  40  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom  and  700  ft.  long,  being  left 
until  the  last.  When  he  comes  to  strip  the  two  inside  pits,  by 
using  a  longer  elevator  on  his  machine,  the  contractor  expects 
to  be  able  to  cast  fully  two-thirds  of  the  material,  which  will 
be  a  very  inexpensive  operation  and  will  reduce  his  yardage  cost 
materially.  The  slopes  will  be  taken  out  eventually  with  fresnoes. 

The  average  cut  in  the  pit  now  being  stripped  is  16^  ft.,  with 
a  maximum  of  21  ft.,  and  the  material  is  a  very  tough  gumbo 
and  hard  shale,  covering  35  in.  of  coaf.  For  stripping  the  con- 
tractor is  using  a  Western  standard  elevating  grader,  drawn  by  a 
Reeves  tractor,  loading  into  Western  1^-yd.  dump  wagons,  three 
horses  to  a  wagon.  The  cut  is  being  made  with  one  side  per- 


240  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

pendicular  and  the  other,  toward  the  adjoining  box-pit,  with  a 
slope  of  ^  to  1.  He  finds  eight  wagons  the  proper  number  for 
economical  work  and  under  favorable  conditions  can  move  from 
750  to  800  cu.  yd.  of  material  in  a  9-hr.  day.  Three-horse  teams 
are  necessary  because  as  the  pit  grows  deeper  the  load  must  be 
lifted  to  a  considerable  height.  The  wagons  work  both  ways  out 
of  the  pit,  there  being  a  dump  at  each  end. 

The  working  force  consists  of  an  engineer,  steersman  for  the 
tractor,  machine  man,  eight  drivers,  a  dump  man,  a  man  for 
the  water  team  and  a  corral  man.  The  machine  man  is  also  a 
blacksmith.  Repairs  are  nrade  on  rainy  days  when  possible.  The 
contractor  acts  as  his  own  foreman.  If  the  machine  man  is 
called  away  for  blacksmith  work  while  the  machine  is  operating, 
the  contractor  takes  his  place.  When  the  contractor  is  called 
away  the  machine  man  acts  as  foreman.  This  organization  works 
9  hr.  a  day,  from  7  to  12  and  from  1:30  to  5:30. 

A  Trap  for  Loading  Cars  with  Dump  Wagons  is  described  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  April  16,  1919,  as  follows: 

An  interesting  method  of  trap  loading  with  Western  dump 
wagons  was  employed  in  the  construction  of  an  8-mile  railroad  for 
the  development  of  silica  beds  near  Fowler,  Kans.  The  illustra- 


Fig.  6.     Trap  for  Loading  Cars  with  Dump  Wagons. 

tion,  from  the  Earth  Mover,  shows  the  method  of  loading  strip- 
ping material  which  was  used  for  ballast.  The  elevation  of  the 
hill  where  the  stripping  took  place  was  slightly  above  the  level 
of  the  platform.  In  the  platform  was  a  trap  door  on  hinges,  so 
fastened  that  it  could  be  tripped  at  will.  The  wagons  from  the 
elevating  grader  were  driven  successively  to  the  platform  and 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS       241 

dumped  upon  the  trap  door  without  stopping  the  teams.  After 
each  load  had  l;een  discharged  the  door  was  tripped,  letting  the 
material  fall  into  the  car  below.  Such  an  arrangement  permits 
a  free  movement  of  the  team  and  does  not  restrict  the  output  of 
the  elevating  grader. 

Elevating  Grader  on  Railroad  Work.  Mr.  J.  R.  Taft  presents 
some  interesting  data  of  the  methods  and  cost  of  operating  an  ele- 
vating grader  on  railroad  construction  in  Engineering  News, 
Sept.  10,  1914.  The  use  of  this  machine  for  taking  out  railroad 
outs  is  unusual,  as  local  conditions  generally  do  not  permit  the 
use  of  such  an  outfit,  except  for  work  spread  over  comparatively 
large  areas  and  of  shallow  depth.  Owing  to  the  rolling  character 
of  the  country,  consequent  long  hauls,  and  apparent  absence  of 
rock  or  stone,  the  contractor  decided  to  take  out  cuts  by  elevating 
grader  and  wagons.  The  excavation  altogether  amounted  to 
about  20,000  c  .  yd.  place  measure,  94%  of  this  amount  being  re- 
moved by  machine,  the  remaining  6%  being  unfavorable  for  ma- 
chine work  because  it  was  either  root-bound  surface  soil  or  high 
places  at  the  bottom  of  cuts.  The  work  was  done  on  the  Halit 
and  Northern  Railroad  in  Livingston  County,  N.  Y. 

The  machine  used  was  an  Austin  elevating  grader,  hauled  by  a 
20-ton  steam  tractor.  The  wagons  were  1^-yd.  bottom-dump 
wagons,  drawn  by  3  mules  each.  The  outfit  was  supplemented 
with  a  light  grading  equipment  of  Fresno,  wheel  and  drag 
scrapers  used  in  places  inaccessible  to  the  grading  machine. 

The  material  was  a  stiff  clay,  hard  when  dry  and  plastery  and 
sticky  when  wet.  Wet  weather  prevented  work  in  such  material 
and  the  grading  machine  co,.ld  not  be  used  during  the  greater 
part  of  November,  December  and  January. 

A  cut  20  ft.  wide  was  too  narrow  for  the  machine  to  work  in, 
and  it  was  necessary  to  over-cut  the  prescribed  section  to  a  total 
width  of  30  ft.  Even  a  30-ft.  cut  did  not  provide  sufficient  room 
for  loading  all  the  material  into  wagons  working  in  the  cut  when 
working  along  the  center  line.  Therefore  when  taking  out  the 
middle  third  of  the  width,  considerable  re-handling  was  necessary, 
the  material  being  cast  up  on  the  sides  by  the  machine,  and  later 
rakeJ  down  by  slopers,  to  a  position  from  which  it  could  be  again 
picked  up  and  loaded  into  wagons.  When  the  machine  was 
working  alone,  the  teams  were  used  on  light  grading  elsewhere. 
A  wagon  load  of  a  little  less  than  1  cu.  yd.  place  measure  was 
removed  for  each  6  ft.  the  machine  travelled.  Stones  embedded 
in  the  tough  material  were  caught  by  the  plow  point  and  caused 
severe  strains  to  the  whole  apparatus,  which  were  relieved  by  the 
shearing  of  the  bolts  in  the  plow  frames.  Many  hundreds  of  bolts 
were  broken  and  replaced  causing  many  unrecorded  delays  of  from 


242  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

5  to  15  min.  each.  The  total  time  of  119  days  during  which  the 
maching  was  working  in  the  cut  (not  including  the  removal  of 
about  4,000  cu.  yd.  from  the  marl  pit)  was  classified  as  follows: 

Days  % 
Unnecessary  delays. 

Lack  of  duplicate  parts   6  5 

Delays  by  work  elsewhere  on  the  line 5  4 

11  9 
Necessary  delays. 

General  repairs    6  5 

Wet  ground   43  36 

Total     49  41 

Total  delays    60  50 

Machine  and  operation   59  50 

Total  working  time   119  100 

Considering  the  work  as  a  whole,  it  was  not  executed  under 
favorable  conditions.  Eliminating  the  item  of  wet  ground  from 
the  total  working  time  of  119  days,  76  days  were  consumed  in 
excavating  about  20,000  yd.,  giving  a  daily  average  of  about  260 
cu.  yd.  In  areas  that  were  not  so  constricted  about  twice  this 
output  might  be  expected. 

The  daily  cost  of  operations  was  as  follows: 

(A)    At  Working  Point 

Foreman   ( member  of  firm ) $  6.00 

Tractor  engineman    4.00 

Tractor    steersman 2.00 

Machine    operator    3.00 

Tank-wagon    driver    2.00 

Kxtra  tank  wagon  with  driver   5.50 


Total    $22.50 

Fuel,  oils,  etc.,  for  tractor  5.00 

Six  dump-wagon  drivers,  at  $2  12.00 

Two  dumpmen,  at-  $2.25   4.50 

$21.50 

Total  at  working  point   $44.00 

(B)     At  Camp 

One  blacksmith $  3.00 

One  barnman  at  $40  per  month  and  board  2.00 

One  cook  at  $40  per  month  and  board  2.00 

Total    $  7.00 

Corral  expenses  for  25  head  of  mule  stock  20.00 ' 

Total  at  camp  $27.00 

Total  of   (A)   and   (B)    $71.00 

For  insurance,  interest,   depreciation,  etc.,  12^% 9.00 

Grand  total   $80.00 

Assuming  $80  as  a  fair  figure  for  daily  expenses,  the  cost  of 

moving  260  cu.  yd.  per  day  was  about  31  ct.  per  cu.  yd.     Board 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS       243 

with  lodging  in  camp  was  furnished  the  men  at  $4.50  per  week, 
which  was  practically  at  cost.  Corral  expense  was  based  on 
oats  at  64  ct.  per  bushel,  loose  hay  at  $21  per  ton,  and  straw  at 
$10  per  ton;  all  haulage  by  the  contractor. 

Tractors  for  Pulling  Graders.  Prof.  A.  B.  McDaniel  in  Engi- 
neering Record,  July  31,  1915,  gives  the  comparative  cost  of  using 
animals  and  gasoline  tractors,  for  pulling  elevating  graders. 
His  estimate  is  based  on  average  working  conditions  on  road 
construction  in  comparatively  level  country,  where  the  earth  is 
to  be  removed  from  the  side  of  the  road  to  the  center.  The  de- 
tailed estimate  and  cost  is  given  as  follows: 

COMPARATIVE  COSTS  OF  EXCAVATION  WITH  ANIMAL  POWER 
AND  GASOLINE  TRACTOR 

Animal  Power 

7  teams,  at  $2.50  $17.50 

2  drivers,   at  $2.50   5.00 

1    operator    3.00 

Total  labor  cost   $25.50 

General : 

Interest  on  investment  at  6%   $  1.20 

Depreciation,  based  on  10- yr,  life  2.00 

Repairs  and  general  expenses   1.30 

Total   general   expenses    $  4.50 

Total  cost  for  10-hr,  day  $30.00 

Excavated  per  day   800  cu  yd. 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 3.75  ct. 

Gasoline  Tractor 
Labor : 

1  engineer   $  5.00 

1  operator   3.00 

Total  labor  cost  $  8.00 

Power : 

Gasoline,  30  gal.,  at  15  ct $  4.50 

Cylinder  oil,  1%  gal.,  at  36  ct 0.54 

Grease,  2  Ib 0.20 

Repairs,   waste,  etc 0.76 

Total  power  cost $  6.00 

General: 

Interest  on  investment  at  6%    : $  2.40 

Depreciation,  based  on  10-yr.  life  4.00 

Repairs  and  general  expenses   1.60 

Total  general  expenses  $  8.00 

Total  cost  for  10-hr,  day $22.00 

Excavated  per  day   1,000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 2.2  ct. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  carry  the  earth  along  the  road,  as  in 
the  making  of  cuts  and  fills,  dump  wagons  must  be  used.  For 


244 


HANDBOOKS  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


a  haul  of  300  ft.,  one  elevating  grader  can  handle  five 
wagons,  and  one  additional  wagon  is  needed  for  each  100  ft. 
in  additional  length  of  haul.  If  the  cost  of  a  wagon  and  driver 
is  $5  per  10-hr,  day,  and  of  a  foreman,  $3  per  day,  the  cost  will 
be  increased  from  about  8  to  12  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

A  New  Excavating  Machine.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Jan.  6,  1916,  describes  the  excavator  shown  in  Fig.  7,  the  essential 
features  of  which  are  gang  plows  and  a  scoop.  The  machine 
plows  seven  furrows,  6  to  12  in.  deep,  and  the  scoop  handles  56 
cu.  ft.  at  each  trip.  The  machine  is  designed  for  loading  earth 


Fig.  7.     New  Type  of  Elevating  Grader.     Made  by  L.  C.  Wood  & 
Co.,  Alden,  la. 


into  dump  wagons  in  railway  grading,  reservoir  dam  construc- 
tion, and  in  ditching  for  irrigation  and  road  work. 

It  is  operated  by  a  35-hp.  double  cylinder  traction  engine,  con- 
structed with  a  winding  drum  and  anchors  so  that  the  engine 
remains  stationary  while  the  excavator  is  in  operation.  The  ma- 
chine is  drawn  ahead  about  7  ft.  for  a  load  then,  without  stop- 
ping the  engine,  the  scraper  is  unlocked,  fills  and  is  drawn  up  the 
track  and  dumped  onto  the  conveyor.  The  conveyor  discharges 
into  dump  wagons  at  either  side  of  the  machine. 

The  machine  is  8  ft.  wide  and  38  ft.  long.  It  weighs  about  12 
tons.  About  150  ft.  of  1%-in.  steel  cable  is  used  so  there  can  be 
several  loads  handled  without  moving  the  engine.  The  machine 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS      245 

is  drawn  from  place  to  place  behind  the  traction  engine.  It  is 
ready  to  work  as  soon  as  the  motor  on  the  machine  is  started, 
and  begins  loading  as  soon  as  the  engine  is  unhooked,  the  cables 
hooked  together  and  the  engine  run  out  to  the  end  of  the  cable. 
The  small  motor  on  the  machine  furnishes  power  to  operate  the 
conveyor,  to  control  the  plows,  to  steer  the  machine  and  to  raise 
and  lower  the  front  end  of  the  machine.  When  the  machine  is 
working  the  front  wheels  are  on  top  of  the  ground  and  the  rear 
ones  travel  behind  the  scraper  where  the  plowing  has  been  picked 
up.  The  machine,  therefore,  always  works  on  the  level. 

In  operation  one  man  is  required  on  the  machine  and  two  on 
the  engine.  The  engine  is  of  special  design  for  operating  the  ma- 
chine. Both  are  built  almost  entirely  of  steel  and  steel  castings. 
The  machine  is  constructed  to  handle  very  hard  material,  such 
that  if  plowed  with  teams,  three  or  four  teams  would  be  required 
on  a  single  plow.  A  full  load  is  handled  in  20  sec.  and,  in  service, 
from  80  to  100  loads  are  handled  per  hour. 

A  Wagon  Loading  Trailer.  The  Insley  Mfg.  Co.  make  the  ma- 
chine shown  in  Fig.  8.  This  machine  is  hooked  to  the  back  of  a 
wagon  after  the  roadway  has  been  torn  up  by  the  rooter  plow, 
and  the  four-horse  plow  team  is  used  as  a  snatch  team  in  grading 


Fig.  8.     Wagon  Loading  Trailer. 


and  loading.  This  machine  will  load  6  wagons  of  li/£  cu.  yd. 
capacity  in  20  min.  and  should  average  24  cu.  yd.  per  hr.,  taking 
the  place  of  12  shovelers  and  loading  a  wagon  in  one-half  the 
time. 

Bucket-Elevator  Wagon  Loader.  A  machine  of  this  type  is 
made  by  the  George  Haiss  Mfg.  Co.  of  New  York.  This  is  a 
bucket  conveyor  mounted  on  a  steel  frame  wagon  body  and  op- 


246       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

erated  by  a  7%-hp.  motor  or  gasoline  engine.  The  machine 
weighs  3000  Ib.  and  is  designed  for  use  on  storage  piles  and  in 
sand  and  gravel  pits.  Cost  data  on  its  use  in  handling  gravel 
from  a  storage  pile  are  given  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
May  16,  1917.  Comparative  test  of  this  work  by  hand  labor  and 
by  the  use  of  the  loading  device  showed  the  following  results: 

Hand  labor. 

Loading  wagons,  8  laborers,  3  yd.,  13.00  min.   @  $0.25  $    435 

Loading  auto  truck,  8  laborers,  2%  yd.,  10.00  min.   @   $0.25 415 

Cost  of  auto  truck  @  $1.00  per  hour 160 

C&st  per  5V2  yd $1.010 

Cost  per  yd 184 

Wagon  loader. 

Loading  wagons,  2  laborers,  3  yd.,  4.8  min.   @   $0.5   $  .040 

Loading  auto  truck,  2  laborers,  2%  yd.,  4.0  min.   @  $0.25 033 

Cost  of  auto  truck  @  $1.00  per  hr 066 

Power  @  V2  ct.  per  cu.  yd 028 

Oil,  grease,  interest  on  investment  010 

Cost  per  5%  yd $0.177 

Cost  per  yd ^ $  .032 

Cost  per  yd.  hand  labor 184 

Cost  per  yd.  machine  032 

Amount  saved  per  yd $0.152 

The  above  saving  is  entirely  exclusive  of  supervision  and  over- 
head charges. 


Fig.  0.     Haiss  Bucket  Elevator  for  Loading  Wagons. 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS      247 

The  digging  or  feeding  device  used  with  the  Haiss  loader  is 
shown  in  Fig.  10. 

Loading  Machine  for  Surface  or  Underground  Work.  A  load- 
ing machine,  specially  designed  for  underground  work,  has  been 
placed  on  the  market  by  the  Wellman-Seaver-Morgan  Co.,  Cleve- 
land, O.  This  machine  digs  loose  ore,  dirt  or  muck  by  a  con- 
tinuous scooping  process  —  the  material  being  taken  up  by  scoops 
or  buckets  on  an  endless  chain  elevated  and  dropped  into  a  hop- 
per which  feeds  to  a  conveyor  belt  which  in  turn  loads  into  a 
car.  The  scooping  mechanism  is  so  pivoted  that  it  can  dig  to  the 


Fig.   10.     Propeller  Feeding  Device  on  Bucket  Elevator  Loader. 

side  as  well  as  in  front  of  the  machine.  The  ore,  however,  being 
delivered  to  the  conveyor  through  the  hopper,  reaches  the  car 
behind  the  loader  no  matter  at  what  angle  the  scoop  is  working. 
The  movement  of  the  scoops  is  continuous  —  not  reciprocating. 
The  machine  is  self-propelled  and  is  so  dimensioned  that  it  can 
easily  be  transferred  around  the  mine.  It  is  claimed  that  it  will 
load  at  the  rate  of  over  a  ton  a  minute  and  may  be  operated  by 
unskilled  labor.  While  designed  particularly  for  underground 
work,  the  loader  can  also  be  used  on  the  surface  for  loading  coal 
from  piles  to  cars,  removing  piles  of  rock  and  sand  and  similar 
operations.  The  loader  is  fitted  with  motors  wound  for  230  volts, 


248  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Fig.  11.     McDermott  Continuous  Loading  Machine. 


Fig.  12.     Scoop  Conveyor. 


ELEVATING  GRADERS  AND  WAGON  LOADERS       249 

D.  C.,  providing  power  for  all  of  the  operations.  The  general  di- 
mensions of  the  loader  are  as  follows: 

Maximum  overall  length,  15  ft.  9  in.;  maximum  height,  5  ft. 
6%  in.  with  buckets  in  lowest  position;  maximum  overall  height, 
6  ft.  life  in.,  when  machine  is  in  operation ;  maximum  overall 
width,  4  ft. ;  gauge  of  truck  wheels,  24  in.  Maximum  rated  ca- 
pacity with  full  buckets  is  1.75  tons  per  min.  and  the  average 
rated  capacity  is  45  tons  per  hr.  The  weight  of  the  complete 
machine  is  8,000  Ib. 

A  Scoop  Conveyor  for  Loading  and  Piling,  made  by  the  Port- 
able Machinery  Co.  of  Passaic,  X.  J.,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  12. 
The  capacity  is  said  to  be  one  ton  per  minute. 


Fig.  13.     L7ndercutting  Method  of  Feeding  Conveyor. 

An  Undercutting  Bucket  Conveyor  Loader,  made  by  the  Barber 
Green  Co.  of  525  West  Park  Ave.,  Aurora,  111.,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
13. 

Bibliography.  "  Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  Richard 
T.  Dana.  "  Excavating  Machinery,"  A.  B.  McDaniel. 

"  Elevating  Graders  on  Massena  Canal,  N.  Y.,"  Eng.  News, 
Dec.  15,  1898.  "Steam  Excavating  and  Grading  Machine,"  En;/. 
News,  Aug.  15,  1901.  "Engineering  Work  on  Louisiana  Purchase 
Exposition,"  Eng.  News,  April  23,  1903. 


CHAPTER  IX 
METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 

Probably  some  form  of  log  drag  has  been  used  for  leveling 
ground  since  men  have  known  how  to  plow.  A  board  with  han- 
dles served  the  purpose  of  the  log  drag  and  was  more  easily 
dumped.  From  this  was  evolved  the  buck  scraper  to  which  were 
fitted  wood  sides  and  back  to  increase  its  capacity  until  it  became 
a  scoop.  This  in  turn  was  followed  by  the  steel  scoop  in  various 
forms.  For  long  hauls  the  scoop  was  fitted  with  wheels. 

Cables  and  hoisting  engines  were  used  first  to  assist  the  horses 
in  filling  scrapers  and  after  that  for  moving  them  as  well.  This 
permitted  the  use  of  larger  and  heavier  buckets.  Thus  the  evo- 
lution of  the  present  dragline  excavator  can  be  traced,  step  by 
step,  from  the  early  horse  drawn  leveling  devices. 

From  the  log  drag  also  evolved  the  leveling  scraper  or  earth 
hone.  The  largest  size  consists  of  a  long  blade  carried  in  a 
frame  on  four  wheels,  and  is  called  a  road  grader  or  road  ma- 
chine. 

An  elevating  grader,  or  grader,  is  an  entirely  different  type  of 
machine.  It  has  a  plow  that  delivers  the  earth  onto  an  inclined 
oadless  belt,  as  shown  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Buck  Scrapers.     The  buck  scraper  was  originally  an  upright 


Fig.    1.     Buck    Scraper. 


Width   48   In.,   Weight   75  Lb. 
250 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  251 

board  about  8  ft.  long  and  2  ft.  high,  shod  at  its  lower  edge  with 
iron,  provided  with  a  tongue  for  the  team  in  front,  and  a  platform 
at  the  rear  upon  which  the  driver  could  stand.  During  loading 
the  driver  would  stand  on  this  platform,  and  if  the  soil  was  at 
all  tough,  one  or  two  more  men  would  add  their  weight.  Upon 
reaching  the  proper  place  on  the  embankment  the  driver  would 
step  off  the  platform  and  the  scraper  would  flop  over  or  dump 
automatically.  A  buck  scraper  of  this  size  requires  four  horses 
to  pull  it.  The  material  is  not  carried  by  any  scoop  or  bowl  as 
with  the  drag  scraper,  but  is  pushed  or  "  drifted  "  along  in  front 
of  the  blade.  The  modern  road  machine,  in  which  the  blade  is 
supported  by  a  framework  carried  by  four  wagon  wheels,  is  a 
development  of  the  buck  scraper.  So  also  is  the  smaller  leveling 
scraper. 


Fig.  2.     Tongue  Scraper. 
(Weight   120   Ib.) 

Scrapers  in  Ditch  Excavation.  From  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, June  23,  1909. 

The  simplest  tool,  beside  the  pick  and  shovel,  with  which  a 
trench  or  ditch  can  be  excavated,  is  a  scraper.  In  narrow 
trenches  and  ditches  a  drag  scraper  is  used.  Shallow  trenches  can 
be  excavated  entirely,  excepting  the  trimming  up,  with  a  drag 
scraper.  But  for  deep  trenches,  either  a  long  ^run  has  to  be 
made  to  overcome  the  grade,  or  a  very  steep  grade  has  to  be  as- 
cended with  the  loads.  This  naturally  makes  an  economic  limit 
for  this  work.  The  writer  has  used  drag  scrapers  for  trenching 
and  has  found  in  the  country  that  deep  trenches  could  be  exca- 
vated cheaply  by  first  excavating  from  4  to  6  ft.  with  drags, 
making  a  slope  on  the  sides  of  the  trench.  This  slightly  in- 


252  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

creases  the  yardage,  but  the  scraper  work,  with  a  short  run,  is 
done  at  a  low  cost,  and  by  sloping  the  top  of  the  banks,  much 
money  is  saved  in  the  sheathing  which  is  an  important  item, 
especially  when  timber  is  used. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  drag  scraper  called  a  tongue  scraper.  This 
scraper  is  made  of  wood  bound  with  metal  and  derives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  a  tongue  is  used  in  it,  while  with  other  drag 
scrapers  a  tongue  is  not  needed.  The  tongue  scraper  is  operated 
in  a  manner  similar  to  a  drag  and  although  it  can  be  used  in  a 
trench  to  advantage,  especially  at  the  top,  yet  it  does  its  best 
work  in  shallow  ditches,  and  is  an  excellent  tool  for  cleaning  out 
trenches. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  Haslup  side  scraper,  manufactured  by  the 
Sidney  Steel  Scraper  Co.,  of  Sidney,  Ohio.  It  is  meant  entirely 


Fig.  3.     Haslup  Side  Scraper. 

for  ditch  work,  although  it  can  be  used  in  shallow  trenches.  It 
gets  its  name  from  the  fact  that  its  shape  allows  it  to  go  out  the 
side  of  a  ditch,  instead  of  moving  along  in  the  ditch  and  go  out 
at  a  runway  as  a  drag  scraper  has  to  be  worked.  The  side 
scraper  does  rapid  work  in  making  shallow,  narrow  ditches  and 
also  in  cleaning  out  ditches.  It  can  also  be  used  in  wider 
ditches.  It  is  made  of  metal  like  a  drag  scraper,  and  the  shape  of 
its  handle  facilitates  its  work. 

Unless  the  material  is  very  soft  or  sandy,  in  using  all  of  these 
scrapers  it  is  necessary  first  to  loosen  the  earth  in  the  trench 
or  ditch  by  plowing  or  some  other  mearns. 

Cost  Data  on  Use  of  Buck  Scrapers.  Geo.  J.  Specht,  to  whose 
paper  on  earthwork  reference  was  previously  made,  used  buck 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  253 

scrapers  in  moving  very  large  quantities  of  earth  in  building 
levels  and  in  digging  small  canals  in  California  in  1882  to 
1884.  His  records  of  cost  are  the  most  complete  to  be  found  in 
print.  Horses  were  hired  by  the  contractors  at  37.5  ct.  to  50 
ct.  per  day  per  head,  and  feed  cost  35  to  40  ct.  Chinamen  were 
employed  as  common  laborers  at  $1.15  per  day,  and  white  la- 
borers as  drivers,  etc.,  received  the  same  plus  their  board,  which 
cost  40  ct.  a  day  for  food  alone.  Although  most  of  the  soil  was 
sandy  loam,  four  to  eight  horses  were  hitched  to  a  plow  with  one 
driver  and  one  man  holding  plow. 

On  the  Upper  San  Joaquin  Irrigating  Canal,  which  was  cut 
into  a  steep  side  hill,  the  buck  scrapers  with  four  horses  attached 
traveled  400  ft.  in  making  a  round  trip,  and  went  loaded  down 
a  slope  of  about  1  in  4,  returning  uphill  empty  —  an  unusually 
favorable  condition.  Mr.  Specht  says  that  95  round  trips  were 
made  in  9  hr.  by  each  buck  scraper,  and  as  the  result  of  a  great 
many  observations  he  found  the  average  load  to  be  1.3  cu.  yd., 
although  as  high  as  1.64  cu.  yd.  in  one  case.  He  gives  128  cu. 
yd.  as  the  average  daily  output  of  each  buck  scraper.  It  should 
be  observed,  however,  that  the  material  was  all  pushed  down  a 
very  steep  hill.  From  the  foregoing  it  appears  that  it  took  5.7 
min.  to  make  a  round  trip  of  400  ft.,  which  is  equivalent  to 
a  speed  of  70  ft.  a  minute,  including  stops.  This  is  so  extra- 
ordinarily slow  that  we  are  very  much  inclined  to  believe  that 
the  actual  speed  was  greater,  but  that  each  load  was  very  much 
smaller  than  given  by  Mr.  Specht.  Mr.  Specht  gives  the  follow- 
ing data  of  cost  for  Nov.,  1882;  27%  days  worked: 


6-horse  plow  (with  2  men)   29%  days  at  $9.00 $ 

4-horse  plow    (with  2  men)    15%  days  at     7.00 108.50 

4-horse  buck  scraper   (with  1  man)... 409  days  at  $5.50 2,249.50 

2-horse  drag  scraper   (with  1  man)...  130%  days  at  $3.50 456.75 

White  man  on  dump  33  days  at     1.50 49.50 

Chinese   laborers    328  days  at     1.50 492.00 

Chinese  bosses  18  days  at    2.00 36.00 

$3,657.75 
General  expenses   (foreman,  bookkeeper,  blacksmith  and  hostler)..         300.00 

55,925  cu.  yd.  excavated  at  7  ct $3,957.75 

•it»'>  «K[  <>.}  «9tJi>.'iiqjr'»  h'>JHl"l  mfi .  ]>9mif<c«  faus  ui-til  -^j/fnruf*  ,'iiii  • 

NOTE. —  The  drag  scrapers  were  used  to  bring  part  of  the 
material  up  from  the  bed  of  the  canal  and  deliver  it  to  the  buck 
scrapers;  and  in  doing  this,  where  the  round  trip  traveled  by  a 
drag  scraper  was  225  ft.,  the  output  of  each  drag  was  18  cu.  yd. 
in  9  hr.,  which,  it  should  be  observed,  was  an  exceedingly  low 
output.  Deducting  material  moved  by  drags,  we  see  that  still 
each  buck  scraper  moved  130  cu.  yd.  in  9  hr. 

The    foregoing    was    for    November,    1882,    but    the    following 


254  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

January,  42,241  cu.  yd.  were  moved  in  22  days  at  about  the 
same  rate,  although  there  was  a  cost  of  about  %  ct.  more  per 
cu.  yd.  for  plowing  and  1^  ct.  more  per  cu.  yd.  for  additional 
Chinese  labor,  presumably  for  grubbing  roots  and  trimming 
slopes,  although  not  so  stated. 

In  February  some  hardpan  was  encountered,  adding  still  an- 
other li£  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  powder,  etc.,  distributed  over 
the  80,000  cu.  yd.  moved  that  month. 

In  the  year  of  1884  Mr.  Specht  built  levees.  Material  was 
largely  sandy  loam  with  some  adobe,  and  the  "  lead  "  was  about 
70  ft.;  90%  of  the  material  was  drifted  up  a  1  in  4  slope,  using 
buck  scrapers.  The  first  70,000  cu.  yd.  was  moved  at  the  rate 
of  55  cu.  yd.  a  day  per  buck  scraper;  the  slow  rate  being  due 
largely  to  inexperience  of  contractors.  Later  the  same  contractors 
moved  294,000  cu.  yd.  at  the  rate  of  90.5  cu.  yd.  per  buck  scraper 
a  day.  The  first  month,  when  the  levee  embankments  were  being 
started,  the  cost  was  about  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  but  the  second 
month,  when  the  levees  had  grown  higher,  the  cost  was  about 
12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  rent  and  feed  of  horses  we  have  assumed 
at  $1  a  day,  and  wages  of  labor  and  board  at  $1.50;  but  Mr. 
Specht  fails  to  state  the  number  of  men  and  rate  of  wages,  giving 
sum  totals  only,  and  we  may  be  slightly  in  error  in  making  this 
last  assumption. 

Drag  Scrapers.  A  drag  scraper,  or  scoop,  or  "  slip,"  or 
"  slusher,"  is  a  steel  scoop,  not  mounted  on  wheels,  for  scooping 
up  and  transporting  earth  short  distances,  and  is  drawn  by  a 
team.  Occasionally  a  small  scraper  drawn  by  one  horse  is  used, 
but  not  so  economically.  The  ordinary  No.  2  "  drag "  weighs 
about  100  Ib.  and  can  be  pulled  full  up  a  3  to  1  slope.  While  the 
listed  capacity  in  some  catalogues  is  as  high  as  7  cu.  ft.  for  a 
No.  1  and  in  other  at  5.5  eu.  ft.,  and  for  a  No.  2,  4.5  to  5  cu.  ft., 
actual  measurement  will  quickly  show  that  such  listed  capacities 
are  excessive,  except  upon  the  assumption  that  the  scraper  is 
heaping  full;  and  even  then  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
earth  is  loose,  and  about  20%  must  be  subtracted  from  the 
loose  volume  to  get  measurement  in  cut.  Trautwine  overlooked 
the  shrinkage  item  and  assumed  the  listed  capacities  to  be  cor- 
rect. Of  course,  many  of  the  loads,  even  in  ordinary  soil,  are 
not  full  loads;  and  frequently  in  stony  or  rooty  soil  the  load  is 
lost  by  accidental  dumping  before  the  embankment  is  reached. 

Trautwine's  table  of  cost  is  based  on  loads  of  0.2  cu.  yd.  place 
measure (  which  is  about  double  the  actual  average),  and  he 
estimates  a  speed  of  150  ft.  a  minute  with  15  ft.  added  to  the 
lead  for  turning  around  —  although  too  small  an  allowance  for 
short  leads.  The  actual  speed  is  about  220  ft.  a  minute,  and  the 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  255 

lost  time  in  loading  and  dumping  (which  Trautwine  entirely 
overlooks)  is  ^3  to  ^  a  minute.  As  evidence  of  the  falsity  of 
Trautwine's  assumptions  we  need  but  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  impossible  to  move  220  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  with  one  scraper 
as  given  in  his  tables  on  a  40-ft.  "  lead."  The  author  has  never 
seen  an  average  of  one-third  that  amount  maintained,  and  his 
records  of  cost  of  moving  60,000  cu.  yd.  of  "easy  gravel"  (lit- 


Fig.  4.     Drag  Scraper  Made  by  American  Steel  Scraper  Co., 

Sidney,  Ohio. 
No.  1.  Capacity  7  cu.  ft. 
No.  2.  Capacity  5  cu.  ft. 
No.  3.  Capacity  3  cu.  ft. 

tie  plowing  required)  show  that  the  average  output  per  scraper 
was  02  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  with  a  lead  of  50  ft.  and  embankment 
8  ft.  above  bottom  of  pit.  Under  the  same  conditions  where 
stiff  clay  was  moved  the  output  was  40  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  per 
scraper,  where  20,000  cu.  yd.  were  moved. 

Ellwood    Morris    found    the    average    capacity    of    the    wooden 
scraper  used  in  his  day   (1841)   to  be  0.1  cu.  yd.  place  measure, 


250  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

and  he  allowed  1.33  min.  lost  time  in  loading  and  turning  each 
round  trip,  and  assumed  a  speed  of  140  ft.  a  minute..  The  au- 
thor's experience  agrees  substantially  with  his  in  all  but  the 
speed,  which  the  author  finds  to  be  50%  greater.  It  is  a  very 
easy  matter  to  err  in  estimates  of  speed  on  short  hauls,  where 
teams  are  continually  stopping  for  one  thing  or  another.  While 
actually  walking,  unless  the  drivers  loaf,  the  speed  of  scrapers 
is  almost  as  great  as  wagons. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  most  of  the  data 
given  by  Mr.  Morris  are  still  usable  although  nearly  80  years  old. 
His  original  paper  was  published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin 
Institute  in  1841. 

In  working  drag  scrapers  on  the  ordinary  short  leads  there  are 
usually  3  teams  traveling  in  a  circle  or  ellipse  of  about  150  ft. 
circumference,  so  that  each  team  has  about  50  ft.  to  itself, 
which  is  none  too  much.  One  man  loads  the  scrapers  as  they 
go  by,  and  each  driver  dumps  his  own  scraper.  It  is  evident 
that  with  a  "  lead  "  of  only  25  ft.,  the  actual  haul  from  pit  to 
dump  is  75  ft.,  yet  for  a  lead  of  25  ft.,  Trautwine  assumed  the 
low  allowance  of  15  ft.  more,  instead  of  50  ft.  for  manoeuvering 
the  teams.  The  actual  loads  of  drag  scrapers  average  for  tough 
clay  l/0  cu.  yd.,  for  gravel  ^  cu.  yd.,  and  for  loam  l/3  cu.  yd. 

Railway  Work  with  Scrapers.  Bearing  out  the  author's  ex- 
perience may  be  cited  that  of  J.  M.  Brown  (see  Trans.  Iowa  Soc. 
of  Engineers,  1885).  In  building  a  railroad  embankment  (Iowa) 
2  ft.  high,  20  ft.  wide  at  the  base,  the  distance  from  the  center  of 
the  borrow  pits  at  the  side  to  the  center  of  the  fill  was  33  ft. 
Large  drag  scrapers  holding  4  cu.  ft.  of  earth  when  full  but  3  cu. 
ft.  of  i()  cu-  yd-  on  an  average  were  used.  Each  team  made  a 
trip  in  1.5  minutes,  and  60  cu.  yd.  moved  per  scraper  was  a  good 
10-hr,  work. 

One  plow  was  used  requiring  at  times  one  team,  at  times  two 
teams  (average  1.5  teams),  loosened  360  cu.  yd.  hi  10  hr.  One 
man  to  every  two  scrapers  was  required  to  load  them,  and  one 
man  to  every,  six  scrapers  to  dump  them.  There  was  one  fore- 
man to  each  of  these  gangs.  [N.B. —  The  author's  experience  has 
generally  been  that  one  man  is  needed  to  load  these  scrapers,  and 
no  man  is  required  to  dump  them,  the  driver  doing  that;  but  it 
is  generally  well  to  figure  in  another  man  to  every  three  teams 
to  be  used  in  grubbing  small  roots,  etc.]  Thus  with  a  33-ft. 
"  lead "  Mr.  Brown's  experience  was  that,  including  foreman,  it 
costs  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  wages  being  15  ct.  per  hour  for  men 
and  35  ct.  for  teams  with  driver.  To  this  he  recommends 
adding  3  ct.  for  each  added  33  ft.  of  "  lead  "  which  is  erroneous, 
the  error  arising  from  his  failure  to  see  that  the  "lost  team 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  257 

time"  in  loading  and  dumping  is  no  more  for  a  lead  of  100  ft. 
than  for  a  lead  of  33  ft. 

Diking  with  Scrapers.  In  diking  several  miles  of  a  creek  the 
writer  kept  careful  record  of  the  cost  of  excavating  55,500  cu. 
yd.  of  sandy  gravel  measured  in  cut  taken  from  the  bottom  of 
the  dry  creek  bed.  This  material  was  excavated  by  1,040  team- 
days  (with  driver)  and  900  man-days  of  10  hours  each,  at  a  total 
cost  of  $5,000,  wages  being  $3.50  a  day  for  teams  with  driver  and 
$1.50  for  men,  which  is  equivalent  to  9  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Drag 
scrapers  were  used,  three  in  a  "  string "  traveling  in  a  circle 
about  150  ft.  around,  although  the  "  lead "  was  but  50  ft.  The 
bottom  of  the  creek  was  50  ft.  wide  and  excavated  to  a  depth  of 
about  2  ft.,  the  material  being  placed  in  dikes  on  each  side,  the 
top  of  the  finished  dike  being  9  ft.  above  the  bottom  of  the 
finished  channel.  About  5  acres  of  brush  were  cleared  from 
the  banks  but  not  grubbed.  There  was  one  scraper  holder  to 
each  string  of  three  teams,  ^,nd  one  plow  team  to  every  6  or 
7  scrapers.  Each  scraper  averaged  62  cu.  yd.  excavated  per 
day,  so  that  each  plow  averaged  about  400  cu.  yd.  per  day, 
and  including  plow  teams  the  average  output  per  team  was 
53  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

In  diking  another  creek  the  material  encountered  was  a  rather 
stiff  clay  which  was  plowed  with  a  heavy  single  team.  The 
finished  channel  in  this  case  was  only  15  ft.  wide  at  bottom,,  and 
the  top  of  the  finished  dikes  was  6  ft.  above  the  bottom  of  the 
channel.  The  "  lead "  was  only  20  ft.,  but  the  teams  traveled 
as  in  the  preceding  case,  three  in  a  string,  describing  a  circle  or 
ellipse  150  ft.  in  circumference.  With  540  team-days  (including 
driver)  and  620  man-days,  wages  as  before,  20,100  cu>  yd.  were 
moved  at  a  cost  of  14  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  4.6  ct.  being  for  labor  and 
9.4  ct.  for  teams  and  drivers.  To  this  were  added  0.5  ct.  for 
tools,  0.5  ct.  for  sundry  expenses,  and  3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for 
foremen,  making  a  grand  total  of  18  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The 
foreman  item  would  not  ordinarily  exceed  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  but 
in  this  case  frequent  rainy  spells  flooded  the  creek  bed  and 
stopped  work,  during  which  time  the  foreman's  pay  went  on. 
Not  including  plow  teams,  the  output  per  drag  scraper  team  was 
37  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

The  very  same  gang  later,  under  another  and  better  foreman, 
moved  15,000  cu.  yd.  of  clay,  at  the  rate  of  48  cu.  yd.  per 
scraper  per  day,  and  including  plow  teams,  of  which  there  was 
one  to  every  six  scrapers,  the  output  was  38  cu.  yd.  per  team-day 
of  10  hr.  There  were  8  men,  beside  drivers,  for  every  10  teams, 
so  that  the  cost  was  9.25  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  team  work,  3.15 
ct.  for  labor,  1  ct.  for  foreman,  and  0.5  ct.  for  tools  and  sundries, 


258  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

making  a  total  of  nearly  14  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  We  believe  that  it 
would  be  difficult  to  better  this  output  in  stiff  clay,  for  the 
horses  and  men  all  worked  with  energy. 

In  excavating  2,100  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  in  a  road  cut  to  a  depth 
of  about  32  in.,  the  top  8  in.  being  frozen,  12  men  and  8  teams 
on  drag  scrapers  and  plow  were  engaged  G  days  of  10  hr.  The 
haul  was  50  to  75  ft.  The  output  was  50  cu.  yd.  per  scraper- 
day,  and  44  cu.  yd.,  per  team-day,  including  plow  teams. 

Based  upon  the  author's  experience  we  have  the  following: 

Cost  Rule  for  Drag  Scrapers.  To  find  the  cost  per  cu.  yd. 
of  average  earth  (ty  cu.  yd.  per  load)  moved  with  drag  scrapers, 
add  together  the  following  items: 

^-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver  and  plowman  for  plowing. 

%-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver,  lost  time  loading,  dump- 
ing and  extra  travel  in  turning. 

J^Q-hour's  wages  of  laborer  loading  scrapers. 

%-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver  for  each  100  ft.  of  "  lead," 
for  hauling. 

With  wages  at  30  ct.  per  hour  per  man  and  15  ct.  per  horse 
this  rule  becomes:  To  a  fixed  cost  of  16  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  add  6.7 
ct.  for  each  100  ft.  of  "lead."  Fairly  tough  clay,  hard  to  load, 
will  cost  one-third  more,  whereas  easy  sand  or  loam  will  cost 
one-third  less. 

Cu.  yd.  per 

Lieaa  in  ft.  scraper-hr. 

25     5.1 

50     4.5 

75 4.0 

100     3.6 

125 3.3 

150     3.0 

The  "  lead  "  is  the  distance  from  center  of  cut  to  center  of  fill,  in  a 
straight  line. 

Cost  of  Excavating  a  Cellar  with  Drag  Scrapers.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Jan.  27,  1009,  gives  the  following'.  The  follow- 
ing costs  are  for  cellar  excavated  in  stiff  clay.  The  depth  of  the 
excavation  was  4}£  ft.,  the  building  being  30^  x  33  ft.,  with 
an  angle  5  x  16  ft.,  cut  out  of  one  corner.  The  number  of  cubic 
yards  was  155.  The  costs  given  include  the  expense  of  trunning 
up  the  sides.  The  clay  was  plowed  and  then  excavated  with 
drag  scrapers,  the  excavated  material  being  dumped  on  the  sides 
of  the  bank.  At  first  two  teams  were  used,  and  an  extra  man 
for  loading  the  scrapers.  When  most  of  the  material  was  exca- 
vated only  one  scraper  was  used,  and  one  of  the  three  men  was 
put  to  work  dressing  down  the  sides  with  a  pick.  A  runway 
excavated  for  the  scrapers  to  enter  the  pit  contained  3  cu.  yd., 
making  in  all  158  cu.  yd. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS          259 

The  cost  was  as  follows: 

85  hr.  team  with  driver  at  50  ct $42.50 

72  hr.  laborer  at  15  ct 10.80 

Total    $53.30 

The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was: 

Team   work    $0.269 

Labor    0.068 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.337 

This  cost  could  have  been  reduced  by  working  three  scrapers 
in  the  gang  instead  of  two,  and  then  one,  and  by  employing  an 
extra  man  to  keep  down  the  sides.  With  only  two  scrapers  the 
pace  of  the  teams  was  slow.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  only 
1.86  cu.  yd.  of  material  was  moved  by  a  scraper  per  hour,  when 
at  least  3  cu.  yd.  should  have  been  excavated.  Then  with  only 
two  scrapers,  there  were  times  when  only  one  scraper  was  at 
work  when  plowing  was  being  done.  With  three  teams  the  pace 
would  have  been  much  faster.  It  would  also  have  been  possible 
to  have  worked  one  team  overtime  and  thus  have  had  most  of 
the  plowing  done  when  it  would  not  have  interfered  with  the 
regular  work  of  the  scrapers. 

The  cost  per  cubic  yard  should  have  been  from  3  to  5  ct.  less 
than  it  actually  was. 

Cost  of  Grading  a  Railroad  Siding.  The  following  cost  in 
connection  with  a  lead  refining  plant  at  Grasselli,  Ind.,  are 
taken  from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Mar.  12,  1913.  About 
one  mile  of  railroad  grading  was  necessary  for  the  trackage 
serving  the  plant.  All  the  material  was  sand  and  was  handled 
by  slip  scrapers.  Very  little  plowing  was  necessary.  The  length 
of  haul  averaged  about  200  ft.  and  the  maximum  haul  was  about 
400  ft.  The  teams  and  scrapers  with  driver  were  paid  35  ct. 
per  hour.  Common  laborers  received  $1.75  per  day  of  10  hr. 
The  work  was  done  between  March  7  and  April  28.  The  average 
number  of  teams  per  day  was  9.8. 

Excavation,   cu.  yd. 15,658 

Total  labor   cost   $1,866.00 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.  ct 11.9 

A  "  Dirt  Sucker "  for  Making  Fills  Over '  Marshy  Ground. 
Engineering  Record,  July  3,  1915,  gives  the  following:  For 
making  fills  across  marshy  ground  in  connection  with  Idaho 
State  road  work,  a  device  called  a  "dirt  bucker,"  is  used.  It 
consists  of  an  ordinary  fresno  scraper  fitted  to  the  forward  end 
of  a  frame  supported  on  two  wheels  in  the  rear,  similar  to  that 


260 


HANDBOOK  OF  EAPxTH  EXCAVATION 


of  a  "  hay  bucker  "  such  as  used  on  western  ranches  for  moving 
hay  from  the  field  to  a  stacker.  The  material  is  pushed  ahead  of 
the  team  by  the  frame  in  making  111  Is  across  wet,  marshy  places 
too  soft  to  hold  up  the  horses.  The  dirt  is  first  dumped  at  the 
end  of  the  fill  and  the  "  bucker "  is  simply  used  for  pushing 
it  ahead,  taking  the  place  of  dump  men.  According  to  Edward 
S.  Smith,  Idaho  State  highway  engineer,  it  has  proved  very 
effective  and  economical. 

Grading  Across  Sloughs  with  a  Push  Scraper.  The  following 
is  from  an  article  by  L.  V.  Martin,  appearing  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  May  7,  1919.  During  the  past  5  years  it  has  been 


Fig.  5.     Pushing  the  Grade  with  a  Bulldoser. 

•  hi    *\;    U)    vj;f>    -vi.|,r.7.i*.    f.-r/iVs'Vi   ..»rni*l.»I    none 

the  writer's  task  to  grade  across  a  large  number  of  pot  holes, 
sloughs  and  peat  bogs,  over  which  it  was  impossible  to  drive 
teams.  These  have  varied  from  a  few  feet  in  length  to  a  length 
of  3,000  ft.  in  one  extreme  case.  During  this  work  the  writer 
has  made  some  deductions  as  to  costs  and  methods  that  may 
be  of  interest  to  contractors  and  engineers. 

The  most  common  method  of  procedure  is  by  what  is  termed 
bull-dosing  or  pushing  the  grade.  This  method  is  particularly 
adapted  to  sloughs  containing  standing  water  and  to  short 
stretches  of  bog.  The  grade  for  this  work  should  be  carried 
from  40  to  60  ft.  wide  at  the  base;  or  in  the  case  of  standing 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  261 

water  to  a  minimum  width  of  40  to  45  ft.  at  the  water  level. 
Wagons  or  scrapers  are  dumped  as  close  to  the  edge  as  it  is 
possible  to  drive  the  teams  and  the  dirt  is  then  pushed  ahead 
by  the  bulldoser,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  A  good  operator 
on  the  bulldoser  can  handle  the  dirt  from  5  to  6  teams  on  an 
average  haul  of  500  ft.,  and  more  as  the  length  of  haul 
increases.  With  a  good  operator  little  time  is  lost  over  a 
straight  haul  on  good  ground.  The  outfit  shown  was  pushing 
for  five  No.  2  wheelers  on  a  400-ft.  haul.  A  heavy  steady  team 
is  required  to  handle  this  pusher.  The  actual  cost  per  yard 
over  straight  haul  dirt  with  a  good  operator  should  not  exceed 
2  ct.  per  yard,  and  may  even  run  below  this.  Unless  dirt  can 
be  sent  both  ways  from  the  cut,  however,  or  the  fill  is  long  enough 
to  use  the  full  outfit,  an  elevating  grader  is  not  worked  at  full 
capacity  and  the  extra  cost  per  yard  on  this  account  will  be 
raised  to  perhaps  6  ct.  additional  as  a  maximum. 

The  outfit  shown  in  the  picture  was  a  home-made  affair  con- 
sisting of  the  front  wheels  of  a  dump  wagon,  a  straight  telephone 
pole  8  in.  at  the  butt  and  20  ft.  long,  and  a  push  board  braced 
as  shown,  shod  with  a  3-in.  by  ^-in.  iron  edge  on  the  bottom. 
It  was  so  made  that  the  pole  with  board  attached  could  be 
removed  in  a  few  minutes  from  the  wheels  and  loaded  on  a 
wagon.  These  outfits  can,  however,  be  bought  from  any  road 
machinery  firm.  This  method  is  much  superior  to  and  cheaper 
than  the  old  one  of  having  shovelers  at  the  end  of  the  grade 
pushing  the  dirt  off  with  a  shovel. 

The  Fresno  Scraper.  The  scraper  shown  in  Fig.  6  embodies 
several  features  in  its  construction  that  have  made  it  a  favorite 
tool  for  scraper  work  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  chief  peculiarity 
of  the  device,  aside  from  its  general  shape,  compared  with  the 
ordinary  drag  scraper,  is  the  arrangement  of  shoes  or  runners 
on  which  it  travels  when  empty.  This  scraper  was  probably 
first  made  at  Fresno,  Calif.,  whence  its  name. 

In  loading  and  when  traveling  loaded  the  scraper  travels 
on  the  bottom  of  the  bowl,  which  is  made  very  heavy,  being  a 
plate  of  %-in.  plow  steel,  having  no  runners  in  the  shape  of 
projecting  plates  or  strips.  In  dumping,  the  scraper  is  raised 
by  the  rear  handle  until  it  rests  on  the  traveling  shoes  so  that 
the  load  spills  back  under  the  edge  of  the  bowl  which  is 'raised 
off  the  ground  as  shown.  By  varying  the  height  to  which  the 
handle  is  raised  the  opening  under  the  edge  may  be  made 
almost  any  height  from  an  inch  up  to  the  full  opening  shown; 
this  possibility  is  of  particular  value  in  leveling  work,  since 
the  load  can  be  distributed  in  a  layer  of  almost  any  desired 
thickness.  A  rope  is  customarily  fastened  to  the  handle.  This 


262 


HANDBOOK  OF,  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


is  used  to  prevent  the  scraper  from  dumping  prematurely,  and 
is  allowed  to  drag  when  not  in  use. 

The  bowl  fills  more  rapidly  if  drawn  across  the  furrows  than 
if  hauled  longitudinally  with  them.  The  sizes  and  capacities 
are  given  in  the  accompanying  table.  The  actual  capacities 


Fig.  6.    The  Fresno  Scraper. 

given  are  for  work  in  average  earth  on  uphill  or  level  hauls. 
The  loads  are  often  from  50  to  100%  greater  on  downhill  hauls. 
No.  1  scraper  is  generally  used,  and  requires  four  horses  or 
mules. 

FRESNO  SCRAPERS 


Size 
No.  1 
No.  2 
No.  3 


Horses 

Length  of 
cutting 

Capacity 
Listed          Actual 

required 

edge5 

cu.  ft.            cu.  ft. 

4 

5 

18                   9.54 

3 

4 

14                   7.43 

2-3 

3.5 

12                    6.36 

Weight 
Ib 


275 

250 


Rules  for  Cost  with  Fresno  Scrapers.  The  ordinary  four-horse 
fresno  scraper  has  a  bowl  13  in.  high,  18  in.  wide  and  5  ft.  long, 
giving  a  struck  measure  capacity  of  slightly  more  than  8  cu.  ft.; 
but  in  almost  any  soil,  except  dry,  running  sand,  the  earth  will 
heap  up  6  or  8  in.  above  the  top  of  the  bowl,  and  will  extend 
quite  a  distance  beyond  the  front  of  the  bowl.  One  carefully 
measured  fresno  load  of  clayey  earth  contained  19  cu.  ft.  of 
loose  earth,  which  compacted  to  16^  cu.  ft.  when  rammed  in 
4-in.  layers  in  a  box.  Several  other  large  loads  gave  almost 
the  same  results  after  being  hauled  100  ft.  over  a  level  road. 

Mr.  Geo.  J.  Specht  has  stated  that  on  a  downhill  haul,  loads 
will  average  35  cu.  ft.  and  occasionally  run  as  high  as  44  cu.  ft. 
However,  this  could  only  occur  with  light,  damp  soil  and  on  a 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  263 

downhill  pull  where  much  material  could  be  drifted  ahead  of 
the  fresno  scraper.  We  have  never  measured  any  loads  of  that 
size. 

On  level  hauls,  or  on  uphill  pulls,  it  is  not  ordinarily  safe  to 
count  on  more  than  %  cu.  yd.  (measured  in  cut)  per  load,  al- 
though under  favorable  conditions  the  average  load  may  be 
25  to  50%  greater,  while  under  unfavorable  conditions  it  may 
be  25%  less. 

If  the  delays  in  loading  and  dumping  are  excluded,  the  team 
can  be  counted  upon  to  travel  about  200  ft.  per  minute.  It 
requires  some  room  in  which  to  manoeuver  scrapers  of  any  kind, 
no  matter  what  method  of  handling  the  teams  is  adopted. 
Hence  one  must  not  measure  the  average  distance  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  center  of  the  cut  to  the  center  of  the  fill,  and  call 
that  the  average  haul,  for  that  is  the  average  "  lead,"  which  is 
considerably  shorter  than  the  actual  haul.  r'^.u.'j 

In  average  earth  the  daily  output  is  as  follows  when  the 
load  averages  %  cu.  yd. 

Cu.  yd.  per 

"  Lead  "  in  ft.  fresno,  10  hr. 

50  ...................................       120 

100  ................................  ...        100  , 

150  ...................................        87 

200  .........  ..........................        75 


::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

350    ...................................  55 

400  ...................................          50     ,/,,ii0i  KA 

We  have  never  measured  any  fresno  loads  that  had  been 
hauled  as  far  as  400  ft.,  and  we  doubt  very  much  whether  fresno 
loads  hauled  that  distance  would  average  as  much  as  ^  cu.  yd., 
due  to  the  loss  that  occurs  en  route. 

Cost  Rule.  To  find  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  average  earth 
(%  cu.  yd.  per  load)  moved,  -with  fresno  scrapers,  add  together 
the  following  items: 

^-hour's  wages  of  2-horse  team  with  driver  and  plowman  for 
plowing. 

%5-hour's  wages  of  4-horse  team  and  driver,  lost  time  loading; 
and  dumping  fresno,  and  extra  travel  in  turning. 

i£0-hour's  wages  of  4-horse  team  and  driver  for  each  100  ft.. 
of  "  lead  "  for  hauling.  The  "  lead  "  is  the  distance  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  center  of  cut  to  center  of  fill. 

With  wages  at  30  ct.  per  hr.  per  man,  and  15  ct.  per  hr.  per 
horse,  this  rule  becomes: 

To  a  fixed  cost  of  10.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  add  3  ct.  per  100  ft^ 
of  "  lead." 


204  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

For  tough  clay  add  one-third  to  this  cost  and  for  easy  sand 
or  loam  deduct  one-third. 

Each  driver  is  assumed  to  load  and  dump  his  own  fresno. 

Cost  with  Fresnos  in  Arizona  and  Cost  of  Trimming  Slopes. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  2,  1907,  gives  the  following: 
The  following  is  an  example  of  fresno  scraper  work,  done  in 
Arizona  in  1894,  under  one  of  the  editors  of  this  journal.  The 
scrapers  were  used  in  grading  a  railroad  bed,  the  cuts  being 
10  ft.  wide  and  the  embankments  8  ft.  wide.  The  road  was 
narrow  gage.  Thirteen  miles  of  roadbed  were  graded,  the  yard- 
age moved  being  70,000,  or  5,400  cu.  yd.  per  mile. 

The  contractor  managed  his  own  work,  having  only  foremen 
in  charge  of  the  various  gangs  directly  under  him.  One  man 
kept  the  time  books,  attended  to  the  commissary  and  also  acted 
as  bookkeeper.  In  this  way  the  general  expense  account  was  a 
small  one.  The  wages  paid  were  as  follows: 

Time  keeper,   $50  per  month   and  board. 
Foreman,  $3  per  10-hr,  day. 
Foreman,  $2.50  per  10-hr,  day. 
Drivers,  $1.70  per  10-hr,  day. 
Laborers,  $1.75  per  10-hr,  day. 

The  men  were  charged  75  ct.  per  day  for  board.  The  horse 
feed  was  hauled  by  the  contractor's  teams  from  his  own  ranch, 
and  he  estimated  that  the  entire  cost  of  feeding  and  caring  for 
a  horse  per  day  averaged  75  ct.  This  makes  a  charge  for  teams 
as  follows: 

4-horse  fresno  scraper,  team  and  driver  $4.75 

2-horse  drag  scraper,  team  and  driver  3.25 

4-horse  plow,  team  and  two  men  700 

6-horse  plow,  team  and  two  men   8.50 

The  charge  for  the  plow  includes  an  allowance  of  50  ct.  per 
day  for  the  use  of  plow  and  repairs. 

It  was  very  difficult  for  a  six-horse  plow  to  break  the  first 
foot  of  earth,  but,  after  reaching  that  depth,  a  four-horse  plow 
did  the  plowing  easily.  The  work  consisted  of  shallow  cuts,  not 
over  5  ft.  deep;  but  one  cut,  about  1,000  ft.  long,  was  15  ft. 
deep.  More  than  half  the  roadbed  was  embankment,  ranging 
from  5  ft.  to  30  ft.  fill,  the  average  being  from  8  to  10  ft.  high. 
The  contractor  hauled  the  material  from  the  cuts  into  the  em- 
bankments when  the  lead  did  not  exceed  200  ft.;  beyond  that 
distance  he  wasted  the  material  from  the  cuts  and  borrowed 
for  the  embankment  at  his  own  expense.  He  considered  this 
cheaper  than  to  haul  it.  No  record  was  kept  of  this  extra  yard- 
age, a§  he  was  paid  for  the  cross  section  quantities,  as  though 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  265 

he  had  made  the  hauls.  Fig.  7  shows  the  manner  of  making 
an  embankment  10  ft.  high. 

The  ditches  are  plowed  on  each  side  of  the  embankment  leav- 
ing a  berm  between  the  ditch  and  the  toe  of  the  slope.  The 
scraper  is  loaded  in  one  ditch  and  pulls  onto  the  embankment 
keeping  straight  ahead,  crossing  the  ditch  on  the  other  side  and 
turning.  Then  starting  back  and  taking  another  load  the  opera- 
tion is  repeated.  For  an  embankment  10  ft.  high,  this  gives  a 
"  lead  "  of  about  40  ft.,  and  a  distance  to  be  traveled  for  each 
load  of  100  ft. 

The  amount  of  earth  pushed  ahead  in  such  a  short  distance  is 
very  large,  but  the  haul  is  always  uphill  for  the  load.  Each 
team  has  its  own  men,  the  scrapers  not  being  operated  in  gangs 
as  with  wheelers  and  drags,  but  in  separate  runs  side  by  side, 
and,  by  so  doing,  a  certain  pace  can  be  set  and  maintained, 
as  the  foreman  can  see  at  a  glance  when  all  the  scrapers  are  not 
being  loaded  at  one  time. 


Fig.  7.     Shape  of  Embankment  Built  with  Fresno  Scrapers. 

The  driver  loads  and  dumps  his  own  scraper,  which  effects 
a  decided  saving  in  loading  and  dumping,  as  compared  with 
wheel  scrapers.  A  rope  on  the  end  of  the  handle  makes  this 
operation  easy,  the  scraper,  being  balanced  on  the  two  arch  springs 
in  front,  dumps  as  soon  as  the  lever  is  lifted.  It  rides  in  this 
position  to  the  pit,  and  then  a  jerk  on  the  rope  throws  the  pan 
back  on  its  bottom  ready  for  loading. 

The  driver  handles  his  four  horses  thus :  The  two  outside 
horses  have  a  "  jockey  stick  "  tied  to  their  bits,  and  each  horse's 
bridle  is  fastened  to  the  adjoining  horse's  bridle  by  a  short 
strap  or  raw-hide  string.  The  two  reins  are  each  divided  into 
two  lines,  one  line  going  to  each  horse's  bridle,  the  lines  from 
one  rein  going  to  one  outside  horse,  and  to  the  second  outside 
horse  from  it.  Thus  the  left  hand  rein  putts  the  left  hand  out- 
side horse  and  the  right  hand  inside  horse,  those  two  guiding 
the  other  two  by  the  bit  straps.  The  right  hand  rein  controls 
the  other  two  horses. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  shape  the  embankment  to  the  dotted 
lines  as  shown  in  Fig.  7,  but  the  scrapers  heaped  up  the  dirt 


266  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

as  shown  by  the  heavy  lines,  and  left  it  so,  until  the  dressing  up 
gang  finished  off  the  roadbed. 

On  the  highest  embankments  the  Fresno  scrapers  could  not  be 
worked  in  topping  off  the  embankments  to  good  advantage,  owing 
to  the  climb  necessary  to  be  made  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
to  the  top  of  the  bank,  so  drag  scrapers  were  used  for  this 
work.  Since  no  separate  record  was  kept  of  this  drag  scraper 
work,  it  will  have  to  be  included  with  the  work  done  by  the 
fresno  scrapers. 

The  cost  of  the  work  was: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

General  expense   , $.003 

Plowing     020 

Scrapers    050 

Dressing    roadbed 005 

Total    cost    $.078 

At  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  the  fresno  work,  this  means  95  cu.  yd. 
moved  per  scraper  per  day.  If  allowance  is  made  for  foreman, 
which  is  included  in  the  cost  of  5  ct.,  this  yardage  would  be  in- 
creased to  about  105.  This  amount  would  be  further  increased  if 
the  drag  scraper  work  could  have  been  separated,  and  if  the 
additional  yardage  wasted  from  the  cuts  had  been  measured. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  some  time  is  lost  by  the  fact 
that  plowing  cannot  go  on  as  the  scrapers  are  working,  when  the 
latter  are  handled  in  the  manner  described.  Hence,  when  a 
"  plowing  "  is  cleaned  up,  the  scrapers  must  be  moved  to  another 
section  that  has  been  freshly  plowed. 

A  point  of  interest  was  the  method  of  dressing  up  this  work. 
Only  one  man  with  a  pick  and  shovel  was  used  on  the  job.  He 
did  the  work  necessary  on  the  slopes,  although  by  careful  plowing 
these  were  brought  down  in  good  shape  as  the  cuts  were  exca- 
vated. He  also  shaped  up  the  roadbed  in  the  cuts  when  the 
scrapers  left  small  places  that  it  did  not  pay  to  hold  teams  to  do. 
All  the  rest  of  the  dressing  work  was  done  by  a  foreman  and 
three  drag  scrapers.  They  took  out  any  excess  material  left  in 
the  cuts  and  smoothed  over  the  bottom  whenever  possible.  They 
leveled  the  embankments  down  to  the  proper  grade,  and,  if  more 
material  was  needed  on  the  bank,  they  brought  it  up  from  the 
side  ditches,  see  Fig.  7. 

A  man  with  some  little  instruction  can  become  very  expert 
in  dressing  a  roadbed  with  a  scraper  in  this  manner.  He  holds 
the  drag  scraper  at  various  angles,  cutting  off  high  places  and 
filling  up  low  places  as  desired.  This  trimming  work  cost  ^  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  of  material  moved  and  not  quite  a  %  ct.  per  sq.  yd. 
of  roadbed.  About  }£  of  this  cost  was  for  the  man  using  a  pick 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  267 

and  shovel  and  not  quite  %  was  for  the  foreman  who  manipulated 
the  scraper. 

This  cost  of  trimming  is  quite  low.  It  will  compare  very 
favorably  with  trimming  done  by  a  road  machine  and  other 
leveling  apparatus.  As  compared  with  trimming  done  by  hand 
on  railroads,  it  is  from  ^  to  ^  cheaper. 

Cost  Data  on  Railway  Work  in  Mexico.  The  actual  cost  of 
work  to  the  contractor  on  the  Cananea  Rio  Yaqui  and  Pacific 
Ry.  in  1907  was  studied  by  the  company's  engineers  under 
Howard  Egleston.  From  the  results  of  their  findings,  reported 
by  him  to  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  18,  1911,  the  fol- 
lowing is  abstracted: 

Camp  No.  2,  which  made  the  best  showing,  had  ideal  fresno 
work.  With  the  exception  of  a  shallow  cut  of  280  meters,  it  was 
all  embankment  work,  varying  from  nothing  to  a  maximum  of 
about  8  ft.,  all  material  being  taken  from  borrow  pits  alongside. 
The  work  of  Camp  No.  3  was  similar,  except  that  part  of  it  con- 
sisted in  a  fill  through  swampy  ground  which  had  to  be  built 
with  wheelers.  Camp  No.  1  worked  in  a  high  embankment  tak- 
ing material  from  borrow  pits  at  the  bottom  of  the  em- 
bankment. 

The  mules  used  were  all  Northern  animals.  Among  the  idle 
teams  shown  in  the  table  are  included  for  each  camp  from  two 
to  four  horses  used  by  the  camp  foreman  and  corral  boss. 
While  by  no  means  idle  these  animals  could  not  well  be  charged 
to  any  of  the  productive  outfits.  Mexican  drivers  were  used,  and 
with  training  they  handled  the  teams  well,  but  it  was  difficult 
to  keep  them  steadily  at  work. 

All  grading  on  this  Mexican  work  was  done  by  force  account, 
the  contractors  receiving  a  percentage  of  the  cost  to  pay  them 
for  superintendency.  The  contractors  executed  the  work  as  they 
thought  best;  they  furnished  such  machinery  as  they  thought 
desirable,  and  the  company  paid  them  rent  for  the  same.'  They 
furnished  all  animals  needed  at  a  fixed  rate  of  hire  per  day. 
The  commissary  was  managed  by  them  on  a  percentage. 

The  accompanying  tables  are  figured  in  Mexican  money.  In 
comparing  prices  given  with  similar  items  in  the  states  these 
items  should  be  cut  in  two,  as  the  Mexican  dollar  equals  only 
50  ct. 

Wages  All  Outfits.  Camp  Foreman  $200,  Grade  Foreman  $150, 
Corral  Boss  $120,  Blacksmith  $200,  Harness  Makers  $150,  Cook 
$90,  Cook's  Helper  $50,  Teamsters  $100,  Watchman  $80  per  month. 
Camp  laborers  $1.75,  Grading  laborers  $1.75,  Fresno  and  wheeler 
driver  $2.50,  Plow  drivers  $4,  Plow  holders  $4  day,  Carpenters 
$8  per  day. 


268  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

GRADING  BY  OUTFIT  NO.  1  FOR  13  DAYS 
Earth  Handled  5,595  cu.  m.    110  Head  of  Stock 

Distribution  w£ 

Foremanship $0.04 

ii.iiii'"     General  camp  expenses   08 

Plowing     09 

Moving   dirt    .39 

Freighting 04 

Rentals   wagons  and  buckboard    07 

Idle    animals    07 


$0.78 
Total  cost  per  cu.  yd.,  U.  S.  money  $0.30 

No  loose  or  solid  rock  on  this  work. 

No  explosives  used. 

Work  consisted  of  both  cut  and  embankment. 

Average  amount  dirt  moved  per  day  per  fresno,  25.34  cu.  m. 

31  plows  used  one  day  at  60  ct $  18.60 

220.75  fresnos  used  one  day  at  50  ct 110.38 

1  slip  used  one  day  at  50  ct .50 

0  wheelers  used  orie  day  at  80  ct .00 

18  wagons  used  one  day  at  $1.00   18.00 

Total  cost  hay  and  barley,  $870.00  -=-  715  team-days  gives  cost 
of  feed  per  team-day,  $1.22,  or  per  animal-day,  61  ct.  Mexi- 
can money. 

Team  days  working   593 

Team  days  idle  122 


Team    days   total    715 

Team  hire   per   day    $1.80 

Team  feed  per  day    1.22 

Team  cost  per  day  > $3.02 

GRADING  BY  OUTFIT  NO.  2 

Earth  handled  10,136  cu.  m.    117  head  stock. 

Ct.  per 
Distribution  cu.  m. 

Foremanship     $0.03 

General  camp  expense    05 

Plowing 08 

Moving   dirt    23 

Freighting     02 

Rentals  wagons  and  buckboard   01 

Idle    animals    .06 


$0.48 
Total  cost  per  cu.  yd.,  U.  S.  money  $0.18 

No  loose   or  solid  rock  on  this   work. 

No  explosives  used. 

All  embankment  except  280  cu.  m.  shallow  cut. 

The  higher  wages  paid  prior  to  10th  inst.  would  increase 
cost  only  $24.12,  not  enough  to  alter  rate  per  cu.  m.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  shown. 

Idle    team-days    216.5 

37.5  plows  used  one  day  at  60  ct $  22.50 

236.5  fresnos  used  one  day  at  50  ct 118.25 

1  buckboard,  10  wagons,  %  mo.  at  $30.00  165.00 

Total   team-days    877.5 

Work    team-days    661.0 

Total  cost  of  hay  and  barley,  $1,045.76  -f-  877.5  team-days 
gives  cost  of  feed  per  team-day,  $1.19,  or  per  animal-day, 
59V&  ct.  Mexican  money. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  269 

Of  teams  working  22%  were  on  plows. 

Of  teams   working   71%    were   on   fresnos. 

Of  teams  working  7%  were  on  wagons  freighting. 

Team  hire  per  day    $1.80 

Feed  per  day   1.19 

Total     $2.99 

Average  days   work  per  fresno-team,   42.86  cu.  m. 

GRADING  BY  OUTFIT  NO.  3 

Earth  Handled  5,837  cu.  m.    77  Head  of  Stock 

Ct.  per 
Distribution  cu.  m. 

Foremanship     $0.036 

General    camp    expense    048 

Plowing     088 

Moving    dirt    250 

Freighting    016 

Rentals  wagons  and  wheelers   •. 041 

Idle    animals    054 

$0.533 
Total  cost  per  cu.  yd.,  U.  S.  money   $0.20 

Cost  of  handling  dirt  per  cu.  m.,   .533  ct.  Mexican  money. 

No  loose  or  solid  rock  on  this  work. 

Alternating  cut  and  embankment. 

Average  amount  dirt  moved  per  day  fresno  and  wheeler, 
41.54  cu.  m. 

30  plows  used  one  day  at  60  ct $  18.00 

117.5  fresnos  used  one  day  at  50  ct 58.75 

2.5  slips  used  one  day  at  50  ct 1.25 

23  wheelers  used  one  day  at  80  ct 18.40 

6  wagons  used  one  day  freighting  at  $1.00  6.00 

Total  cost,  hay  and  barley,  $646.64  -=-  481^  team-days  gives 
cost  of  feed  per  team-day,  $1.34,  or  per  animal-day,  67  ct. 
Mexican  money. 

•    Team  days  working   380.75 

Team  days  idle   100.50 

Team  days  total   481.25 

Team  hire  per  day  $1.80 

1  team  feed  per  day   1.34 

Team  total  cost  per  day  $3.14 

A  cu.  m.  is  equal  to  1.31  cu.  yd.,  so  the  cost  of  this  work 
expressed  in  cu.  yd.  is  76.5%  of  the  cost  here  given. 

A  Low  Cost  of  Fresno  Work.  Walter  N.  Frickstad  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Nov.  3,  1909,  gives  the  following:  The 
usual  practice  is  to  operate  fresno  scrapers  in  runs  of  three  to 
eight,  according  to  length  of  haul.  A  laborer  .to  load  usually 
works  with  each  run.  But  in  light  ditch  work  frequently  each 
team  works  independently  and  the  driver  loads  his  own  scraper. 
Except  in  finishing  a  bank,  or  in  other  special  cases,  the  driver 
dumps  his  own  load. 

The  fresno  is  generally  limited  to  a  haul  of  200  or  300  ft., 
though  of  course  the  nature  of  the  contractor's  available  equip- 
ment frequently  modifies  that.  It  requires  less  time  and  labor 


270  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

to  load  and  unload  than  does  a  wheeler,  but  the  expense  of  the 
two  extra  horses  balances  those  items  when  the  haul  exceeds 
200  or  300  ft.  It  is  especially  useful  on  highways,  on  light 
railroad  work,  on  irrigation  and  drainage  ditches  where  the  cut 
makes  the  bank  or  is  wasted,  and  for  loading  large  cuts. 

As  with  all  methods  of  excavating  earth,  the  output  varies 
widely  according  to  the  conditions.  The  writer  has  records  rang- 
ing from  28  to  130  cu.  yd.  per  scraper  per  day.  The  cases 
given  below  are  fairly  typical,  however.  The  first  four  cases 
relate  to  work  done  by  contract  on  the  Truckee  Supply  Canal, 
for  the  Reclamation  Service,  near  Wadsworth,  Nev.,  in  1904.  In 
these  cases,  the  wages  of  drivers  and  laborers  were  $2  per  8-hr, 
day,  rent  of  horses  $10  per  month,  being  about  40  ct.  per  working 
day,  plus  40  ct.  for  feed.  A  fresno  and  harness  is  counted  at 
10  ct.  per  day,  plow  and  harness  at  20  ct.  All  camp  and  gen- 
eral expenses  are  excluded,  and  no  deduction  is  made  for  profit 
on  men's  board.  Board  was  75  ct.  per  day,  including  days  of 
idleness.  All  working  day  are  of  8  hrs.,  but  the  horses  were 
driven  accordingly. 

Following  is  a  record  made  under  most  favorable  conditions, 
in  January,  1904.  Weather,  clear  and  cold;  soil  dry,  breaking 
readily,  being  loam,  sand  and  clay  in  irregular  beds;  earth  moved 
from  ditch  to  make  the  base  of  both  banks  of  canal,  extreme  lift 
being  about  10  ft.;  a  small  amount  of  earth  hauled  as  much  as 
200  ft. : 

Foreman,  15  days  at  $4.50   $  67.50 

4-horse  frosno  and  driver,  84  days  at  $5.30   445.20 

6-horse  plow,  driver  and  holder,  13  days  ajb  $9  117.00 

Labor,  clearing,  helping  plow  holder,  etc.,  30  days  at  $2..  60.00 

Labor,  loading  scrapers,  32  days  at  $2   64.00 

Total,  10,219  cu.  yd $753.70 

Deducting  $38  as  the  cost  of  clearing,  the  cost  per  yd.  was  7  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  It  shows  122  cu.  yd.  moved  per  scraper  per  day,  and 
it  is  certain  that  the  average  would  have  been  130  cu.  yd.  had 
all  hauls  over  100  ft.  been  eliminated.  Owing  to  careless  dump- 
ing, however,  and  the  resulting  large  amount  of  sloping,  the  final 
cost  was  much  larger  than  shown  here. 

The  second  case  is  typical  of  a  large  cut,  being  the  approach 
to  a  tunnel.  It  covers  December,  1903,  January,  February, 
March,  April  and  part  of  May,  1904;  weather  generally  clear  and 
cold,  except  few  warm  days  in  April  and  May;  soil  dry  solid 
silt  and  cube  clay,  which  would  not  pile  high  in  scraper;  average 
force  employed,  8  fresno  first  two  months,  afterwards  12;  excava- 
tion on  side  hill,  extreme  cut  over  60  ft.,  with  15  ft.  to  30  ft.  on 
low  side;  material  wasted  into  gulch  below,  much  of  it  60  ft. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS          271 

below  grade  of  canal;  most  of  material  hauled  downward  about 
30  ft.  horizontally  100  to  200  ft.  Actual  wages  varied  from 
these  figures,  especially  plow  driver  and  holder,  but  are  held 
uniform  for  comparison. 


Foreman,   4%  months   at  $80   $ 

4-horse  fresno  and  driver,    1,192  days  at  $5.30    6,317.60 

4-horse  plow,   driver  and  holder,  74  days  at  $7.40  547.60 

6-horse  plow,  driver  and  holder,   47  days  at  $9 423.00 

Labor,   loading,   estimated  240  days  at  $2   480.00 

Labor,  sloping  and  miscellaneous,  estimated  184  days  at  $2  368.00 

Labor,  helping  plow  holder,  estimated  50  days  at  $2   100.00 

Total,    71,567   cu.    yd $8,616.20 

This  is  almost  exactly  60  -  cu.  yd.  per  fresno  per  day  at  a 
cost  of  12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  This  cut  was  not  considered  to  have 
been  well  managed.  Six  or  more  foremen  were  in  charge  suc- 
cessively, and  the  work  dragged  noticeably.  Other  similar  cuts, 
better  managed,  averaged  65  to  70  cu.  yd.  per  scraper  per  day. 

Following  is  a  record  of  extremely  difficult  conditions.  The 
earth  was  thoroughly  mixed  with  stone,  in  all  sizes  up  to  5  cu. 
ft.  The  greater  part  of  these  had  to  be  taken  to  the  outer  edge 
of  the  embankment.  The  material  was  hard  to  plow  and  harder 
to  load.  It  was  all  used  in  making  the  banks,  mainly  on  one 
side,  with  little  longitudinal  haul. 

Foreman,  16.5  days  at  $3    $  49.50 

4-horse  fresnos,  61.5  days  at  $5.30   325.95 

2-horse  stoneboat,  11.2  days  at  $3.65   40.88 

4-horse  plow,   etc.,  6.5  days  at  $7.40  48.10 

6-horse  plow,  5.2  days  at  $9   46.80 

Labor,  loading  scrapers  and  stoneboat,  76.2  days  at  $2...  152.40 

Total,  3,800  cu.  yd $663.63 

Supposing  the  11.2  stoneboats  to  have  been  equal  to  3^ 
fresnos,  this  would  give  58.5  cu.  yd.  per  day  per  fresno.  The 
cost  would  be  about  n%  ct.  per  yd.  This  work  was  well 
directed,  and  showed  a  surprisingly  high  yardage  for  the  force 
employed,  but  the  long  haul  accounts  for  it. 

Following  is  a  record  that  illustrates  the  effect  of  haul. 
Weather  was  dry  and  cold,  soil  dry  sand  and  silt;  haul  averaging 
600  ft.;  foreman  the  same  as  the  above. 

Foreman,  18  days  at  $3   $      54.00 

4-horse  fresno  and  driver,  170  days  at  $5.30   901.00 

•1-horse  plow,   driver  and  holder,  9  days  at  $7.40  66.60 

Labor,  49    (probably  22  loading  and  27  finishing)   aj  $2.  98.00 

Total,  28.8  cu.  yd.  per  fresno  per  day  $1,119.60 

Following  is  a  more  itemized  record  of  work  during  April, 
May  and  June,  1906,  near  Fallen,  Nev.,  by  Government  forces, 
on  an  irrigation  canal.  Weather  hot  and  dry;  soil,  mainly  com- 
pact sand,  with  some  gravel,  loam  and  hard  clay;  ditch  about 


272  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

20  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom,  slopes,  2  to  1,  hank  7.5  ft.  above 
grades,  6  to  12  ft.  wide  on  top,  location  generally  along  a  Hat 
sidehill;  banks  generally  made  from  cut,  but  one  hill  had  a  cut 
of  20  ft.  and  the  material  was  wasted  beyond  a  50-ft.  berm  or 
hauled  200  or  300  ft.  to  reinforce  the  banks  across  the  adjoining 
depressions.  Another  short  hill  was  hauled  an  average  of  150 
ft.  either  way.  The  right  of  way  was  cleared  of  light  brush, 
and  berm  plowed  before  building  banks,  the  slopes  were  carefully 
trimmed,  and  the  bottom  finished  to  grade  stakes.  The  working 
day  was  8  hr.  The  small  amount  of  finishing  labor  shows  how 
well  that  work  can  be  done  by  scrapers. 

Foreman     $    101.00 

Sub-foreman    % 6.00 

4-horse  fresno  drivers,  $2.25   692.42 

Scraper  holders,   $2.25    241.K1 

6-horse  plow  driver,   $2.75   62.55 

Plow  holder,   $2.75   68.05 

Laborers,    cleaning,    finishing,    $2.25    16.87 

Horses    (hired),   $0.333   day    464.83 

$1,650.03 

Cu.    yd.    excavated    27,629 

Cu.  yd.  per  scraper  day  89.75 

Following  is  the  July  record  of  the  same  outfit,  on  a  piece 
of  ditch  with  less  haul  and  less  deep  cutting.  Labor  was  scarce, 
very  unsatisfactory,  many  teams  were  idle  each  day,  and  the 
foreman  was  away  on  a  spree  for  the  first  twelve  days.  Ap- 
pended also  is  a  complete  record  of  the  camp  expenses,  all  of 
which  are  chargeable  to  this  work.  The  latter  indicate  how 
total  expense  may  differ  from  field  or  excavating  expense. 

Excavating  Expense: 

18  days  foreman  at  $12.50  per  mo $     67.50 

34  days  sub-foreman  at  $95  per  mo 107.67 

354%  days  4-horse  fresno  driver  at  $2.25  798.19 

2  days  2-horse  fresno  driver  at  $2.25  4.50 

4  days  4-horse  tongue  scraper  driver  at  $2.25  9.00 

1%  days  2-horse  tongue  scraper  driver  at  $2.25  3.93 

119%  days  scraper  holder  at  $2.25   268.88 

431/2  days  6-horse  plow  driver  at  $2.75   119.62 

43%  days  6-horse  plow  holder  at  $2.75 119.62 

1%  days  2-horse  tongue  scraper  holder  at  $2.25  ....  3.93 

1,691  days  horses  at  33%  ct 563.67 

$2,066.51 

Excavation    (about),  30,000  cu.  yd. 
Excavation  per  scraper,   84.3   cu.  yd.  per  day. 

(2-horse  fresno  counted  as  one-half  of  4-horse  fresno. 
Tongue  scrapers  not  included,  as  their  work  was  confined  to 
finishing.) 

Managing  Force: 

13  days  superintendent  at  $145  per  mo $  60.81 

1  month   timekeeper    lOO.f  1 

93  days  horses  at  33%  ct 31.00 

$191.81 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  273 

Camp  Force: 

26%  days  blacksmith  at  $3   $      92.75 

15%  days  cook  at  $60    31.00 

15  days  cook  at  $75  37.50 

4V2  days  second  cook  at  $40  5.99 

38%  days  flunkies  at  $35  44.91 

13y2  days  labor  at  $2.25    30.37 

42  days  6-horse  freight  teamster  at  $2.75  115.50 

2%  days  4-horse  freight  teamster  at  $2.25   5.62 

17  days  4-horse  freight  teamster  at  $2.50   42.50 

1%  days  2-horse  freight  teamster  at  $2.25  3.37 

396  days  horses  at  33^  ct 132.00 

1,594  days  idle  horses  *   at  33%  ct 531.33 

Subsistence     472.00 

Supplies     71.16 

Forage     1,634.33 

$3,250.33 

*  Idle  horses  includes  working  stock  on  Sundays  and  holi- 
days, being  six  days. 

Deduct  board  of  men  at  75  ct.  per  day,  except  Superintendent 
and  kitchen  force,  about  $730. 

Another  contractor,  in  the  spring  of  1905,  excavated  125  to  130 
cu.  yd.  per  day  per  fresno.  The  exact  record  of  labor  is  not  at 
hand,  but  it  can  be  approximated.  The  soil  was  sand  and  light 
loam.  The  cut  generally  made  the  banks.  The  ditch  was  nar- 
row, and  ranged  from  6  to  7}£  ft.  deep,  from  bottom  grade  to 
top  of  bank.  Scrapers  worked  singly,  going  down  one  bank  and 
up  the  other  alternately.  Each  driver  loaded  and  dumped  his 
own  scraper,  except  one  finishing  scraper.  A  two-horse  plow, 
without  holder,  loosened  the  earth  for  10  to  12  scrapers.  The 
contractor  paid  $2.25  per  day,  and  worked  8  hr.,  while  others 
near  by  paid  $2.00  and  worked  10  hr.  He  therefore  had  the 
best  men  available,  and  forced  both  men  and  horses  to  their 
limit.  He  was  fully  of  the  opinion  that  he  would  have  done 
no  better  by  working  10  hr.  per  day.  The  excavation  cost,  in- 
cluding practically  all  the  finishing,  for  125  cu.  yd.  per  fresno 
per  day  might  be  computed  as  follows  for  a  maximum : 

4  horses,   fresno  and  driver $5.30 

1-10  of  2-horse  plow  and  driver  at  $3.95   0.395 

1-10    of   loader    0225 

1-10  of  foreman  at  $4   0.40 

Total  per  scraper  day    $6.32 

This  is  5.06  ct.  per  cu.  jd. 

The  Oakland  Revolving-Bucket  Scraper.  Engineering  News, 
Oct.  21,  1915,  gives  the  following:  A  novel  scraper  developed 
from  the  fresno  type  is  bemg  marketed  by  the  Graves-Spears 
Road  Machinery  Co.,  of  Oakland,  Calif.  Four  sizes  are  made  — 
with  5-,  6-,  7-  and  8-ft.  buckets. 


274 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


A  long  steel  bucket  or  bowl  is  pivoted  in  a  stiff  steel  frame 
which  is  carried  on  shoes  forward  and  wheels  at  the  rear. 
The  driver  rides,  loading  and  dumping-  with  a  foot  lever.  He 
does  not  have  to  pull  the  bucket  back  into  place,  as  it  revolves 
and  locks  when  it  comes  into  loading  position.  For  grading  it 
can  be  held  at  any  angle  desired.  This  scraper  sells  at  from 
$75  to  $200.  It  is  claimed  that  one  6-ft.  Oakland  scraper  will 
move  more  earth  than  two  5-ft.  fresno  scrapers. 


Fig.    8.     Revolving   Bucket   Scraper. 


Wheel  Scrapers.     The  following  has  been  taken  from  catalogs, 
excepting  the  last  two  columns,  which  the  author  has  added: 


Actual 

struck 

Weight 

Cata- 

measure 

Sire  of 

Bowl 

of 

logue 

cu.  ft. 

1  Actual 

wheeler 
No. 

Depth  in 
in. 

Width 
in  in. 

Length 
in  in. 

wheeler 
inlb. 

capacity 
cu.  ft. 

of  loose 
earth 

place 
measure 

1 

12 

36 

36-36 

340-450 

9-10 

7.5-9 

6-7.2 

9 

10-13.5 

38 

33-37 

475-500 

12-13 

8.75 

7- 

2% 

13.5 

38 

41 

575 

14 

12.15 

9.7 

3 

16 

42-44 

40-41 

625-800 

16-17 

15.5 

12.4 

i  Actual  place  measure,  capacity  20%  less  than  loose  measure. 

Large  wheel  scrapers,  even  in  light  soils,  and  small  "  wheelers  " 
in  tough  soils  seldom  leave  the  pit  full  of  earth,  but  at  the  back 
end  of  the  bowl  there  is  usually  a  wedge-shaped  space  unfilled 
where  the  earth  slopes  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  pan  on  a  1.5 
to  1  slope.  Unless  front  end  gates  are  used  on  large  scrapers,  a 
similar  unfilled  space  exists  at  the  front  end  of  the  bowl,  before 
the  team  has  traveled  far,  thus  reducing  the  capacities  given  in 
last  column  by  2  to  3  cu.  ft.  The  author  has  found  the  average 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 


275 


load  (place  measure)  carried  by  wheelers  is  as  follows:  No.  1, 
0.2  cu.  yd.;  No.  2,  0.25  cu.  yd.;  No.  2%,  0.33  cu.  yd.;  No.  3,  0.4 
cu.  yd. 

These  loads,  however,  can  be  materially  increased  by  the 
simple  expedient  of  having  men  with  shovels  to  fill  the  bowl 
heaping  full  when  the  soil  is  such  that  the  team  cannot  fill  the 
bowl.  The  longer  the  haul,  of  course,  the  better  it  will  pay  to 
so  fill  the  bowl. 

A  snatch  or  snap  team  is  generally  used  with  a  No.  2  wheeler 


Fig.   9.     Wheel   Scraper   Made  by   American   Steel   Scraper   Co., 
Sidney,  Ohio. 


and  always  with  a  No.  3,  to  assist  in  loading,  but  even  with  a 
snatch  team  it  is  impossible  to  fill  the  bowl  in  tough  clay.  In 
such  cases  by  all  means  use  shovelers. 

With  wheelers,  as  with  drag  scrapers,  add  50-  ft.  to  the  actual 
"  lead "  for  turning  and  maneuvering  the  teams,  equivalent  to 
}£  minute  of  team  time  each  round  trip.  Another  ^  minute  is 
lost  in  loading  and  dumping,  and  still  another'^  minute  help- 
ing load  the  scrapers. 

The  lightest  No.  1  wheelers  made  are  to  be  recommended  where 
leads  are  very  short  and  rises  steep,  that  is  wherever  drag  scrap- 


276  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ers  are  ordinarily  used,  for  they  move  earth  -more  economically 
than  drags.  Where  soil  is  very  stony,  or  full  of  roots,  drag 
scrapers  are  to  be  preferred,  since  they  are  more  easily  and 
quickly  loaded  under  such  conditions. 

The  method  of  handling  No.  1  wheelers  is  the  same  as  that 
above  given  for  drags.  When  actually  walking  a  wheeler  team 
averages  200  ft.  per  minute. 

Rules  for  Costs  with  Wheeler.  The  following  rules  of  cost 
with  wheelers  are  based  upon  careful  timing  of  individual  teams 


Fig.  10.     Wheel  Scraper  After  Load  is  Dumped. 

checked  by  large  excavations.  The  rules,  moreover,  will  be 
found  to  agree  closely  with  published  data  where  conditions  have 
been  similar. 

Rule  I.  To  find  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  average  earth  moved 
with  No.  1  v/heel  scrapers  (%  cu.  yd.  load),  add  together  the 
following  items: 

^-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver  and  plowman  for  plowing. 

%-hour's  wages  of  wheeler  team  with  driver,  "  lost  time  "  load- 
ing and  dumping  and  extra  travel  in  turning, 
wages  of  man  loading  scraper. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  277 

yl2-hour's  wages  of  wheeler  team  with  driver  for  each  100  ft.  of 
"  lead  "  for  hauling.  With  wages  at  30  ct.  per  hour  for  men  and 
15  ct.  per  hr.  per  horse,  the  rule  becomes:  To  a  fixed  cost  of 
16.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  add  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  100  ft.  of  "  lead." 

Rule  II.  To  find  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  average  earth  moved 
with  No.  2  wheel  scrapers  (^4  cu.  yd.  load),  using  no  snatch  team, 
add  together  these  items: 

^-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver  and  plowman  for  plowing. 

%-hour's  wages  of  wheeler  team  with  driver  for  "  lost  time " 
loading  and  dumping  and  extra  travel  in  turning, 
's  wages  of  man  loading  scrapers, 
wages   of   man   dumping  scrapers. 

i/15-hour's  wages  of  wheeler  team  with  driver  for  each  100  ft. 
of  "  lead  "  for  hauling.  With  wages  at  30  ct.  per  hr.  for  men, 
and  15  ct.  per  hr.  per  horse,  this  rule  becomes:  To  a  fixed  cost 
of  18.5  ct.  add  4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  100  ft.  of  '"lead";  and 
if  a  snatch  team  is  required  to  load  add  3.5  ct.  more  per  cu.  yd. 

Rule  III.  To  find  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  average  earth  moved 
with  No.  3  wheel  scrapers  (%0  cu.  yd.  load),  using  a  snatch 
team,  add  together  the  following  items: 

i/£0-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver  and  plowman. 

3/12-hour's  wages  of  wheeler  team  with  driver  for  "  lost  time  " 
loading  and  dumping  and  extra  travel  in  turning. 

%8-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver  for  snatch  team. 

^Q-hour's  wages  of  man  loading  scrapers. 

i£0-hour's  wages  of  man  dumping  scrapers. 

i^-hour's  wages  of  wheeler  team  with  driver  for  each  100  ft. 
of  lead  for  hauling.  With  wages  at  30  ct.  for  men  and  15  ct.  per 
hr.  per  horse,  this  rule  becomes:  To  a  fixed  cost  of  17.5  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  add  2.5  ct.  for  each  100  ft.  of  "  lead." 

The  "  lead  "  is  the  distance  in  a  straight  line  from  the  center 
of  the  cut  to  the  center  of  the  fill. 

For  very  tough  clay  add  one-third  to  the  above  costs,  while 
for  easy  sand  or  loam  deduct  one-third. 

To  estimate  the  number  of  cubic  yards  per  hr.  per  wheeler, 
add  together  the  "  lost  time  "  and  the  hauling  time  for  the  given 
"lead";  divide  the  sum  into  one.  Thus,  if  the  "lead"  is  150 
ft.  and  the  wheeler  is  a  No.  2,  we  have  (by  Rule  II)  %  hr.  lost 
time,  plus  %%  X  1.5  or  l^0  hr.  "  lost  time";  whence  the  total  is 
l%0  hr.  Dividing  this  into  1,  we  get  6<^6  Or  3.7  cu.  yd.  per  hr. 

Hints  on  Handling  Wheelers.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Aug.  28,  15)07,  gives  the  following:  In  operating  scrapers  the 
first  consideration  is  the  plowing  of  the  material.  This  seems 
a  simple  matter,  consequently  it  is  seldom  done  properly.  If 


278  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  earth  will  permit,  the  plow  should  be  set  to  cut  a  furrow  10 
to  12  in.  deep.  With  such  a  depth  of  well  broken  up  dirt  the 
scraper  will  be  heaping  full  after  traveling  but  a  few  feet,  but 
if  the  material  is  not  broken  up  well  and  is  not  plowed  deep,  the 
scraper  will  travel  some  distance  over  the  ground  without  getting 
a  good  load,  for  the  back  half  of  the  pan  will  not  heap  itself 
with  dirt  unless  the  loading  of  the  scraper  is  done  quickly  and 
with  some  snap. 

The  furrows  should  be  kept  close  together  and  care  exercised 
that  ridges  of  unplowed  ground  are  not  left  between  them,  else 
the  work  of  loading  will  be  impeded.  It  is  also  important  that 
the  bottom  of  the  cut  should  be  kept  level  so  that  the  scraper 
pan  will  lie  flat  and  not  be  tilted  to  one  side,  thus  taking  a 
load  the  greater  part  of  which  will  drop  off  on  the  way  to  the 
dump.  It  will  frequently  pay  in  stiff,  heavy  soils  to  plow  the 
material  twice,  as  this  class  of  earth  can  be  broken  up  in  this 
manner  so  as  to  load  the  scrapers  much  faster  and  easier. 

Wheel  scrapers  are  generally  made  in  four  sizes,  No.  1  being 
the  smallest.  This  size  is  not  used  very  extensively,  because 
most  dirt  movers  do  not  seem  to  appreciate  their  value.  A 
snatch  or  snap  team  is  not  needed  in  operating  this  size  scraper. 
One  man  also  can  load  it,  and  two  horses  can  pull  it  up  an  in- 
cline as  easily  as  a  drag.  These  facts  make  it  as  cheap  to 
operate  as  a  drag  or  slip  scraper,  and  it  carries  a  larger  load 
than  the  largest  si/e  of  the  drags.  The  load,  too,  can  be  carried 
farther.  This  makes  the  unit  cost  of  excavation  much  lower. 
For  short  hauls,  with  loads  of  75  to  200  ft.,  a  No.  1  wheeler  is 
not  only  superior  to  a  drag,  but  also  to  a  larger  size  wheeled 
scraper. 

In  operating  Nos.  2,  2^  and  3  wheeled  scrapers,  a  snatch  team 
is  necessary  to  help  load  the  scraper.  Most  contractors  have 
found  that  in  average  earth,  or  those  heavier  than  average,  three 
horses  in  the  snatch  team  are  better  than  two,  two  horses  only 
working  well  where  the  soils  are  light.  The  three-horse  snatch 
team  has  become  the  usual  one  in  most  sections.  Good  results 
are  obtained  with  it,  but  much  better  and  more  economical  work 
can  be  done  with  a  four-horse  snatch  team.  Two  men  are  gener- 
ally used  with  a  snatch  team,  one  to  hook  and  unhook  the  team 
to  the  scraper,  and  the  other  to  do  the  driving.  With  four 
horses  the  same  number  of  men  are  needed.  The  horses  are 
hitched  up  in  pairs.  Four  horses  will  load  the  scrapers  not  only 
quicker,  but  with  a  larger  load.  Their  greatest  value  is  in 
changing  from  one  end  of  the  cut  to  the  other. 

When  loading,  the  .scraper  team  should  always  pull  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  load  is  to  be  hauled.  By  doing  this  the 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS          270 

load  is  kept  in  the  pan  better,  for  in  turning  a  loaded  wheeler  on 
the  plowed  ground  much  earth  is  spilled.  Then,  too,  in  narrow 
cuts  the  loaded  team  does  not  interfere  with  the  empties,  which 
can  pass  behind  the  snatch  team,  turn  around,  lower  the  pan 
in  position  for  loading  and  pull  up  behind  the  snatch  team  at 
the  proper  moment.  The  scraper  team  should  pull  up  behind 
the  snatch  team  which  should  be  backed  a  foot  or  two  and 
hooked  on. 

In  plowing,  the  two  extreme  ends  of  the  row  are  never  plowed 
as  deep  or  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  row.  Consequently  in  loading 
there  is  less  dirt  to  be  picked  up  at  the  ends,  so  the  work  is 
lighter  and  easier. 

With  a  three-horse  snatch  team,  the  snatch  team  must  be 
used  until  the  last  scraper  is  loaded  at  the  end  of  the  row,  then 
time  is  lost  by  all  the  wheelers,  while  the  snatch  team  is  traveling 
the  length  of  the  cut  to  start  another  row.  This  generally  means 
that  the  run  of  the  scrapers  is  interfered  with  and  one  team 
blocks  another,  so  that  even  with  close  attention  on  the  part  of 
the  foreman  it  may  be  some  minutes  before  the  teams  are  again 
spaced  out  and  moving  with  clocklike  precision. 

With  a  four-horse  snatch  team,  however,  this  loss  of  time  and 
confusion  can  be  prevented.  As  the  scrapers  near  the  end  of 
the  row,  and  there  are  not  two  or  three  more  loads  of  dirt  to 
be  picked  up,  two  horses  from  the  snatch  team  are  sent  to  the 
other  end  of  the  cut  and  while  one  part  of  the  snatch  team  is 
finishing  up  the  old  row  the  other  part  is  starting  a  new  row. 
The  light  plowing  at  the  ends  of  the  row  makes  this  a  quick  job, 
and  as  the  scrapers  get  into  the  heavy  plowing  of  the  new  row, 
the  two  snatch  teams  have  been  made  into  one  again,  and  the 
work  is  carried  on  without  a  break.  The  saving  effected  with  a 
four-horse  snatch  team  over  a  three-horse  will  generally  pay  for 
the  extra  horse  many  times  over. 

For  most  wheeled  scraper  work,  Nos.  2  and  2y2  are  the  best 
sixes  to  use.  Contractors  have  adopted  them  for  railroad,  levee, 
wagon  road,  reservoir  and  other  construction.  The  No.  3  is  too 
heavy,  and  drags  on  the  horses,  especially  in  sandy  or  light  loam. 
They  are  also  too  hard  on  a  team  in  loading  or  in  mounting 
an  incline.  In  some  special  places  they  can  be  used  to  excellent 
advantage.  When  the  load  is  over  a  good  hard  roadway,  and 
the  excavation  is  on  slightly  higher  ground  than  the  dump,  a 
No.  3  is  no  harder  on  the  team  and  is  more  economical  than  the 
other  sizes. 

In  dumping  a  scraper  one  man  can  manipulate  the  scraper 
if  the  team  is  kept  moving  at  a  slow  gait.  Some  contractors 
however,  use  two  men  on  their  dumps.  With  but  little  practice 


280  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

a  dump  man  can  learn  how  to  hold  the  pan  after  he  has  tilted  it, 
so  as  to  spread  and  level  off  each  load  as  it  is  dumped.  This 
is  much  easier  to  do  when  the  load  is  dumped  over  the  end  of 
an  embankment,  but  when  dumping  on  a  level  place  the  dirt 
can  be  distributed  in  from  3  to  6  in.  layers  without  additional 
work. 

Scrapers  are  worked  in  "  runs  "  according  to  the  length  of  the 
"  haul."  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  "  lead  "  is  considered 
as  being  from  the  center  of  mass  of  the  cut  to  the  center  of  mass 
of  the  dump.  The  "  haul "  is  the  entire  distance  traveled  by 
the  scraper  from  pit  to  dump.  There  should  always  be  enough 
scrapers  in  a  "  run  "  to  keep  the  loaders  and  the  snatch  team 
steadily  at  work. 

Scraper  work  is  ideal  when  the  lead  is  from  300  to  400  ft. 
and  good  work  can  be  done  up  to  500  to  GOO  ft.,  but  the  cost 
quickly  increases  when  the  distance  becomes  greater.  For  this 
reason  an  extra  price  is  needed  when  the  leads  are  long.  The 
extra  price  paid  is  termed  the  "  overhaul  price,"  and  when  it 
applies  to  scraper  work  the  free  haul  should  not  exceed  500  ft. 

It  is  important  that  wheel  scrapers  be  operated  according  to  a 
time  schedule.  An  ideal  arrangement  would  be  to  have  the 
snatch  team  start  at  the  beginning  of  the  plowed  ground.  The 
first  wheeler  would  be  driven  up  to  it  and  the  snatch  team 
backed  slightly  and  hooked  on.  A  second  wheeler  would  follow 
the  first  at  an  interval  just  enough  to  give  the  first  wheeler 
time  to  unhook  and  drive  off,  and  so  on  until  in  its  progress 
from  beginning  to  end  of  the  plowed  ground,  the  snatch  team 
would  load  all  the  wheelers.  The  length  of  the  plowed  ground 
preferably  should  be  such  that  the  snatch  team  can  load  each 
wheeler  once  without  turning,  and  the  number  of  wheelers  used 
should  be  sufficient  so  that  the  first  would  be  back  for  its  second 
load  as  soon  as  the  snatch  team  had  returned  to  the  beginning 
of  the  plowed  ground  and  gotten  position  for  loading.  This 
ideal  can  not  always  be  realized. 

Reservoir  Work  in  Mass.  As  giving  what  is  probably  a 
maximum  cost  we  may  cite  the  Forbes  Hill  Reservoir  previously 
referred  to  (C.  E.  Saville  in  Engineering  Xews,  May  13,  1902). 
The  material  was  clay-gravel  or  hardpan  requiring  two  teams 
on  a  pavement  plow.  A  snap  or  snatch  team  was  used  in  loading 
the  No.  3  wheelers,  two  men  holding  the  scraper  handles.  The 
haul  was  250  to  300  ft.  "  The  wheel  scrapers  theoretically  held 
%  cu.  yd.,  but  in  the  material  here  excavated  only  about  % 
cu.  yd.  could  be  readily  loaded  automatically.  Under  favorable 
conditions  each  team  averaged  35  cu.  yd.  per  day  (of  9  hours?) 
making  8  to  10  trips  per  hour."  With  labor  at  15  to  17  ct.  and 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  281 

team  (with  driver)  at  45  to  50  ct.  per  hr.,  the  cost  of  excavating 

nearly  16,000  cu.  yd.  of  hardpan  was: 

Ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Plowing     10.9 

Scraping     22.2 

Unloading  and  spreading  carefully   7.7 

Rolling   embankment    3.9 

Total 44.7 

The  cost  of  stripping  8,700  cu.  yd.  of  loam  and  transporting 
to  a  spoil  bank,  (haul  not  given  but  presumably  about  the  same,) 
was: 

Ct.  per  cu  yd. 

Plowing     3.4 

Scraping    14.0 

Unloading     0.6 

Total    18.0 

Bearing  in  mind  the  wages  the  cost  was  considerably  above  the 
ordinary. 

Railway  Work  in  Iowa.  The  following  is  from  a  paper  by 
Mr.  J.  M.  Brown  in  Trans,  of  the  Iowa  Soc.  of  Eng.,  1885:  Mr. 
Brown's  experience  has  led  him  to  state  that  only  No.  1  and  No. 
3  wheelers  should  be  used.  The  author  cannot  agree  with 
him,  believing  that  No.  2  is  the  best  size  for  all  around  work. 
The  following  has  been  abstracted  from  Mr.  Brown's  paper: 

A  No.  1  wheeler  holds  14  cu.  yd.  of  earth  (Iowa)  on  an  aver- 
age, and  one  trip  in  2  to  2y2  minutes  is  the  average,  where 
the  haul  is  100  ft.,  thus  giving  an  output  of  60  cu.  yd.  in  10 
hr.  With  the  following  force,  1  plow,  6  wheelers,  3  loaders, 
1  dumper,  and  1  foreman,  the  cost  was: 

Ct.  per  cu  yd. 

Labor,    loading,    dumping,   etc 4.11 

Scraping   (100  ft.  haul)    5.83 

Wear  of  tools   0.39 


Total    10.33 

With  a  100-ft.  haul,  6  wheelers;  with  a  200-ft.  haul,  9  wheelers, 
and  with  a  300-ft.  haul,  12  wheelers  (No.  1)  are  required  to 
move  360  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.,  according  to  Mr.  Brown,  at  an  added 
cost  of  about  3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  10p  ft.  of  haul.  We 
believe  this  3  ct.  per  100  ft.  to  be  erroneous  because  Mr.  Brown 
has  made  the  average  speed  of  the  team  too  small  by  failure 
to  subtract  lost  time  at  both  ends  of  the  haul. 

Mr.  Brown  gives  the  following  data  for  No.  3  wheelers;  a 
snatch  team  and  two  men  being  used  to  load;  8  wheelers  each 
moving  40  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  with  a  400-ft.  haul.  With  wages 
at  15  and  35  ct.  we  have: 


282  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Plowing     1.66 

.  Holding  scraper   1.66 

Dumpman     0.50 

Foreman     0.70 

Scraping    (400-ft.   haul)    7.77 

Wear   of   tools    0.50 


_'      Total    12.79 

Mr.  Brown  adds  two  wheelers  for  each  100  ft.  of  added  haul, 
or  2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  per  100-ft.  haul,  which,  we  repeat,  is  erro- 
neous. 

Wheeler  Work  on  the  Chicago  Canal.  Extensive  data  on  wheel- 
scraper  work  are  given  in  Hill's  "  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Canal." 
Excellent  papers  on  the  same  subject  by  A.  E.  Kastl  and  Mr. 
E.  R.  Shnable  are  to  be  found  in  the  Journal  of  the  Association 
of  Engineering  Societies,  Vol.  XIV,  1895.  From  these  sources 
we  have  abstracted  the  following  relative  to  costs  on  the  Chicago 
Drainage  Canal: 

The  soil  moved  by  wheelers  was  a  "  fairly  soft  clayey  loam," 
and  the  average  haul  was  about  400  ft.,  the  material  being 
deposited  in  spoil  banks. 

On  the  Brighton  Division,  Section  K,  68,300  cu.  yd.  were 
moved  in  62  days,  the  average  force  being  23.8  men  and  36.8 
teams  with  drivers.  There  were  two  plows  and  24  No.  3  wheelers 
in  use,  hence  each  plow  loosened  550  cu.  yd.,  and  each  wheeler 
moved  46.1  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day;  while  the  average  output, 
including  snatch  teams  of  which  there  appear  to  have  been 
about  one  for  every  three  wheelers,  and  including  plow  teams, 
was  about  30  cu.  yd.  per  day  per  team. 

For  Summit  Division,  Section  E,  Mr.  Shnable  gives  the  follow- 
ing: The  haul  was  400  ft.  The  number  of  men  engaged  is  not 
given,  but  we  have  assumed  %  man  per  team,  which  is  not  far 
from  right. 

Total  Daily  aver-  Cost, 

Average  exca-  age,  cu.  yd.  Ratio  of  teams               ct. 

Fill,    Cut,  vation,  Per       Per  Wheelers  Wheelers        per 

Stations          ft.       ft.  cu.  yd.  team    whir,  to  plows  to  team  cu.  yd.l 

460  to  470        12        8.0  94,879  29.8        42.2  5  1/3  -1  4  4/10-1  15.1  2 

470  to  480        12        8.3  98.515  27.1        39.3  4  9/10-1  4  4/10-1  16.6  2 

480  to  490        11        7.0  85,761  24.4        35.2  4  8/10-1  4  3/10-1  18.4  2 

490  to  500         7        3.4  33,185  35.0        50.1  4  9/10-1  4  4/10-1  12.9  3 

500  to  507         7        4.3  19,678  28.3        42.1  4  6/10-1  3  7/10-1  15.9  4 

l  Assuming  2/3  man  ver  team. 

Material :  2  Very  stiff  blue  and  yellow  clay  with  a  few  large  boulders. 
3  Loamy  clay.  4  Stiff  clay. 

The  table  shows  that  there  were  about  five  wheelers  to  each 
plow,  hence  each  plow  team  must  have  loosened  about  200  cu. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS          283 

yd.  in  10  hr. ;  the  hardest  section  being  from  Sta.  480  to 
Sta.  490,  where  168  cu.  yd.  was  the  average  per  plow  team 
per  day.  Doubtless  two  teams  were  worked  on  each  plow.  One 
snatch  team  to  every  4.4  wheelers  appears  to  have  been  the  aver- 
age, or  each  snatch  team  loaded  about  175  cu.  yd.  a  day  at  a 
cost  of  2  ct.  a  cu.  yd. 

Loading  Through  Traps.  Wheel  scrapers  were  used  on  the 
Chicago  Drainage  Canal  for  loading  cars  by  dumping  the  earth 
through  a  platform  into  the  cars;  and  similar  use  of  wheelers 
for  loading  wagons  has  often  been  made  elsewhere. 

The  incline  approach  to  the  platform  need  not  rise  with  a  less 
than  20%  grade,  and  may  have  a  width  of  8  ft.  instead  of  the 
12  used  on  the  Chicago  Canal.  The  cost  of  such  an  incline  ( 12 
ft.  wide  by  120  ft.  long  including  both  approaches)  is  given  at 
$100  (in  1895).  It  is  not  the  first  cost  of  the  incline,  but  the 
cost  of  moving  it  that  makes  this  method  too  expensive  ordi- 
narily; and  the  shallower  the  excavation  the  more  frequent  the 
moving  of  this  incline.  As  an  expedient  to  reduce  this  cost  of 
moving  the  incline,  the  author  would  suggest  that  it  be  made 
with  two  wooden  stringers  (6-in.  x  6-in.)  under  the  sills  of  the 
bents  and  that  these  stringers  which  are  to  act  like  the  runners 
of  a  sleigh  be  planed  upon  the  bottom  and  rest  upon  cross  ties  or 
skids,  placed  like  railroad  ties,  only  farther  apart,  say  4-ft.  c.  to  c., 
dressed  on  top  and  well  greased.  Make  the  flooring  as  light  as 
possible,  using  a  very  small  factor  of  safety,  and  make  the  incline 
in  two  detachable  sections.  Ten  or  a  dozen  teams  will  then 
readily  "  snake "  the  incline  along  over  skids  laid  in  advance, 
and  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  take  the  incline  apart  to  move  it. 
By  study  of  the  foregoing  data  it  will  appear  that  loading  wagons 
by  wheelers  is  cheaper  than  by  shovels,  so  that  if  the  cost  of 
moving  the  incline  is  not  great  the  method  is  a  good  one. 

Wheel  Scrapers  and  a  Wagon  Loader.  The  following  descrip- 
tion of  the  R.  C.  Ruthaven  (Buffalo,  N.  Y. )  wagon  loader  is 
from  Engineering  News,  Apr.  23,  1896.  In  the  operation  of  this 
device  wheel  scrapers  were  used,  dumping  on  a  platform  7x9 
ft.,  in  size,  2^-yd.  loads  were  dumped  and  then  the  platform 
was  tilted.  The  operation  required  7  sec.  to  throw  the  earth  in 
the  hopper.  From  this  hopper  it  was  raised  by  a  bucket  elevator, 
having  22  buckets  of  2  cu.  ft.  capacity.  This  discharged  into  a 
bin  at  the  rate  of  100  buckets  per  min.  The  engine  was  located 
beneath  the  buckets  and  it  also  tilted  the  platform  by  means  of 
a  friction  attachment.  The  machine  was  mounted  on  wheels  and 
was  7  x  20  ft.  in  size  exclusive  of  the  tilting  platform. 

When  working  in  stiff  clay  35  to  40  wagons  holding  2  cu.  yd. 


284  HANDBOOK:  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

each  were  loaded  per  lir.  The  saving  on  street  work  was  10  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  The  lorce  required  and  their  wages  was  as  follows. 
Foreman,  $3;  engineman,  $3;  fireman,  $1.50;  two  men  dumping 
scrapers,  $3;  two  men  loading  wagons,  $3;  one  man  cleaning  up, 
$1.50;  three  men  loading  scrapers,  $4.50;  'five  scraper  teams  and 
drivers,  $18.75;  one  watchman,  $1.50;  one  water  boy,  $1.00;  two 
plow  teams  and  drivers,  $8;  two  plow  men,  $3.50;  two  men  on 
wagon  dumps,  $3;  y2  ton  of  coal,  $2;  total  per  day,  $57.  Some 
500  to  800  cu.  yd.  were  loaded  per  10-hr,  day  at  a  cost  of  7.1 
to  11.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Wheeler  Work  Across  a  Swamp.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Sept.  4,  1907,  gives  the  following: 

The  following  is  an  example  of  the  cost  of  scraper  work 
done  by  one  of  the  editors  of  this  journal  on  the  grade  of 
a  new  railroad.  There  were  2,000  cu.  yd.  in  the  cut,  the 
"  lead "  being  700  ft.  The  work  was  done  in  the  fall  of  the 
year,  the  weather  conditions  being  very  favorable.  The  material 
consisted  of  light  red  clay  and  sandy  loam,  turning  into  sand  in 
the  bottom  of  the  cut.  A  four-horse  plow  team  with  two  men 
was  used  in  plowing  at  first,  but  when  the  sand  was  struck  a 
three-horse  plow  team  was  used.  The  snatch  team,  which  at 
first  had  three  horses  in  it,  was  also  changed  to  two  when  the 
sand  was  encountered. 

The  embankment  was  made  over  a  tide-water  marsh  that  in 
many  places  would  not  support  a  man.  In  these  spots  brush 
was  put  down,  and  the  embankment  was  built  in  layers.  The 
first  layer  was  made  by  shoveling  the  dirt  ahead  of  the  wheelers. 
This  extra  work  made  it  necessary  to  have  four  men  on  the  dump, 
which  accounts  for  the  extra  cost  of  dumping. 

Two  men  were  used  to  load  the  scrapers,  which  were  No.  2y2 
wheelers  holding  ty  cu.  yd.  place  measurement.  As  in  many  sec- 
tions only  one  man  is  employed  to  load  the  scrapers,  the  cost  in 
this  example  is  doubled. 

(  The  teams  were  all  hired,  with  no  pace-makers  owned  by  the 
contractors  doing  the  work.  The  foreman  consequently  had  but 
little  control  over  the  drivers,  who,  for  one  reason  and  another, 
lost  time. 

One  side  of  the  cut  was  a  bluff  about  15  ft.  high,  against 
which  the  tidewater  washed.  The  teams  could  neither  plow  nor 
scrape  this  side  of  the  cut  down,  so  a  gang  of  extra  men  under 
a  foreman  pulled  this  material  down  with  pick  and  shovel,  mov- 
ing just  enough  of  it  so  the  scrapers  could  pick  it  up.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  distributing  this  cost  over  the  Whole  yardage 
moved,  it  amounted  to  7.2  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  wages  paid  for  a  10-hr,  day  were: 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  285 

Foreman    $3.00 

Extra    foreman    2.50 

Scraper  team  and  driver   4.75 

4-horse  plow  team  and  2  men  9.20 

3-horse  snatch  team  and  1  man   6.00 

3-horse  plow  team  and  2  men   7.50 

2-horse  snatch  team  and  1  man   4.60 

Loaders    1.60 

Laborers    1.50 

Water  boy 1.00 

The  foremen  were  paid  for  every  working  day  in  the  week 
whether  it  was  possible  to  work  the  teams  or  not.  The  rest  of 
the  forces  were  only  paid  for  the  actual  time  they  made.  An 
average  of  seven  scrapers  were  worked  each  day. 

The  entire  cost  of  the  work  was: 

Foreman,   13  9/10  days    $  41.70 

Scrapers,   88  3/10  days   419.42 

4-horse  plowing,   8  days 78.20 

3-horse  plowing,  3  7/10  days   27.75 

3-horse  snatch,    8%  days 43.00 

2-horse  snatch,  3  7/10  days   17.02 

Loaders,  24  4/10  days   39.04 

Dumpers,    43  3/10  days    64.95 

Water  boy,   3%  days    3.50 

Total    $734.58 

Extra  men  pulling  down  bank: 

Foreman,   4%   days    $  11.25 

Extra  men,  88  days    132.00 

Grand  total  cost « $877.83 


This  gives  us  a  cost  per  cu.  yd.  as  follows: 


Foreman    $0.02 

Scrapers     21 

Plowing     053 

Snatching,   .03;  loaders,    .02   05 

Dumping     033 

Water  boy    001 

Total   scraper   work    $0.367 

Tearing  down  bank: 

Foreman    $0.006 

Extra    men 066 


Total    $0.072 

Grand  total  per  cu.   yd $0.439 

An  analysis  of  the  cost  gives  us  the  following  information: 
A  scraper  team  traveled  6  miles  per  day.  They  should  have 
covered  a  much  greater  distance  than  this. 

The  plow  team  loosened  164  cu.  yd.  per  day.  This  was  all 
that  was  needed,  but  much  more  work  could  have  been  done  by 
this  team.  The  snatch  team,  of  course,  loaded  the  same  amount. 


280  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

They,  too,  could  have  handled  more  yardage,  serving  the  same 
number  of  scrapers. 

The  average  yardage  per  scraper  was  23,  while  the  average 
yardage  for  all  teams  engaged  was  15.5. 

Four  Examples  of  Wheeler  Work  on  Railways.  Four  ex- 
amples of  cost  of  wheel  scraper  work  are  given  in  Engineering 
mid  Contracting,  Sept.  25,  1907.  They  are  all  work  done  in 
grading  railroads.  The  wages  paid  for  a  10-hr,  day  were: 

Foreman    $3.00 

Scraper  team  and  driver   4.75 

4-horse  plow  team  and  2  men   9.20 

3-horse  snatch  team  and  1  man   6.00 

Loaders    1.60 

Dumpmen     1.50 

Water  boy   1.00 

The  teams  were  hired,  and  the  fact  that  work  was  plentiful 
in  that  section  of  the  country  made  the  teamsters  very  inde- 
pendent, which  helps  to  account  for  some  of  the  high  cost. 

A  four-horse  plow  team  was  used  to  loosen  the  dirt,  and  a 
three-horse  snatch  team  was  used  in  loading  the  scrapers.  The 
wheelers  were  No.  2y2,  holding  %  cu.  yd.  place  measurement. 
Two  men  were  used  to  load  the  scrapers,  which  resulted  in  quicker 
loading  than  where  only  one  man  was  used.  Two  men  also 
dumped  the  scraper,  except  in  Example  No.  1  There  was  no 
need  for  this,  except  that  a  man  could  not  be  made  to  dump  the 
scrapers  without  help.  This*  of  course  doubled  the  cost  of 
dumping.  All  the  work  was  done  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  the 
weather  being  very  good  for  grading  work. 

Example  I.  The  material  in  this  case  was  a  sandy  loam,  easily 
plowed  and  scraped,  so  as  to  make  a  heaping  scraper  load.  The 
lead  was  260  ft.,  the  distance  traveled  on  each  trip  by  a  team 
being  600  ft.  This  made  a  total  distance  per  day  for  scraper 
of  about  12  miles.  The  cost  was  as  follows: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Foreman '. . . .    $0.017 

Scrapers     138 

Plowing    052 

Snatching 034 

Loaders    018 

Dumping     .008 

Water  boy   006 

Total $0.273 

The  average  yardage  moved  per  day  for  a  scraper  was  34,  while 
per  team  employed  it  was  21. 

Example  II.  The  material  on  this  job  was  a  good  clay.  Five 
scrapers  were  worked  in  a  gang  in  this  example  as  well  as  in 
Example  I.  The  lead  was  300  ft.,  while  the  average  distance 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  287 

traveled  to  the  dump  and  back  was  about  700  ft.,  which  meant 
a  total  distance  covered  each  day  by  a  scraper  team  was  about 
12  miles.  The  cost  was  as  follows: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Foreman     $0.019 

Scrapers     158 

Plowing    057 

Snatching 037 

Loaders    020 

Dumping     016 

Water  boy   004 

Total    ^ $0.311 

The  average  yardage  moved  per  scraper  per  day  was  30  while 
per  team  employed  it  was  19. 

Example  HI.  The  material  in  this  cut  was  wet  clay,  made  so 
by  some  heavy  rains  and  springs  that  were  struck  in  the  ground. 
The  lead  was  400  ft.,  while  the  distance  traveled  on  each  trip 
was  1,000  ft.,  making  a  total  distance  traveled  per  scraper  per 
day  of  12}£  miles.  The  dump  was  on  marshy  land  which  made 
necessary  an  extra  laborer  on  the  dump  who  shoveled  dirt  ahead 
of  the  teams.  The  cost  was  as  follows: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Foreman    $0.026 

Scrapers     216 

Plowing    080 

Snatching     052 

Loaders    028 

Dumping     039 

Water  boy   009 

Total    $0.450 

The  number  of  wheelers  worked  in  a  gang  was  five.  The  aver- 
age yardage  moved  by  each  scraper  was  22,  while  that  per  team 
was  13. 

Example  IV.  This  material  was  a  fine  sand,  into  which  the 
wheels  sank  so  the  scraper  bowls  dragged  on  the  ground.  Six 
scrapers  worked  in  a  gang.  The  lead  was  500  ft.,  the  average 
distance  traveled  going  to  the  dump  and  returning  being  1,000 
ft.,  making  the  distance  covered  per  day  for  scraper  12^  miles. 
The  cost  was: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Foreman      $0.024 

Scrapers    222 

Plowing    073 

Snatching     050 

Loaders    026 

Dumping     027 

Water  boy   . . ; 008 

Total    $0.430 


288  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  average  yardage  moved  per  scraper  was  21^;  per  team  it 
was  13. 

The  plow  teams  loosened  in  the  four  examples  respectively  170, 
150,  115  and  125  cu.  yd.  This  did  not  keep  them  busy  during 
the  day,  as  they  could  have  readily  loosened  twice  the  amount 
they  did.  The  snatch  team  could  also  have  loaded  a  greater 
yardage.  This  shows  that  there  were  not  enough  scrapers  worked 
in  a  gang. 

The  yardage  moved  by  a  scraper  as  the  haul  is  increased  was 
as  follows: 

Cu.  yd. 

260  ft.   lead    * 34 

300  ft.  lead 30 

400  ft.   lead    22 

500  ft.  lead   21% 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  cases  a  scraper  team  traveled 
between  12  and  12^  miles  per  day.  It  could  have  been  possible 
to  have  covered  a  greater  distance. 

Wheel  Scraper  Work  on  a  Railroad.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Jan.  22,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

The  work  was  done  on  a  railroad,  in  one  cut,  the  material 
being  hauled  two  ways.  In  the  cut  there  were  2,453  cu.  yd.,  and 
1,320  cu.  yd.  were  hauled  one  way  to  an  embankment,  the  average 
"  lead  "  being  260  ft.,  making  a  run  of  about  620  ft.  for  a  trip  to 
the  dump  and  back.  A  four-horse  plow  team  with  two  men  and 
a  snatch  team  of  two  horses  and  a  driver  were  used.  Two  men 
manipulated  the  bar  and  catch  in  loading  the  scrapers.  One 
man  did  the  dumping.  The  cost  of  this  was: 

Foreman,  7%  days  at  $3  $  22.50 

Scrapers,  38  days  at  $4.75  180.50 

Plowing,  7%  days  at  $9.20   69.00 

Snatching,  7V2  days  at  $4.75  35.62 

Loading,    15  days    at  $1.60    24.00 

Dumping    0.016 

Water  boy,  7%  days  at  $1   7.50 

Men,  2  days  at  $1.50  i . .  3.00 

Total    $353.37 

The  last  two  men  were  engaged  in  cutting  down  the  slopes  and 
dressing  them.  The  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  each  item  was  as 
follows : 

Foreman    $0.017 

Scrapers     0.137 

Plowing     0.052 

Snatching    0.027 

Loading     0.018 

Dumping,  7%  days  at  $1.50  11.25 

Water  boy 0.006 

Sloping     0.002 

Total   per   cu.   yd $0.267 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  289 

Each  scraper  team  traveled  about  12  miles  per  day.  The 
scrapers  were  Nos.  2i£  and  held  %  cu.  yd.  place  measurement. 
The  average  yardage  moved  per  scraper-day  was  34,  while  the 
average  per  team  worked  was  21. 

From  the  other  end  of  the  cut  1,133  cu.  yd.  were  excavated,  and 
moved  an  average  distance  of  400  ft.  On  the  260  ft.  "lead" 
five  scrapers  were  worked,  but  with  the  longer  haul  another 
scraper  was  added.  As  the  embankment  was  across  a  marsh 
of  very  soft  material,  two  men  were  needed  on  the  dump  to  help 
dump  and  handle  the  material.  More  men  were  put  at  work 
on  the  slopes  so  as  to  have  them  done  when  the  cut  was  finished. 
The  cost  of  this  end  of  the  cut  was: 

Foreman,  6  days  at  $3   $  18.00 

Scrapers,   38  days  at  $4.75    180.50 

Plowing,  6  days  at  $9.20   55.20 

Snatching  6  days   at  $4.75    28.50 

Loading,    12  days   at  $1.60    19.20 

Dumping,  12  days  at  $1.50  18.00 

Water  boy,  6  days  at  $1   6.00 

Sloping,  30  days  at  $1.50  45.00 

Total $370.40 

The  cost  per  cubic  yard  was  as  follows: 

Foreman    $0.01S 

Scrapers     0.160 

Plowing      " 0.048 

Snatching    0.025 

Loading 0.017 

Dumping     0.006 

Water   boy    0.005 

Sloping     0.040 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.327 

Each  scraper  traveled  15  miles  per  day,  and  hauled  30  cu.  yd,. 
The  average  moved  per  team  worked  was  20  cu.  yd. 

For  the  entire  cut  of  2,453  cu.  yd.  the  average  cost  was  $0.295 
per  cu.  yd.  The  average  amount  moved  per  scraper-day  was 
33.5  cu.  yd.  for  an  average  "  lead  "  of  325  ft. 

The  Cost  of  Scraper  Work  in  Freezing  Weather  is  described  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb.  12,  1908.  This  work  was  done 
during  the  early  part  of  the  winter  before  the  heavy  snows  fell, 
and  while  the  thermometer  was  below  the  freezing  point  during 
most  of  the  day,  and  at  night  frequently  registered  as  low  as 
zero.  The  contractor  had  one  scraper  gang  at  work  and  was 
anxious  to  keep  his  teams  going  as  late  in  the  season  as  pos- 
sible, as  he  had  a  large  amount  of  earthwork  that  would  have 
to  be  done  during  the  following  summer. 

The  following  wages  were  paid  for  a  10-hr,  day: 


290  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Foreman     $3.00 

Laborers     1.50 

Teams,  1  driver,  2  horses  3.50 

The  material  could  be  classed  as  "  average  earth  "  as  a  2-horse 
railroad  plow  would  loosen  it,  and  keep  enough  ground  plowed 
for  the  scraper  gang.  Owing  to  the  ground  freezing,  4  horses 
had  to  be  used  on  the  plow,  and  plowing  had  to  be  done  both 
day  and  night,  or  else  the  ground  became  so  hard  it  could  not 
be  broken  up.  Places  that  were  not  plowed  continually  did 
freeze  so  hard  that  work  had  to  be  abandoned  there  until  the 
following  spring. 

No.  3  Western  wheelers  with  gates  on  them  were  used.  The 
average  "  lead "  was  250  ft.,  the  material  being  carried  in  one 
direction  only.  Five  scrapers  were  worked  in  the  run,  each 
scraper  averaging  36  cu.  yd.  per  day.  As  each  scraper  carried 
about  %  cu.  yd.,  place  measurement,  this  meant  that  the  teams 
traveled  about  9  miles  per  day.  One  man  loaded  the  scraper,  with 
the  help  of  a  2-horse  snatch  team,  the  driver  of  this  team  hitching 
them  to  the  scraper  and  unhitching  them,  as  well  as  driving  the 
team. 

The  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  the  work  was  as  follows: 

Foreman    ' $0.017 

Scrapers     '. 0.097 

Plowing    0.094 

Loading    0.008 

Snatching    0.019 

Dumping     0.008 

Extra    men    0.016 


Total  per  cu.  yd $0.259 

The  two  extra  men  were  used  to  load  the  large  frozen  clods 
on  top  of  the  scraper,  after  it  was  loaded,  and  as  it  was  about 
to  pull  away  from  behind  the  snatch  team.  One  man  stood  at 
each  side  of  the  scraper,  as  it  was  being  loaded  with  several  large 
clods  in  his  arms  ready  to  throw  them  on,  as  the  wheelers  were 
loaded.  If  these  clods  became  very  plentiful  at  any  particular 
place,  these  men  would  load  several  scrapers  entirely  with  clods, 
by  hand,  and  thus  have  them  carried  out  of  the  cut.  They  did 
more  of  this  work  in  the  fore  part  of  the  day,  as  during  the 
night  a  great  many  clods  were  made  in  the  plowing.  These  men 
also  kept  up  a  wood  fire  at  which  the  men  could  warm  them- 
selves from  time  to  time. 

The  cost  of  plowing  was  high,  as  plowing  was  done  with  4 
horses  both  day  and  night,  as  previously  stated.  If  this  had  not 
been  necessary  the  plowing  could  have  been  done  for  less  than  3 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Of  the  total  cost  per  cu.  yd.,  at  least  8  ct.  can 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  291 

be  charged  directly  to  the  cohi  weather,  and  2  or  3  ct.  of  indirect 
charges  can  also  be  accounted  for  in  the  same  way,  as  in  good 
weather  this  scraper  work  only  cost  the  contractor,  including 
general  expenses,  15  or  16  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  Wheeler  Grading  in  Winter.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Feb.  26,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

In  grading  a  railroad  a  section  of  a  wagon  road  had  to  be 
built,  and  in  order  to  carry  on  the  railroad  work  the  wagon  road 
had  to  be  graded  during  the  winter  months.  The  road  was 
2,800  ft.  long  and  30  ft.  wide  in  the  cuts,  with  a  ditch  on  either 
side,  1  ft.  deep,  1  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom,  and  3  ft.  across  the 
top.  The  embankment  was  26  ft.  wide.  There  were  3,936  cu. 
yd.  of  excavation  made  from  the  cuts  and  borrow  pits.  The 
greatest  depth  of  excavation  was  about  5  ft.;  it  averaged,  in  most 
places,  about  3  ft.  • 

The  work  was  commenced  during  the  last  week  of  January, 
when  the  weather  was  fairly  good,  and  the  lightest  grading  work 
was  done  before  the  worst  weather  set  in.  A  10-hr,  day  was 
worked,  the  following  wages  being  paid: 

!:>•>     T)jt!<f     r\\il      If      Jb'JyIlO"//      71 

Foremen     $2.50  and  %  3.00 

Scraper    team    4.75 

Plow  team,  4  horses  and  2  men 9.20 

Snatch  team,  3  horses  and  driver  6.00 

Loaders 1.60 

Laborers    1.50 

Wagon  teams 4.75 

Road  machine,  8  horses  and  3  men  17.50 

Two  scraper  gangs  worked  during  January,  and  1,194  cu.  yd. 
were  moved  in  3  days.  The  cost  of  this  was: 

Foremen,   6  days  at  $3 %  18.00 

Scrapers,   45  days  at  $4.75    213.75 

Plowing,  3  days  at  $9.20  27.60 

Snatch  team,   6  days   at  $6   36.00 

Loaders,    12   days   at  $1.60 19.20 

Dumping,    12  days   at  $1.50    18.00 

Total    $332.55 

The  average  "  lead  "  on  this  yardage  was  300  ft.  The  cost  per 
cu.  yd.  for  each  item  was  as  follows: 

Foremen $0.015 

Scrapers    0.179 

Plowing 0.023 

Snatching    , .*..'. 0.030 

Loading    0.016 

Dumping     0.015 

Total $0.278 

]">fi;;.-ii   Hoijtfiv  if')j6i»    ;-;n»yi;//'  <mu/l>-  »fi  \>\i\\\K\{  >.r:'/7  *L      tt>1'irtXtyv> 
With  the  wages  paid,  and  for  scraper  work  in  January,  this 

was  a  reasonable  cost.     The  cost  of  plowing  was  low,  about  half 


292  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  what  it  would  have  been  had  two  plows  been  used,  but  one 
plow  team  did  the  loosening  for  the  two  gangs.  Each  scraper 
moved  26i£  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

While  this  work  was  going  on,  a  foreman  and  crew  of  men  were 
laying  some  12-in.  terra  cotta  drain  pipes  across  the  roadbed. 
Three  such  pipes  were  laid,  aggregating  123  lin.  ft.,  the  work  in- 
cluding the  ditches  for  them,  as  well  as  some  small  details  to  take 
the  water  to  and  away  from  them.  The  cost  of  this  work  was: 

Foreman,  1  day  $  2.50 

Laborers,   14V2  days    21.75 


Total    $24.25 

This  made  a  cost  per  lin.  ft.  of  pipe  of  the  following: 

Foreman $0.020 

Laborers    0.175 


Total    $0.195 

The  work  was  finished  during  February,  but  for  10  days  of  the 
17  worked  it  was  bitter  cold  and  light  falls  of  snow  occurred. 
The  ground  froze  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  and  the  work  was  more 
expensive  than  that  done  in  January.  One  scraper  gang  worked, 
the  cost  of  it  being  as  follows: 

Foreman,    16.8    days    $     50.40 

Scrapers,   131.4  days    624.15 

Plowing,  16.8  days   154.56 

Snatch  team,   16.8  days   100.80 

Loaders,    33.6    days    53.76 

Dumps,  33.6  days   50.40 

Total     $1,034.07 

The  yardage  moved  during  this  time  was  2,539,  the  average 
"  lead  "  being  350  ft.  Each  scraper  moved  about  19  cu.  yd.  per 
day.  The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  item  was: 

Foreman    $0.019 

Scrapers 0.245 

Plowing      : 0.060 

Snatching    0.021 

Dumping 0.020 

Total    $0.405 

In  addition  to  this  cost,  the  ground  for  a  number  of  days  had 
to  be  thawed,  and  two  days  of  the  coldest  weather  the  teams  could 
not  work.  Wood  was  used  to  thaw  the  ground,  the  wood  being 
cut  on  the  right  of  way,  thus  saving  the  price  of  stumpage  to  the 
contractor.  It  was  hauled  in  dump  wagons;  each  wagon  hauled 
about  y2  a  cord  per  load,  and  made  four  loads  per  day,  making 
a  total  of  2  cords  per  wagon-day.  A  crew  of  men  cut  the  wood 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS          293 

and  loaded  it  on  the  wagons.  Two  men  built  the  fires  and  main- 
tained them.  In  all  about  28  cords  of  wood  were  used  for  tne 
thawing.  The  fires  were  built  in  long  windrows,  and,  as  soon  as 
the  ground  was  somewhat  thawed,  the  ashes  of  the  fires  were 
shoveled  to  one  side,  and  a  fire  built  up  in  another  windrow. 
While  this  was  burning  up,  a  four-horse  plow  team  with  a  pick 
pointed  rooter  plow,  broke  up  the  ground  that  had  been  thawed. 
This  material  broke  up  into  clods  which  were  hard  to  load  into 
the  scrapers.  The  plow  point  was  broken  frequently,  and  an 
extra  one  was  kept  in  the  tool  box  to  replace  it. 

After  the  foot  of  frost  was  loosened  and  excavated,  the  plowing 
was  done  by  a  heavy  railroad  plow.  At  night,  before  stopping 
work,  the  entire  excavation  was  plowed  over  nearly  a  foot  deep; 
this  prevented  the  ground  from  freezing  so  solid  during  the 
night  that  the  rooter  plow  could  not  loosen  it  the  next  morning. 

The  cost  of  cutting  and   hauling  the  wood,  and   maintaining 

the  fires  was: 

n.  <M{!->J!  j>  -in  t  :  ut  \  ?;;-. 

Wagons,   14   days    $66.50 

Laborers,    21   days    31.50 


Total    . 


This  cost  must  be  added  to  the  other.  Distributed  over  the 
total  yardage  moved  during  the  month  this  makes  an  additional 
cost  of  3.8  ct.,  giving  a  total  cost  of  44.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Natur- 
ally, the  extra  cost  owing  to  the  frozen  ground  is  not  covered 
by  this  one  item  of  3.8  ct.,  for  a  comparison  of  the  February 
itemized  cost  with  that  of  January  shows  a  difference  of  12.7 
ct.  The  cost  of  plowing  is  more  than  double  that  of  January, 
owing  to  a  great  extent  to  the  fact  that  during  February  the  plow 
loosened  ground  for  the  one  gang  of  scrapers  only,  while  during 
January  it  worked  for  two  gangs.  The  haul  in  February  had 
been  increased  by  50  ft.  Of  the  total  difference  in  cost  at  least 
13  ct.  can  be  directly  charged  to  the  cold  weather  and  freezing 
ground. 

Of  the  ground  actually  thawed  by  the  wood  fires  there  were 
about  1,511  sq.  yd.  The  cost  of  thawing  this  was  about  6^  ct. 
per  sq.  yd.  As  the  frost  penetrated  the  ground  about  one  foot 
this  meant  that  503  cu.  yd.  of  earth  had  to  be  thawed,  at  a  cost 
of  19  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  material  was  a  red  sandy  clay.  Dur- 
ing the  rest  of  the  time,  after  the  freeze,  it  was  very  muddy  and 
difficult  to  handle. 

Fig.  11  shows  a  cross  section  of  the  road  as  it  was  actually 
built.  The  trimming  and  dressing  outside  of  the  ditches  were 
done  by  a  road  machine  immediately  after  the  scrapers  finished 
the  work.  Owing  to  the  winter  weather  eight  horses  had  to  be 


204.  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

used  on  the  machine,  and  this  meant  an  extra  driver.  The  mud 
made  the  work  difficult.  The  most  of  this  was  $43.75  for  2i£ 
days'  work.  As  the  banks  were  26  ft.  wide,  the  total  area  dressed 
by  the  machine  was  7,467  sq.  yd.,  which  gave  a  cost  for  trim- 


* 


Fig.  11.     Cross  Section  of  Road  as  Built. 

ming  and  dressing  with  the  machine  of  0.6  ct.  per  sq.  yd.  This 
cost  distributed  over  the  yardage  moved,  namely,  3,936  cu.  yd., 
made  1.1  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

After  the  weather  had  settled  in  the  spring  and  the  ground 
had  dried,  a  force  of  men  under  a  foreman  was  put  to  work 
cutting  the  ditches  in  the  cuts.  The  cost  of  this  was: 

Foreman,   4  days    $10.00 

Laborers,  37   days    55.00 

Total    $65.50 

From  the  ditches,  213  cu.  yd.  were  excavated,  which  meant  a 
cost  of  30.7  ct.  per.  cu.  yd.,  and  as  there  were  3,075  lin.  ft.  of 
ditch 'the  cost  per  lineal  foot  was  2.1  ct.  Distributed  over  the 
total  yardage  excavated,  it  gave  a  cost  of  1.7  ct.,  making  the 
total  cost  of  trimming  and  dressing  per  cu.  yd.  as  follows: 

Work  with  road  machine 1.1  ct. 

Work  by  hand   1.7  ct. 


Total  per  cu.  yd 2.8  ct, 

This  would  also  have  increased  the  cost  per  sq.  yd.  more  than 
1  ct.  If  the  cross  section  of  the  road  had  been  as  shown  in 
Fig.  12,  the  road  machine  would  have  done  all  the  dressing  and 
trimming  and  the  $65.50  could  have  been  saved.  This  clearly 
demonstrates  that  the  more  economical  design  is  that  illustrated 
in  Fig.  12.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  drainage  can  be 
amply  cared  for  by  the  crown  and  the  extra  height  of  the 
metal. 

The  road  was  given  a  metal  coat,  supposedly  6  in.  thick,  16  ft. 


T^J^B^P^I 

Fig.  12.     Cross  Section  of  Road  as  It  Should  Have  Been  Built. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  295 

wide,  of  oyster  shells.  On  account  of  the  mud  in.  some  places 
the  shells  were  much  thicker.  These  shells,  12,300  bushels,  were 
delivered  at  a  wharf  near  by  on  board  of  large  scows,  and  were 
hauled  in  market  wagons  an  average  distance  of  4,500  ft.  The 
shells  were  loaded  by  scoop  shovels,  and  the  wagons  had  two 
holes  cut  in  the  bottoms.  This  allowed  the  shells  to  be  dumped 
out  of  the  end  of  the  wagon  and  through  the  holes.  One  man 
with  a  large  rake,  a  fork  and  a  shovel  spread  the  shells.  The 
cost  of  this  work  was: 

Foreman,  5.8  days   $  14.50 

Wagons,  45.3  days   215.17 

Men  loading,    17.4   days    26.10 

Man  spreading,  5.8  days   8.70 

Total     $264.47 

This  made  a  cost  for  hauling  and  spreading  of  11.5  ct.  per 
bushel.  The  shells  were  only  put  on  about  2,300  lin.  ft.  of  the 
road,  giving  about  4,100  sq.  yd.  The  shells  cost  7  ct. -per  bushel 
delivered  at  the  wharf.  This  gave  a  cost  per  sq.  yd.  of  shells 
in  place  as  follows: 

Shells     21     ct. 

Labor   and   hauling   11.5  ct. 

Total     32.5  ct. 

The  shells  were  not  rolled,  but  they  were  first  placed  on  the 
road  nearest  the  wharf,  and  the  loaded  and  empty  wagons  hauled 
over  them.  As  any  holes  developed,  additional  shells  were  placed 
in  them. 

The  total  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows: 

Scraper  work   $1,366.62 

Labor  of  laying  drain  pipe   24.25 

123  lin.  ft.  12  in.  T.  C.  pipe  at  30  ct 36.90 

Thawing    ground    98.00 

Road  machine  work  43.75 

Ditching  in  cuts   65.50 

12,300  bu.  shells  at  7  ct 861.00 

Labor  of  placing  shells   264.47 

Total     $2,760.49 

All  of  this  work  could  have  been  done  cheaper  if  it  had  not  been 
the  dead  of  winter.  Even  the  shells  could  have  been  bought  for 
4  or  5  ct.  per  bushel  during  the  summer. 

Comparison  of  Cost  of  Wheel  and  Drag  Scraper  Work  in  Mis- 
sissippi. Cost  data  on  the  enlarging  of  a  log  pond  are  given 
by  M.  E.  Allen  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  March  4,  190S. 
The  work  required  the  excavation  of  the  end  bank  of  an  old  pond 
and  the  extension  of  the  side  banks  a  distance  of  350  ft.  The 
area  of  the  pond  was  increased  from  one  to  four  acres. 


296  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

As  the  site  was  full  of  pine,  oak  and  gum  stumps  of  consider- 
able size,  and  extremely  difficult  to  dislodge  except  with  dyna- 
mite, it  was  decided  to  raise  the  old  banks  1  ft.,  giving  a  depth  of 
8  ft.  where  the  logs  are  unloaded  and  a  minimum  depth  of  3  ft. 
6  in.  in  the  far  end  of  the  pond  over  the  3-acre  addition.  In 
carrying  out  this  plan  it  was  decided  that  all  stumps  be  sawed 
off  at  the  ground,  and  that  only  enough  dirt  be  excavated  from 
the  new  pond  site  to  build  the  banks,  and  that  dirt  be  borrowed 
from  the  most  advantageous  places. 

The  cross  sections  showed  that  the  banks  would  require  2,028 
cu.  yd.  It  was  estimated  that  by  doing  the  excavation  by  com- 
pany's forces  and  teams  the  cost  would  not  exceed  $400. 

There  were  on  hand  four  %  cu.  yd.  wheel  scrapers  and  two 
"  slips."  As  there  were  100  lin.  ft.  of  bank  so  situated  that  dirt 
could  be  obtained  right  at  hand  and  without  plowing  it  was 
decided  to  let  the  slips  handle  the  162  cu.  yd.,  and  compare  the 
costs  for  slips  working  under  most  favorable  conditions  and 
wheelers  under  average  conditions.  The  two  slips  finished  the 
162  cu.  yd.  in  4.5  days,  and,  as  the  unit  cost  was  found  to  exceed 
that  of  the  wheelers  under  less  favorable  conditions,  their  use 
was  discontinued. 

The  total  cost  of  all  the  grading  with  slips  and  with  wheelers 
was  as  follows: 

Foreman,   17.5  days  at  $3    $  52.50 

Labor,   165.9  days  at  $1    165.90 

Teams,  145  days  at  $0.77   111.65 

Total     $330.05 

The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was   16.3  ct. 

The  cost  under  teams  includes  only  the  actual  cost  of  feed 
used,  for  the  teams  were  all  company  property.  The  drivers  are 
listed  under  labor. 

To  arrive  at  a  comparison  for  wheeler  and  slip  work,  33%  of 
the  foreman's  time  was  charged  to  the  latter  during  the  first  4.5 
days  that  the  slips  were  used.  This  gave  a  cost  for  the  slip  work 
as  follows: 

1  foreman,  4.5  days  at   (%  of  $3)  $1 $  4.50 

4  men,  4.5  days  at  $1   18.00 

2  teams,  4.5  days  at  0.77  6.93 

Total $29.43 

This  gave  a  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  18.2  ct. 

The  cost  of  the  wheel  scraper  work  alone  was  16.1  ct.  per  cu. 

yd- 

The  average  number  of  cu.  yd.  handled  per  scraper-day  was 
29.6.  The  average  lead  was  150  ft. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  297 

Nine  Examples  of  the  Cost  of  Wheel  Scraper  Work.  (See  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  July  8,  1908.)  Some  of  these  examples 
have  already  been  given  but  their  costs  are  repeated  here  for 
comparison. 

The  cost  records  were  kept  in  great  detail.  In  every  case  the 
work  done  was  in  grading  a  railroad  bed  and  No.  2^>  wheelers 
were  used. 

The  wages  paid  for  a  10-hr,  day  were  as  follows: 

Foreman     $3.00 

Scraper  team  and  driver  4.75 

4-horse  plow  team  and  2  men   9.20 

3-horse  snatch  team  and  1  man  6.00 

Loaders    1.60 

Dump    nun    1.50 

Water    boy 1.00 

The  grading  was  done  in  the  fall  of  the  year  with  good  weather 
prevailing.  The  material  excavated  was  red  clay  subsoil  with 
some  sand  mixed  with  it.  The  teams  were  hired,  the  contractor 
furnishing  the  scrapers,  plows,  etc. 

Table  1  gives  the  length  of  the  lead  in  feet,  the  lead  being 
the  distance  in  a  straight  line  from  the  center  of  mass  in  the 
excavation  to  the  center  of  mass  of  the  embankment.  The  length 
of  the  haul  exceeds  the  lead,  the  haul  being  the  average  distance 
traveled  by  the  scraper  in  going  to  and  from  the  dump,  including 
the  distance  traveled  in  turning  at  both  ends  of  the  haul. 

A  crew  consisted  ofva  foreman,  a  4-horse  plow,  a  3-horse  snatch 
team,  2  loaders,  2  dump  men,  a  water  boy  and  the  given  number 
of  wheeled  scrapers. 

In  Table  2  the  cost  of  the  work  is  given,  showing  the  cost  of 
each  item  separately. 

These  costs  do  not  include  any  allowance  for  plant  or  main- 
tenance and.  repairs  to  plant. 

These  records  are  not  given  either  as  ideal  records  or  as  eco- 
nomical examples  of  scraper  work,  but  may  be  of  benefit  to  those 
interested  in  scraper  work. 

It  would  seem  that  the  distance  covered  per  day  by  each 
scraper  in  the  first  two  examples  was  much  less  than  it  should 
have  been,  as  in  other  examples  each  scraper  team  covered 
more  than  16  miles.  Under  these  circumstances,  if  the  foreman 
did  not  allow  his  men  and  teams  to  loaf,  time*  must  have  been 
wasted  by  the  scrapers  in  waiting  to  be  loaded,  thus  showing 
that  too  many  scrapers  were  worked  in  the  run.  This  is  evident 
for  another  reason.  With  a  haul  of  600  ft.,  with  a  team  travel- 
ing at  the  rate  of  200  ft.  per  min.,  which  is  not  excessive  even 
over  such  ground  as  a  scraper  is  used  upon,  the  scraper  should 
make  the  round  trip  in  3  min.  It  takes  not  over  a  minute  to 


298  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

load  a  No.  2}£  wheeled  scraper  under  fair  conditions,  hence  from 
the  time  the  scraper  leaves  the  cut  to  its  return  only  3  scrapers 
have  been  loaded,  with  the  result  that  the  scraper  must  wait  a 
minute  while  the  fifth  scraper  is  being  loaded. 

From  this  it  would  seem  that  for  a  260  ft.  lead,  4  scrapers 
should  be  used  instead  of  5.  This  would  have  meant  that  the  ex- 
penses of  the  gang  would  have  been  reduced  $4.75  and  each  scraper 
worked  would  have  moved  a  greater  yardage.  Theoretically  the 
time  wasted  in  waiting  to  be  loaded  would  have  allowed  of  30 
additional  trips  of  a  scraper  during  the  day,  which  would  have 
meant  an  increase  of  10  cu.  yd.  per  day  per  scraper.  The  in- 
crease might  have  been  a  little  more,  as  the  5  scrapers  set  a 
lazy  pace,  while  the  4  scrapers  coming  to  the  snatch  team  reg- 
ularly would  have  been  the  cue  for  the  whole  gang  to  have 
worked  with  greater  snap  and  vim.  This  increased  yardage 
would  have  meant  that  the  gang  would  have  averaged  176  cu. 
yd.  per  day,  thus  decreasing  all  the  cost  items  somewhat. 

The  time  lost  waiting  to  be  loaded  in  using  5  scrapers  on  a 
300  ft.  lead,  where  the  haul  amounted  to  725  ft.,  is  not  as  much 
as  on  the  260  ft.  lead,  the  lost  time  being  but  %  of  a  min.  The 
cut  or  excavation,  instead  of  being  worked  as  a  single  piece  of 
work  with  a  lead  of  300  ft.  and  a  haul  of  725,  should  be  divided 
into  two  pieces  of  work,  so  that  one  piece  would  have  an  in- 
creased haul  over  the  725  ft.  and  suited  for  a  run  of  5  scrapers, 
while  the  other  piece  would  have  a  decreased  haul,  one  suited  to 
4  scrapers.  In  this  manner,  the  scrapers  employed  could  be 
worked  all  the  time,  and  the  maximum  output  obtained  and  the 
"hauls  equalized,"  as  the  contractors  express  it. 

From  example  No.  3  it  would  seem  that  6  scrapers  were  about 
the  correct  number  for  a  1,000  ft.  haul,  but  in  example  No.  4  the 
snatch  team  had  to  wait  on  the  scrapers.  This  was  likewise 
the  case  with  examples  Nos.  5  and  6.  In  example  No.  7  too 
many  scrapers  were  worked  in  the  gang,  and  the  contrast  between 
the  number  used  with  an  800  ft.  and  900  ft.  lead  is  very  striking. 

Again  in  examples  Nos.  8  and  9  not  enough  scrapers  were  used. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  for  the  shorter  hauls  the  increased  cost 
due  to  adding  100  ft.  to  the  lead,  with  wages  as  paid  for  this 
work,  is  about  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  When  the  leads  are  longer 
than  500  or  600  ft.  the  costs  increased  much  more  than  1  ct. 
The  ordinary  price  paid  for  overhaul  in  many  sections  of  the 
country  in  the  past  has  been  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  100  ft. 
of  overhaul.  For  short  free  haul  with  low  wages  there  may  be, 
at  times,  a  small  profit  at  this  price,  but  under  most  circum- 
stances 1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  per  100  ft.  will  hardly  cover  the  cost  of 
wheel  scraper  overhaul,  especially  if  the  free  haul  is  1,000  ft. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 


299 


fc-r< 


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r-TccT 


o  o  o  o  o  o 


C-    tfD  CO  SO  O  CO  tf3  ka 
X   o    O  S  O  O  O  O  O 

3br  ddo'dddd 


«l  8$ 


owcoco- 
d_d  o  o'  d  o  < 


^5     T-T 


£  "3s 


fl  O5  Oi  « 


ooo  to  t~-ooo  g 
o  d  d  d  d  d  o 


i-H  Tt<  OO  t-  J 


W^  odd  odd' 


W       ^'^  0  us  co  <N  o  in  o 
«     Hi88"'      '     " 

X1"1    §Or-IMC<I         t- 
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300  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Contractors  should  give  this  matter  some  study  and  see  to  it 
that  their  bids  are  such  as  net  them  a  profit  on  each  item.  The 
writer  knew  of  a  contractor  who  bid  an  overhaul  price  of  2^ 
ct.,  with  a  free  haul  of  1,500  ft.,  and  even  at  this  price  there  was 
no  profit  in  the  overhaul  during  the  winter  months. 

The  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  plowing  in  Table  2  is  high,  when  one 
takes  into  consideration  that,  at  the  wages  paid,  earth  should  be 
loosened  for  about  3  ct.,  but  this  high  cost  is  caused  by  the  fact 
that  the  plow  team  was  kept  in  the  cut  during  the  whole  day, 
whether  it  was  working  or  not.  According  to  the  nine  examples, 
the  plow  loosened  on  an  average  160  cu.  yd.  per  day.  A  4-horse 
plow  can  easily  loosen  from  300  to  400  cu.  yd.  per  day,  say  350 
cu.  yd.  This  would  mean  considerably  less  than  3  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.  This  shows  the  necessity  of  working  two  scraper  gangs, 
wherever  possible,  close  enough  together  so  that  one  plow  team 
can  serve  the  two  gangs. 

Two  men  were  used  to  load  the  scrapers.  For  a  small  wheel 
scraper,  one  man  is  sufficient,  and  it  is  possible  for  one  man  to 
load  a  No.  21£  or  No.  3  wheeler,  but  2  men  will  do  the  work 
more  efficiently,  and  they  are  needed  when  a  4-horse  snatch  team 
is  used.  Under  most  circumstances  a  4-horse  snatch  team  will 
do  more  economical  work  than  a  3-horse  snatch  team. 

In  the  examples  here  given  two  men  were  used  to  dump  the 
scrapers.  This  is  not  necessary,  as  one  man  can  easily  learn  to 
dump  even  the  large  size  wheelers  without  aid,  and  the  only 
reason  two  men  were  used  was  on  account  of  the  labor  market. 
Men  were  difficult  to  obtain,  and  to  detail  only  one  man  to  a 
dump  meant  a  strike  among  the  laborers.  If  only  one  man  had 
been  used  the  cost  of  dumping  given  would  have  been  cut  in  half. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  cost  of  the  items  of  the  work,  other 
than  the  actual  scraper  cost,  amount  to  from  30  to  60%  of  the 
total  cost,  thus  showing  that  the  scraper  must  move  from  50  to 
100%  more  earth  than  needed  to  show  a  profit  .on  each  scraper's 
work.  Only  the  best  horses  or  mules  should  be  employed,  and 
good  care  must  be  taken  of  them,  or  else  they  will  soon  grow  stale 
in  their  work,  and  the  output  will  rapidly  decrease. 

Economic  Handling  of  Earth  by  Wheei  and  Fresno  Scrapers. 
Richard  T.  Dana  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  3,  1914, 
discusses  this  matter  at  great  length. 

It  has  been  the  experience  of  the  writer  that  a  majority  of 
contractors  east  of  the  Alleghenies  are  unfamiliar  with  the  rela- 
tive advantages  of  the  different  kinds  of  scraper  and  do  not  pos- 
sess the  data  necessary  to  determine  for  the  particular  condi- 
tions of  their  work  which  style  and  size  should  be  most  eco- 
nomic. A  contractor  who  has  found  wheel  scrapers  very  success- 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 


301 


fc     .8« 
W      «§ 

02 


S3 

o'S 


a  a 

a 'a 


- 


;2^ 


f>     H^- 

O  >O  r-t  i 


302 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


fill  in  a  certain  kind  of  earth  is  likely  to  be  biased  in  favor  of 
the  wheel  scraper  for  that  kind  of  earth  more  or  less  regardless 
of  the  length  of  haul.  Errors  of  judgment  in  a  matter  of  this 
kind  result  in  literally  burying  for  all  time  money  that  ought  to 
bring  some  benefit  to  somebody. 

A  careful  study  and  analysis  of  scraper  work  was  made  under 
the  direction  of  the  writer  by  A.  C.  Haskell  for  the  Construction 
Service  Co.  of  New  York,  and  the  results  are  given  below  to 
enable  those  who  have  scraper  work  to  make  rapidly  and  con- 
veniently those  computations  without  which  no  work  of  this 
kind  can  economically  be  done. 


wo 


200 


300 


400        500         600          700 
Length  of  Haul  in  Feet 


$00 


Fig.  13.  Curves  Showing  Costs  per  Cubic  Yard  of  Handling 
Loam  and  Loam  Clay  with  Wheel  Scrapers  for  Various  Sizes  of 
Load  and  Length  of  Haul. 

The  results  of  this  analysis  are  summarized  in  Figs.  13  to  15. 

When  Fresno  scrapers  are  loaded  from  plowed  ground  it  is 
easier  to  load  when  dragging  across  than  lengthwise  of  the  fur- 
row. Double  plowing  is  often  economical.  The  dumping  opera- 
tion should  be  accomplished  by  a  quick,  sharp  lift  on  the  handle, 
and  preferably  on  a  down  grade.  \Vhen  the  ground  is  very  well 
loosened  the  driver  can  do  his  own  loading  as  well  as  dumping. 
The  path  to  the  dump  must  be  reasonably  free  from  obstructions, 
else  the  scrapers  may  dump  themselves  without  intention  on  the 
driver's  part. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 


303 


General  Hints  on  all  Scraper  Work.  (1)  Be  sure  to  use  the 
right  kind  of  scraper.  A  Fresno  with  3  mules  is  economical 
up  to  about  275  ft.  of  haul  as  against  wheel  scrapers  with  2 
mules,  when  it  can  load  readily.  Where  the  ground  is  full  of 
roots  use  wheelers. 

To  drivers: 

(2)   Report  any  case  of  bad  fitting  harness  to  the  foreman  im- 


100  200          JOO          400 

Length  of  Haul  in  Feet 


500 


Fig.  14.  Curves  Showing  Cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  Handling  Loam, 
Sand,  etc.,  with  Fresno  Scrapers  for  Various  Sizes  of  Load 
and  Length  of  Haul. 

mediately.  Don't  let  the  team  drag  you  by  the  reins.  You  are 
supposed  to  lie  able  to  walk  as  far  as  a  loaded  team. 

To  foreman : 

Make  a  personal  detailed  inspection  of  each  mule's  harness  the 
first  thing  in  the  morning  and  at  noon,  and  report  any  case  of 
ill  fitting  harness  to  the  timekeeper  on  his  next  round.  Fore- 
men will  be  held  responsible  for  allowing  any  mule  to  work  with 
bttcMv  fitting  harness. 


304 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


(3)  See  that  each  scraper  is  fully  loaded.     The  cost  of  plow- 
ing is  less  than  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  which  is  less  than  the  cost  of 
letting  scrapers  work  when  only  partly   loaded 

(4)  In  loading  the  scraper  when  it  is  once  full  of  earth  do  not 
let  the  mules  try  to  p. .11   it  any   farther  and   overload   it.     The 
last  two  seconds  of  drag  against  the  dead  weight  of  earth  are 
mule  killers. 

(5)  On  all  scraper  work  drivers  are  required  to  walk  at  all 
times  when   the  scraper   is  loaded   and  they  are  to  walk  at  all 
times  with  the  Fresno  scraper,  whether  loaded  or  empty.     With 


Wheeler's  Loam-Wheelers  Sand  Fresno  All  Material 


—  Fresno       «         -All  Material 
I       I       I       I       I       I       I       I 


100 


^oo 


300         400          500          600 
l.cnqth  of  Houlin  feet 


£00 


Fig.  15.     Diagram  Comparing  Economy  Up  to  275  Ft.  Haul  of 
Fresno  and  Wheel  Scrapers. 

wheeler  scraper  work  drivers  should  ride  on  the  scraper  when  it 
is  empty.  In  stepping  on  or  off  of  the  scraper  be  sure  not  to 
delay  the  team  in  any  way. 

(6)  In   dumping  wheel   scrapers   try   not   to   dump    when   the 
mules  are  on  ground  that  is  lower  than  the  scraper,  as  by  doing 
this  it  brings  a  tremendous  load  on  the  mules'  necks. 

(7)  So  direct  the  work  that  the  loaded  teams  will  have  the 
shortest   haul   and   the  empty   teams    if   necessary    may   have    a 
much  longer  haul,  but  in  no  case  should  the  empty  haul  be  un- 
necessarily long.     It  is  better  to  let  the  mule  team  stand  still 
to   rest   than   to   let   it   cover   unnecessary    ground.     This    seems 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  305 

like   a   simple   rule,    but    its   violation   has   often    been    observed 
on  several  different  jobs. 

(8)  See  that  the  scrapers  are  spaced  as  even  a  distance  apart 
as  possible.     This  will  make  the  work  lighter  on  the  mules,  easier 
on  the  drivers  and  Mail  tend  to  avoid  confusion. 

(9)  The  loaded  scraper  should  always  have  the  right  of  way 
as   against  the  unloaded   scraper. 

(10)  Whenever    a    scraper    gets    stuck    or    is    in    any    trouble 
don't  lose  any  time  before  notifying  the  foreman  and  sending  for 
help.     The  snatch  team   is  employed  for  the  purpose  of  helping 
the  scrapers  at  all  times  and  in  all  possible  ways. 

(11)  Be  sure  not  to  have  too  few  scrapers  on  a  long  haul  and 
too  many  scrapers   on   a   short   haul;    see  that  every   scraper   is 
busy   all   the  time;    see   that   the   loader   and   snatch   teams   are 
busy  all  the  time;   in  short,  that  each  unit  of  the  work  is  con- 
tributing   its    maximum    effort    to    the    accomplishment    of    the 
whole. 

Costly  Wheel  Scraper  Work  in  a  Wet  Cut.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Sept.  30,  1(J08,  gives  the  following: 

The  record  of  cost  of  making  a  railroad  cut  with  wheel  scrapers, 
given  below,  demonstrates  how  a  lesson  can  be  learned  from  cost 
keeping. 

The  material  in  the  cut  was  a  red  clay  with  springs  of  water 
occurring  in  it.  This,  with  the  fact  that  the  clay  quickly  absorbed 
the  rain  water  and  held  it,  made  the  cut  a  wet  one.  Wheel 
scrapers  were  used  and  a  3-horse  snatch  team  for  loading  them. 
A  4-horse  plow  team  loosened  the  dirt.  The  following  wages  were 
paid  for  a  10-hr,  day: 

Foreman    $3.00 

Scraper  team  and  driver    4.75 

4-horse  plow  team  and  2  men 9.20 

3-horse  snatch  team  and  1  man  6.00 

Loaders    1 60 

Dumpmen     1  50 

Water    boy    1.00 

Two  men  loaded  the  No.  2^  scrapers,  and  one  man  dumped 
them.  The  lead  was  700  ft.,  while  the  total  distance  traveled 
to  and  from  the  dump  averaged  1,650  ft. 

The  cost  of  the  work  per  cu.  yd.  was  as  follows: 

Foreman     $0.063 

Scraptrs     0.500 

Plowing     0.200 

Snatching    0.127 

Loading      0.067 

Dumping     0.032 

Water   boy    0.021 

Total  per  cu.  yd $1.010 


306  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  average  number  of  cu.  yd.  moved  per  day  per  scraper  was 
9.5,  and  as  10  scrapers  were  used  on  the  haul,  the  gang  moved 
a  total  yardage  per  day  of  95  cu.  yd.  This  gives  the  amount 
loosened  by  the  plow.  The  average  number  of  yards  moved  per 
team  worked  in  a  day  was  only  5.5.  Each  scraper  team  traveled 
about  9  miles  per  day. 

A  comparison  of  these  with  costs  previously  given  shows  at 
once  that  they  are  excessive.  The  scraper  team  traveled  only  9 
miles  per  day.  This  was  caused  by  the  wet  condition  of  the  cut, 
and  ten  scrapers  each  going  through  it  28  or  29  times  a  day 
meant  cutting  up  the  wet  clay  still  more.  Some  other  method 
of  excavating  the  earth  should  have  been  used. 

Doubletrees  for  Heavy  Slip  and  Fresno  Scraper  Work.  R.  E. 
Post,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Mar.  6,  1912,  gives  the 
following: 

In  moving  dirt  with  slips  or  fresnos  and  the  accompanying 
work  of  pulling  roots,  dragging  large  rocks,  etc.,  one  of  the  most 
annoying  delays  is  caused  by  the  use  of  weak  or  clumsy  double- 
tree sets. 

One  of  the  worst  details  is  the  singletree  hook  which  pulls 
from  the  back  of  the  singletree  and  which,  whenever  the  double- 
trees are  used  off  of  a  tongue,  cause  the  singletree  to  turn  half 
over.  Usually  at  the  first  hard  pull  the  cast  eye  of  the  single- 
tree ferrule  breaks,  or  the  center  clip  spreads.  Then  there  is 
the  device  and  bolt  method  of  fastening  the  doubletree  set  to 
the  slip.  This  is  a  good  rig  (although  necessitating  heavy 
doubletrees),  so  long  as  the  team  is  on  a  slip,  but  when  needed 
elsewhere  some  time  is  wasted  unfastening  and  fastening  the 
device.  Moreover,  the  device  is  a  poor  device  to  which  to 
fasten  a  chain  or  rope  quickly  and  when  a  doubletree  set  is  not 
in  use  someone  usually  takes  the  device  and  forgets  to  return 
it.  The  above  annoyances  are  likely  to  occur  many  times  a  day 
where  such  doubletree  sets  are  used  and  they  provoke  foremen 
and  teamsters  as  well  as  cause  considerable  delay. 

The  factory-made  doubletree  sets  sold  under  the  name  of  lead 
bars  are  light  and  handy,  but  will  not  stand  use  on  a  plow, 
stump  pulling,  or  other  heavy  work  without  much  breakage. 
Further  the  center  clip,  fastening  the  hook  to  the  doubletree, 
soon  becomes  loose  and  pulls  to  one  end.  Home-made  double- 
tree sets  made  of  the  best  woods  with  factory-made  center  clips, 
end  straps,  and  hooks,  are  a  great  improvement  over  the  lead 
bars,  but  the  largest  oval  woods  obtainable  for  the  doubletrees 
will  not  stand  all  kinds  of  work  without  considerable  breakage 
and  the  center  step  fastening  the  hook  to  the  doubletree  behaves 
the  same  as  in  the  factory-made  lead  bars. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  307 

Fig.  16  shows  a  set  of  doubletrees  that  will  stand  the  jerks  of 
the  heaviest  teams,  that  is  not  too  heavy,  that  is  reasonable  in 
cost,  and  that  will  not  ordinarily  be  in  the  repair  shop  until 
worn  out.  The  doubletree  center  clip  in  particular  is  a  trouble 
saver,  as  whenever  the  wood  shrinks  and  the  clip  becomes  loose 
it  can  be  readily  tightened  with  the  bolt.  Another  advantage 

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f"  *T-^&\—-'\&     fl-'V-""7;r^t^-^^y 
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Section  ofDovblcTrcceiipWooH 
Fig.  16.     Detail  Drawing  for  Slip  Doubletrees. 

is  in  being  able  to  replace  a  broken  hook  without  a  weld.  In 
case  considerable  work  involving  pulling  on  a  chain  is  to  be  done 
a  special  grab  hook  may  easily  be  inserted  or,  better  yet,  one 
or  two  sets  can  be  rigged  with  grab  hooks  and  kept  for  this 
work. 

The  following  is  the  itemized  cost  of  one  of  these  doubletree 
sets: 

4  ft.  1-in.  half  round  iron   $0.135 

7  ft.  %-in.  half  round  iron   0.130 

1  3%  x  36  in.   wood    0.420 

2  2%  x  36  in.  wood    0.400 

1  ft.  %-in.  tool  steel   0.110 

4  singletree    hooks 0.160 

16  in.  %xl%  in.  iron    0.085 

2  center   clips    0.240 

12  rivets     0.050 

1  bolt  %x2  ins 0.015 

2%  hr.  labor  at  45  ct 1.125 


Total    $2.870 

Methods  of  Arranging  Doubletrees  and  Three-Horse  Eveners. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  12,  1912,  gives  the  following: 

In  making  three-horse  eveners  little  difficulty  will  be  experi- 
enced if  consideration  is  taken  of  the  fact  that  the  amount  of 
work  each  horse  does  is  in  proportion  to  the  lever  arm  or  the 
portion  of  the  doubletree  given  to  him.  In  the  case  of  three 
horses  the  third  horse,  or  the  one  which  works  singly,  should  be 
given  a  leverage  to  make  its  pull  equal  to  that  of  the  other  two. 


308  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  length  of  the  evener,  and  also  the  lengths  of  the  single- 
trees, will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  horses  and  also  whether 
it  is  desired  to  work  them  close  together  or  somewhat  spread 
apart.  For  summer  work  the  horses  will  stand  the  heat  better 
if  given  plenty  of  room. 

In  Fig.  17  is  shown  a  common  three-horse  evener  arranged  for 
horses  of  about  equal  weight  and  strength.     The  distances  shown 


Fig.   17.     Common  Three-Horse  Evener. 

are  recommended  for   horses   of  medium   size   and   should   be  in- 
creased proportionately   for   large  teams. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  in  working  young  animals  or  light 
horses  to  give  them  plenty  of  advantage  by  increasing  the  length 
of  the  lever  arm.  This  must  be  done  by  trial,  as  no  rule  will  do 
for  all  cases.  The  most  satisfactory  way  is  to  bore  a  number  of 
holes  and  shift  the  clevis  until  the  small  horse  is  able  to  carry 
the  load  the  entire  day  without  becoming  more  fatigued  than 
the  other  horses.  Tt  is  believed  by  some  men  that  the  amount 
of  lever  arm  or  advantages  given  to  the  smaller  horse  should 
be  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  animal,  but  this  is  not  al- 
ways satisfactory  because  it  is  also  necessary  to  take  into  account 
the  physical  condition  of  the  horses.  A  type  of  evener  which  per- 
mits an  unusually  close  hitch  is  shown  by  Fig.  18.  These  two 


U 28 J 

Fig.    18.     Evener  for   Close  Hitching. 

eveners  are  recommended  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  International 
Harvester  Co. 

Effect  of  Bonus  System  on  Cost  of  Basement  Excavation.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  July  22,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

It  is  unquestionably  true  that  most  workmen  will  put  forth 
extra  effort  when  they  are  certain  of  receiving  monetary  return 
for  extra  performance.  The  following  data  show  the  results  of  a 
bonus  system  as  applied  by  the  Aberthaw  Construction  Co.,  of 
Boston,  to  excavation  work.  The  work  consisted  of  excavating  the 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 


309 


site  of  a  reinforced  concrete  building  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  The 
building  was  62  ft.  wide  by  400  ft  long,  the  basement  floor 
being  about  10  ft.  below  the  natural  grade.  The  work  was  done 
in  mid-winter.  As  the  excavated  material  was  to  be  used  in 
bringing  up  to  grade  the  depressions  in  other  parts  of  the  lot, 
the  contractors  decided  to  use  wheel  scrapers.  In  addition  to 
.the  excavated  earth,  quantities  of  sand  were  taken  out  and  placed 
in  storage  piles  for  use  later  in  concrete.  The  loam  and  top  soil 
were  first  removed  by  means  of  plows  and  frost  wedges. 

A  study  of  the  length  of  haul  and  of  the  number  of  wheel 
scraper  loads  per  day  showed  that  on  the  average  120  loads  con- 
stituted a  full  clay's  work,  although  for  the  longer  hauls  only 
about  110  loads  per  day  were  made.  The  teamsters,  when  going 
about  their  work  in  the  usual  leisurely  way  and  with  no  incentive 
for  high  performance,  at  best  were  hauling  only  120  to  130 
loads  per  day.  The  application  of  the  bonus  system  changed  the 
entire  tone  of  the  work  from  half-hearted  endeavor  to  enthu- 
siastic effort. 

In  starting  payment  for  extra  work  each  driver  who  had  made 
120  loads  or  more  during  the  day  was  given  a  bonus  of  50  ct. 
This  bonus  was  later  increased  to  $1  for  each  man  who  made  150 
loads  during  the  day  —  a  mark  which  several  reached.  It  was 
expressly  stipulated  that  the  horses  should  not  be  mistreated  and 
that  loads  which  were  not  full  would  not  be  credited  on  the  tally 
board.  While  these  instructions  were  well  followed,  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  horses  were  worked  to  their  limit. 

The  curves  of  Fig  19  show  the  variation  in  quantity  of  excava- 


Fig.  19.  Curves  Showing  Variation  in  Quantity  of  Excavation, 
Bonus  Paid,  and  Unit  Cost  for  Basement  Excavation  in  New 
Haven,  Conn. 


310  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

tion,  amount  of  bonus  paid,  and  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  excavation. 
No  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  actual  values  as  comparative 
values  only  were  desired.  By  referring  to  these  curves  it  is  seen 
that  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  excavation  was  lowest  when 
the  quantity  of  excavation  and  consequently  the  amount  of 
bonus  were  highest.  It  will  be  noted  that  increase  or  decrease 
in  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  excavation  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  in- 
crease or  decrease  of  quantity  of  excavation  and  bonus  paid^ 
throughout  the  length  of  the  curves.  The  decrease  in  cost  from 
about  35  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  at  the  time  the  bonus  was  first  applied  to 
25  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  and  under  for  the  peak  of  the  excavation  curve 
involved  a  saving  of  more  than  $60  per  day  during  the  period  of 
maximum  excavation. 

Keeping  Cost  of  Scraper  Work  so  as  to  Show  the  Daily  Unit 
Cost  for  Each  Gang  is  described  by  W.  A.  Gillette  in  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  July  24,  1912: 

The  value  of  daily  cost  records  is  widely  recognized  but  unless 
earth  is  handled  in  wagons  or  cars  the  difficulty  of  estimating 
quantities  is  such  that  daily  records  are  seldom  kept. 

FRESNO  EXCAVATION 

DAILY  REPORT 
Date 


Job  No Gang  No. 

Foreman    


Occupation                                  No.  Rate  Amt. 

Sub-foreman     1  $3.10  $3.10 

Fresno  stock  4-up  36  1.00  36.00 

Fresno   drivers    9  2.00  18.00 

Fresno  loaders    2  2.00  4.00 

Fresno    dumpers    2  2.00  4.00 

Plow   stock  6-up    6  1.00  6.00 

Plow  stock      up   ....  

Plow  stock      up   

Pile    drivers    1  2.25  2.25 

Plow  holders    ,.      1  2.00  2.00 

Laborers     1  2.00  2.00 

%   overhead  cost  29   ....  14.40 


Men     17  $91.75 

Totals Stock     42  

Sta.  under  construction  

Sta.    completed    

Cu.  yd.  moved,  280.  Cost,  32.7  ct.  cu.  yd. 

Length   of   haul    300ft. 

Kind  of  dirt Sand  and  gravel 

Remarks     


Timekeeper. 
Fig.  20.     Timekeeper's  Report  Form  for  Fresno  Excavation. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS          311 

Mr.  Gillette's  method  of  keeping  cost  consisted  in  having  the 
timekeeper  count  the  loads  hauled  by  every  gang  during  at  least 
two  20-min.  periods,  one  in  the  forenoon  and  one  in  the  after- 
noon. The  timekeeper  is  provided  with  a  saddle  horse. 

The  timekeeper  was  given  a  statement  of  the  estimated  size 
of  load  of  each  kind  of  scraper  and  wagon.  Thus,  a  No.  2^ 
wheeler  was  estimated  to  hold  %  cu.  yd.,  measured  in  place.  A 
"  three-up "  dump  wagon  was  estimated  to  average  1%  cu.  yd. 

GRADER  EXCAVATION 
DAILY  REPORT 


Date    

Job  No Gang  No. 

Foreman    


Occupation                                No.  Rate  Amt. 

Sub-foreman     

Excavator  stock  16-up   16  $1.00  $16.00 

Lead  drivers    1  3.00  3.00 

Push  drivers    1  2.50  2.50 

Machine    men    1  4.00  4.00 

Elevator    men    1  2.50  2.50 

Wagon  stock  3-up   15  1.00  15.00 

Dump  men    1  2.50  2.50 

%  overhead  cost  18 8.70 

Men 5  ....  $59.20 

Totals Stock     31 

Sta.  under  construction  ; 

Sta.  completed   

Cu.  yd.  moved,  595.  Cost,  10  ct.  cu.  yd. 

Length   of   haul    300ft. 

Kind  of  dirt Sand  and  gravel 

Remarks     


Timekeeper. 
Fig.  21.     Timekeeper's  Report  Form  for  Grader  Excavation. 

Fresnos  were  estimated  at  different  capacities,  according  as  the 
pull  was  uphill,  or  downhill,  or  level;  and  in  some  cases  it 
mi^ht  be  desirable  to  vary  the  estimate,  according  as  the  haul 
is  short  or  long. 

The  first  month  this  plan  was  tried  about  70,000  cu.  yd.  were 
moved  and  the  timekeeper's  estimates  came  out  only  5%  in  excess 
of  the  engineer.  The  second  month,  for  an  equal  amount  of 
work,  he  was  nearly  5%  too  low,  so  that  for  a  period  of  two 
months  the  engineer's  estimates  were  checked  almost  exactly. 

By  following  this  plan  it  was  soon  discovered  that  wheeler 
work  was  costing  more  than  fresno  work.  Also  that  for  hauls 


312  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  more  than  150  ft.  the  cheapest  method  was  to  load  wagons  with 
fresnos  through  a  trap. 

This  plan  of  intermittently  timing  each  grading  gang  has  the 
great  merit  of  enabling  the  contractor  to  ascertain  approximately 
his  unit  cost  every  day  for  every  gang. 

TRAP  EXCAVATION 

DAILY  REPORT 
Date 


Job  No Gang  No. 

Foreman    *  •  •  • 


Occupation                                  No.  Rate  Amt. 

Sub-foreman     1  $2.50  $  2.50 

Fresno  stock  4-up  20  1.00  20.00 

Fresno   drivers    5  2.00  10.00 

Fresno  loaders    2  2.00  4.00 

Fresno    dumpers    1  2.00  2.00 

Wagon  stock   3-up    15  1.00  15.00 

Wagon    drivers    5  2.00  10.00 

Plow   stock   2-up    2  1.00  2.00 

Plow   stock      up    

Trap    men    

Dump  men    1  2.50  2.50 

Plow   drivers    1  2.25  2.25 

Plow  holders   •• 

%  overhead  cost  25 12.45 

Men     16  ....  $82.70 

Totals Stock     37  

Sta.  under  construction  

Sta.    completed    

Cu.  yd.  moved    730.  Cost,  11.3  ct.  cu.  yd. 

Length   of   haul    300ft. 

Kind   of  dirt Sand   and  gravel 

Remarks     


Timekeeper. 

Fig.  22.     Timekeeper's  Report  Form  for  Wagons  Loaded  by 
Fresnos  Through  a  Trap. 

A  Four- Wheel  Scraper  of  Large  Capacity.  Engineering  News, 
Oct.  21,  1915,  gives  the  following: 

Recently  a  four-wheeled  scraper  of  1  cu.  yd.  capacity  has  been 
introduced,  and  has  been  used  with  success  in  a  number  of  con- 
struction works.  (See  Figs.  26  and  27.) 

A  steel  frame  is  carried  by  two  axles,  having  30-in.  front 
wheels  and  48-in.  rear  wheels,  and  its  forward  end  is  arched  so 
as  to  clear  the  wheels  and  allow  the  machine  to  make  a  very  short 
turn.  The  steel  scraper  bucket  is  46  in.  long,  45  in.  wide  and  25 
in.  deep,  with  a  nominal  capacity  of  1  yd.,  but  heavier  loads 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  313 

have  been  excavated  and  hauled.  ,  The  rear  end  of  the  bucket 
is  suspended  by  short  chains  attached  to  the  sills  of  the  frame 
and  to  the  bottom  corners  of  the  bucket.  The  front  end  of  the 
bucket  has  a  bail  pivoted  to  the  bottom  corners,  with  chains 
passing  over  a  shaft  carried  above  the  frame.  This  shaft  is 
fitted  with  sprocket  wheels  driven  by  chains  from  the  axle,  a 
clutch  enabling  the  shaft  to  be  thrown  in  or  out  of  gear.  The 
driver  sits  at  the  rear,  where  he  has  a  good  view  of  the  work. 

WHEELER  EXCAVATION 
DAILY  REPORT 


Date 

Job  No  .....................          Gang  No 

Foreman 


Occupation                                  No.  Rate  Amt. 

Sub-foreman     ..................      1  $3.10  $3.10 

.Wheeler  stock  2-up    ...........     20  1.00  20.00 

Wheeler    drivers    ..............     10  2.00  20.00 

Wheeler.  loaders  ...............      4  2.50  10.00 

Wheeler  dumpers    .............      2  2.50  5.00 

Snap  teams  3-up   ..............      6  1.00  6.00 

Snap  drivers    ..................      2  2.50  5.00 

Plow   stock   4-up    ..............      4  1.00  4.00 

Plow  stock      up    ................  ----  ...... 

Plow  stock      up    ................  ....  ...... 

Plow    drivers     .................       1  2.00  2.00 

Plow  holders    ..................      1  2.00  2.00 

%  overhead  cost  28  .  .  .  .  .........  ....  13.90 


Men    ...........     21  ....  $91.00 

Totals  ......  Stock     ..  .......     30  ---- 

Sta.  under  construction  ................................. 

Sta.    completed    .......................................... 

Cu.  yd.  moved,  378.  Cost,  24  ct.  cu.  yd. 

Length   of   haul    ...................................  300ft. 

Kind   of  dirt  ...........................  Sand   and   gravel 

Remarks     ...........................  ..................... 


Timekeeper. 
Fig.   23.     Timekeeper's   Report   Form   for   Wheeler   Excavation. 

He  handles  the  levers  for  controlling  the  movements  of  the 
bucket,  in  loading,  dumping  and  spreading,  andpno  extra  men  are 
required  at  the  scraper  in  loading  or  dumping. 

In  loading,  the  forward  end  of  the  bucket  is  lowered  and  in- 
clined forward,  so  that  its  cutting  edge  touches  the  ground.  An 
end  gate  at  the  rear  retains  the  material.  When  loaded,  the 
front  end  is  raised  by  the  chains  on  the  shaft  so  as  to  bring  the 
bucket  to  a  practically  level  position,  when  it  has  plenty  of  clear- 
ance for  hauling.  An  automatic  trip  releases  the  clutch  v/hen 


314  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  scraper  is  in  this  position,  thus  preventing  accidental  over- 
winding of  the  chains  and  dumping  of  the  load.  For  dumping, 
the  chains  are  wound  up  still  farther  so  as  to  raise  the  front 
end  and  tilt  the  bucket  backwards,  falling  clear  of  the  end  gate. 
The  load  may  be  dumped  in  a  heap  at  one  spot,  or  spread  in  a 
thin  layer,  according  to  the  inclination  given  to  the  bucket.  The 
operations  are  shown  in  Figs  26  and  27,  which  show  the  loading 
and  dumping  respectively.  The  front  and  rear  wheels  do  not 


SUMMARY  OF  DAILY  COSTS 


Date  . . . 
Job  No.. 
Foreman 


Area  Cu.  yd.  Cost   Total 
Method  of  Constr.  cov.   moved    per     amt. 

Fresno  excavation 

Fresno  excavation 

Fresno  excavation 

Wheeler   excavation 

Wheeler  excavation 

Wheeler  excavation 

Grader    

Grader    

Grader    

Trap  excavation 

Trap  excavation 

Trap  excavation 

Rollers    

Rollers    

Oil  wagons 

Oil  wagons    

Brushing    


Totals    . 


Average  length  of  haul 

Average  cost  per  

Average  cost  per  

Remarks     


Timekeeper. 
Fig.  24.     Form  for  Summary  of  Daily  Cost. 

track.  This  feature  (in  combination  with  wide  tires  and  the 
weight  of  the  machine)  reduces  the  tendency  to  wear  ruts,  and  is 
efficient  in  rolling  and  compacting  the  material,  as  in  embank- 
ment work. 

From  two  to  four  horses  (or  mules)  haul  the  machine,  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  work,  but  in  loading  an  extra  four- 
horse  snap  team  is  generally  used.  Hard  ground  must  be 
plowed  to  enable  the  horses  to  do  efficient  work  in  loading,  but 
this  is  not  necessary  when  traction  engines  are  used,  as  has  been 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 


315 


clone  in  several  cases.  Engines  of  12  to  16  hp.  have  been  used 
for  loading,  and  sometimes  they  are  used  also  for  hauling,  the 
engine  taking  a  train  of  two  to  six  scrapers. 

The  cost  of  loading  is  estimated  to  average  4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  in 
ordinary  material.  The  cost  of  hauling  varies  with  the  grade 
and  condition  of  road,  etc.,  and  ranges  from  %  ct.  to  1  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  for  each  100  ft.  of  haul  up  to  1,000  ft.  Working  in  a  hard 
and  heavy  brick  clay  at  St.  Louis,  a  16-hp.  traction  engine  was 

OVERHEAD  COSTS 

DAILY  REPORT 

Date    

Job  No 

Foreman 

Occupation                                  No.  Rate  Amt. 

Superintendents     1  $5.75  $  5.75 

Timekeepers     1  2.75  2.75 

Blacksmiths    1  4.00  4.00 

Blacksmiths'    helpers    2  2.00  4.00 

Stablemen    1  2.40  2.40 

Stablemen's    helpers    2  2.40  4.80 

Water    boys    1  1.75  1.75 

Camp  laborers    2  2.00  4.00 

Camp    

Camp    

Camp  stock  working  6  1.00  6.00 

Camp   stock    drivers    2  2.00  '4.00 

Camp   stock    ....           

Stock  idle    1  1.00  1.00 

Driving  stock    

Riding    stock     2  1.00  2.00 

Sick  or  idle  men    1  2.00  2.00 

Sub-foreman    brushing    1  3.00  3.00 

Men    brushing    5  2.00  10.00 

Men     20  ....  $49.45 

Totals Stock     9 

Remarks     



Timekeeper. 
Fig.  25.     Form  for   Summary  for  Overhead   Costs. 

used  for  loading,  and  three  horses  to  each  scraper  for  hauling. 
The  loading  averaged  1^4  min.,  or  48  loads  per  hr.,  with  an  aver- 
age of  29  cu.  ft.  to  each  load.  The  machines  huve  been  used  on 
railway  and  reservoir  embankments  in  California;  in  the  latter 
case  the  borrow  pits  were  small  and  scattered,  and  the  haul 
varied  from  200  ft.  to  1,500  ft.  Their  work  on  the  South  Branch 
Canal  of  the  Klamath  irrigation  project  in  Oregon  (U.  S.  Re- 
clamation Service)  is  reported  as  follows  by  the  contractors, 
Wells  Brothers,  of  St.  Louis. 


316 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


"  From   original    surface   of   ground   to   top   of   dyke   averaged 
about  14  ft.     The  canal  was  built  in  the  embankment  and  the 


Fig.  26.     Maney  Four- Wheeled  Scraper  with  Pan  in  Position  for 

Loading. 


Fig.    27.     Maney    Four-Wheeled    Scraper    with    Pan    Raised    for 
Carrying  Load. 

•vi?*.;;   Mi!f   :fi    ;j:i>n>s'!r!  rrpjin/T-     • 

bottom  of  the  finished  canal  was  8  ft.  above  the  original  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  entire  embankment  went  up  in  6-in.  lifts,  each 
lift  being  sprinkled.  The  specifications  called  for  each  lift  being 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  317 

rolled  with  a  grooved  roller  weighing  1  ton  per  ft.  of  tread,  but 
the  Government  engineers  and  inspectors  ordered  us  to  take  the 
roller  off,  as  the  wheel-scrapers  answered  to  better  advantage 
owing  to  the  front  wheels  having  a  narrower  tread  than  the  rear 
ones,  and  the  wheels  packing  the  material  better  than  the  roller 
would  have  done.  The  wheels  would  pack  it  in  low  places  where 
the  roller  would  have  run  over  without  touching. 

"  The  average  haul  was  400  ft.  from  borrow  pit  to  dyke.  After 
18  in.  were  removed  from  the  borrow  pit,  hardpan  was  en- 
countered requiring  eight  and  ten  head  to  plow.  This  latter  ma- 
terial was  handled  to  the  depth  of  the  pit,  which  was  5  ft.  This 
material  could  not  have  been  handled  at  all  with  grader  and 
wagons,  nor  with  ordinary  wheeled-scrapers  with  profit.  The 
170,000  cu.  yd.  handled  cost  14  ct.  per  yd.,  including  the  cost  of 
moving  to  and  from  the  work,  which  amounted  to  about  $2,000." 

These  four-wheel  scrapers  have  been  used  in  street  and  road 
work,  for  levees  and  ditches,  railway  embankments,  canal  exca- 
vation, and  miscellaneous  light  and  heavy  grading  and  filling. 
On  one  job  50,000  cu.  yd.  of  loamy  soil  were  removed  from  ridges 
and  deposited  in  a  pond  of  water,  with  an  average  haul  of  200 
ft.  The  cost  of  this  work  is  said  to  have  been  only  10  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  In  New  York,  the  machines  have  been  used  for  remov- 
ing snow,  loading  it  from  the  winrows  formed  by  plows. 

Methods  and  Cost  of  Excavating  a  Canal  with  Four-Wheel 
Scrapers.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  31,  1911,  gives  the 
following: 

At  Los  Animas,  Colorado,  an  irrigation  canal,  50  ft.  wide  and 
deep  enough  to  carry  about  5  ft.  of  water,  is  being  excavated  with 
Maney  four-wheel  scrapers  (Figs  26  and  27).  The  canal  fol- 
lows the  contour  of  a  rather  broad  and  level  basin  and  the  ma- 
terial is  a  hard  adobe  clay.  The  scrapers  were  at  first  loaded 
with  a  snatch  team  and  later  with  a  traction  engine  and  cable. 
The  latter  method  made  a  reduction  in  the  operating  costs  of 
about  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  cost  of  the  team  outfit  was  as 
follows : 

4  Maney  scrapers  at  $260   $1,040 

12  animals,  including  4  on  snatch  team  3,000 

T°tai ..::....:;:;..,.... .:;:... $4,040 

Cost  of  operation  with  snatch  team: 

12  animals,  feeding  per  day $  9.00 

4  men  on  machines  at  $2   8.00 

1  pit  man    2.50 

1  dump    man 2.50 

1  snap    man    2.50 

Total    .  .     $24.50 


318  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

With  this  outfit  and  an  average  "  lead  "  of  250  ft.,  600  loads 
of  1  cu.  yd.  each  were  made  per  day  of  10-hr.,  costing  about  6  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

The  use  of  the  traction  engine  brought  the  cost  of  the  outfit 
up  to  $5,040,  but  the  output  was  increased  considerably.  The 
traction  engine  remained  stationary  in  loading  the  scrapers.  A 
horse  was  used  to  drag  the  cable  from  the  engine  to  the  farthest 
point  for  loading  the  scrapers  and  the  cable  was  then  wound  in 
on  the  drum  of  the  engine  as  each  scraper  load  was  taken.  The 
cost  of  operation  with  the  engine  in  place  of  the  snatch  team  was 
as  follows: 

4  men  on  machines  at  $2 $  8.00 

8  animals    (feed  per  team  per  day),  at  $1.50  6.00 

1  pit  man 2.50 

1  dump    man    2.50 

1  snap  man   2.50 

1  cable    man    2.00 

1  engineer     3.00 

1  clutch    man    2.00 

Coal    5.00 

Haul  of  water  2.00 


,  Total   daily  expense   $35.50 

With  this  method  about  1,000  loads  per  10-hr,  day  were 
averaged  on  a  250  ft.  haul,  or  at  a  cost  of  about  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  scraper  itself  differs  from  the  ordinary  scraper  not  only 
in  the  number  of  wheels  but  in  that  the  scoop  is  tilted  backward 
when  unloading.  The  mechanism  can  be  entirely  in  control  of 
the  driver,  who  operates  the  levers  from  his  seat  in  the  rear  of 
the  machine.  By  means  of  these  levers  he  controls  the  sprocket 
chains  that  mesh  into  the  sprocket  wheels  on  the  rear  axle.  The 
movement  of  the  team  therefore  dumps  the  load.  The  capacity  of 
the  scraper  is  31  cu.  ft. 

This  "self-loading  wagon"  is  made  by  The  Baker  Mfg.  Co., 
506  Stanford  Ave.,  Springfield,  111. 

Cost  with  4-Wheel  Scrapers  on  Road  Work.  Prof.  A.  B. 
McDaniel  in  Engineering  Record,  July  31,  1915,  gives  the  cost  of 
operating  Maney  four-wheel  scrapers  on  road  construction.  In 
several  cases,  with  soils  varying  from  dry  sand  to  hard,  dense 
clay,  it  has  proved  its  adaptability  and  efficiency.  In  loam  and 
clay  soil,  with  occasional  sand  and  fills  of  ash  and  cinders,  in 
Illinois,  the  cost  of  operation  was  8  ct.  per  cu.  yd  with  an  aver- 
age haul  of  300  ft.  on  nearly  level  ground.  The  width  of  cut 
averaged  20  ft.,  and  the  depth  of  cut  was  from  0  to  18  in.,  aver- 
aging 12  in.  Each  scraper  was  hauled  by  a  two-horse  team  and 
assisted  in  loading  by  a  traction  engine.  The  length  of  working 
day  was  10  hr.  The  cost  was  as  follows,  when  each  of  7  scrapers 
averaged  114  cu.  yd.  per  day: 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  319 

Labor : 

2  firemen,    at  $3    $  6.00 

1  cableman     2.00 

7  teams  and  drivers,  at  $5  35.00 


Total  labor  per  10-hr,  day  : $43.00 

1  traction  engine  and  operator  $16.00 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Supervision  and  general  expenses  $3.00 

Interest  on  investment   (7%  of  $1,800)    0.62 

Depreciation,   based  on  5-yr.  life  0.88 

Repairs,    estimated    1.00 

Total  general  and  overhead  expenses   $  5.50 

Total  cost  of  work  per  day  $64.50 

Total  amount  of  excavation,  800  cu.  yd. 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.  excavated   $0.08 

Maney  Four-Wheel  Scraper  on  Street  Work.  Municipal  En- 
gneering,  Sept.,  1915,  describes  the  use  of  the  Maney  four-wheeled 
scraper  as  follows: 

On  a  23,500  sq.  yd.  vitrified  brick  pavement  job  at  Pekin,  111., 
six  Maney  four-wheel  scrapers  were  used  in  the  grading  of  approx- 
imately 12,000  cu.  yd.  These  scrapers  were  loaded  by  tractor, 
making  a  round  trip  of  1,200  ft.  in  approximately  14  min.,  or 
forty-three  round  trips  per  10-h.  day;  43  cu.  yd.  per  scraper, 
totalling  258  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day.  The  force  engaged  in  the 
grading  work  consisted  of  seventeen  men,  six  of  whom  were 
driving  the  scrapers,  one  running  the  tractor,  two  trimming  up 
the  edges  of  the  cut  near  the  scrapers,  three  making  curb  ex- 
cavations ahead  of  the  scrapers  and  live  men  on  the  dump.  The 
dump  is  at  the  edge  of  the  river  bank.  To  reach  it  from  the 
point  at  which  the  scrapers  were  working  it  was  necessary  to  haul 
nearly  two  blocks  over  the  unimproved  street,  then  to  wind 
around  a  temporary  road,  cross  several  railroad  tracks  and  then 
skirt  the  top  of  the  bank  to  the  dump.  .It  was  necessary  for 
some  of  the  scrapers  to  go  part  way  down  the  bank  to  dump; 
others  dumped  along  the  top,  and  the  men  on  the  dump  trimmed 
the  material  up.  In  returning  to  the  loading  point  the  scrapers 
took  a  slightly  longer  route  to  avoid  interfering  with  the  loaded 
scrapers  moving  toward  the  dump. 

Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  3,  1918,  reports  the  use  of  a 
4-wheeled  scraper  hauled  by  a  small  tractor  on  street  and  side- 
walk grading  near  Dayton,  O.  The  first  use  of  this  method  was 
on  a  short  haul  of  80  or  90  ft.  Only  two  men  were  used  on  this 
part  of  the  work  —  the  tractor  operator  and  the  scraper  operator. 
The  Maney  scraper,  being  self-loading  and  self -dumping  and 
carrying  about  1  cu.  yd.  of  dirt  to  the  load,  was  easily  handled 
in  this  manner.  On  this  work  no  plowing  was  necessary,  as  the 
direct  power  of  the  tractor  was  used  for  digging,  loading  and 


320 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


hauling.  A  round  trip  was  usually  made  in  about  2  min.  or  at 
the  rate  of  about  30  cu.  yd.  an  hr.  The  cost  of  operating  was 
stated  to  be  80  ct.  per  hr.,  making  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  about 
2%  ct. 


Fig.    28.     The    Aurora    Reversible    Road    Machine    Made   by    the 
Austin  Western  Road  Machinery   Co. 


The  tractor  and  Maney  scraper  were  also  used  in  the  same 
manner  for  the  rough  excavating  for  sidewalks.  The  cutting 
was  made  to  within  an  inch  or  so  of  grade  and  eliminated  con- 
siderable hand  work. 

Koad  Graders.     Some  makes  of  road  grading  machines  are  pro- 


Fig.  29.  Western  Midget  Light  Weight  2-Horse  Grader.  Suit- 
able for  Road  Maintenance.  Made  by  the  Austin  Western  Mfg. 
Co. 

:iI5      r  <  -I..J       1  T>»'tVl"! 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 


321 


vided  with  attachments  for  shifting  the  frame  back  and  forth 
on  the  rear  axle,  so  as  to  adjust  the  blade  to  a  desired  position 
with  reference  to  the  wheel  tracks,  also  with  devices  to  lean  the 
wheels  at'  an  angle  and  thus  lessen  the  tendency  of  the  machine 


Fig.  30.     The  20th  Century  Farm  Ditcher. 

to  slide  over  a  bank,  or  to  cut  the  rear  wheels  at  an  angle  with 
the  frame  in  order  to  overcome  the  tendency  to  slide  when  the 
blade  is  loaded.  Most  of  the  better  makes  of  such  machines  are 
now  constructed  so  the  blade  may  be  reversed  entirely  and  the 
convex  surface  used  for  smoothing  a  road  after  it  has  been 


Fig.   31.     Special   Fender   Attachment   for   Converting  Ditcher 
into  a  Bottomless  Scraper-. 

graded  approximately  to  the  required  cross-section.  Machines 
of  this  type  are  made  in  different  sizes  and  weights  and  cost  from 
$175  to  $300  f.  o.  b.  factory  in  1914.  The  heavier  sizes  are  best 
adapted  to  'construction  work  and  the  lighter  for  maintenance. 


322  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

A  modified  form  of  grading  machine  consists  of  a  blade  similar 
to  that  of  the  machine  just  described,  which  is  supported  by  a 
simple  frame  on  only  two  wheels.  The  2-wheeled  machine  usu- 
ally weighs  about  one-fourth  as  much  as  the  4-wheel  type  and 
costs  considerably  less. 

A  modification  of  the  road  grader  useful  for  both  grading  and 
ditching  is  made  by  the  Baker  Mfg.  Co.  of  Springfield,  111.  This 
machine,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  30,  is  provided  with  a  moldboard 
6  ft.  long  by  13  in.  wide  with  a  5-in.  detachable  cutting  blade. 
It  weighs  complete  800  Ib.  The  machine  may  be  used  either  with 
or  without  the  front  truck.  Attachments  are  made  for  cutting 
sage  brush  and  for  converting  the  ditcher  into  a  bottomless 
scraper.  (See  Fig.  31.) 


Fig.  32.     The  Martin  Ditcher  and  Grader. 

Another  Hype  of  scraper  ditcher,  made  by  the  Owensboro 
Ditcher  and  Grader  Co.,  Owensboro,  Ky.,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  32. 

Smoothing  Machines  suitable  for  leveling  and  maintaining 
roads  but  not  for  grading  are  made  in  various  forms.  Fig.  33 
shows  a  machine  that  will  level  the  entire  surface  of  a  30-ft.  road. 
It  is  designed  to  be  pulled  by  a  tractor  of  from  15  to  25  -hp. 

A  much  simpler  machine  for  the  same  purpose  is  the  two-blade 
road  drag  weighing  290  Ib.,  Fig.  34.  Its  two  8-ft.  blades  are  each 
6  in.  wide  and  are  set  3  ft.  apart.  A  similar  3-blade  road  drag 
weighs  370  Ib.  and  is  45  in.  wide. 

Grading    Methods    and    Costs    on    Earth    Road    Construction. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADE&S 


323 


Charles  H.  Moorefield,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.   18, 
1917,  gives  the  following: 

Where  the  grade  and  cross  section  of  the  road  follow  closely 
the  original  ground  surface,  most  of  the  necessary  grading  usu- 


Fig.  33.     "Uncle  Jim,"  Self-Operating  Road  Leveler.     Made  by 
the  Baker  Mfg.  Co. 

ally  may  be  done  with  the  grading  machine.  A  4-wheel  machine 
should  be  used  with  at  least  six  horses.  The  team  must  be  ac- 
customed to  working  together  and  must  be  under  complete  control 
of  the  driver. 


Fig.  34.     Prairie  2-Blade  Road  Drag.     Made  by  Baker  Mfg.  Co. 

Before  any  machine  work  is  done  the  area  to  be  graded  should 
be  burned  or  mowed  over  so  as  to  remove  all  grass  and  weeds. 
The  grading  should  then  proceed  as  follows: 


324  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

(1)  Set  a  row  of  stakes  100  or  200  ft.  apart  along  the  inside 
edge  of  each  side  ditch.     The  purpose  of  these  stakes  is  simply 
to  aid  the  driver   in  making  the  initial   furrow  of  the  machine 
conform   with   the   line    of    the    road,   and    since    the    stakes    are 
destroyed  by  the  first  furrow  they  need  be  only  sufficient  to  serve 
this  temporary  purpose. 

(2)  Set   the   blade    of    the   grading   machine    at    an    angle    of 
about  30  degrees  with  the   road,   so  that  the  material   loosened 
by  the  cutting  point  of  the  blade  will  be  moved  in  toward  the 
center  of  the  road;    also  lower  the  cutting  point   and   raise  the 
heel,  so  that  the  blade  will  plow  an   initial  furrow  about  0  in. 
deep   and  about    18   in.   wide.     Then   make  the   initial    trip   with 
the  point  of  the  blade  cutting  about   18  in.  outside  of  the  stake 
line  and  the  outside  rear  wheel  of  the  machine  against  the  face 
of  the  furrow.     The  material   loosened  by  the   first  furrow  then 
will    escape   under  .the   blade   in    a   ridge   just    inside   the    stake 
line. 

(3)  Readjust   the   machine   so   that   when   the   outside   horses 
follow  the  initial   furrow  in   making  the   second   trip   the   blade 
will   cut  a   new   furrow   of   somewhat   less   width   than   the   first 
and    the    outside   rear    wheel    will    follow   the    face    of    the    new 
furrow.     Then  make  successive  trips  with  the  machine  adjusted 
in  this  way  until  the  outside  edge  of  the  ditch  is  approached, 
except  that  after  each  two  trips  it  is  well  to  rest  the  team  by 
readjusting   the   blade    and   pushing   the    loosened   material    over 
toward  the  center  of  the  road.     For  this  latter  work  the  blade 
may  be  set  at  a  greater  angle  with  the  road,  and  the  heel  should 
be  lowered  and  the  point   raised,  so  that  the  cutting  edge  will 
conform  closely  to  the  crown  of  the  road  while  the  machine  is 
in   operation. 

(4)  Repeat  the  above  described  operation,  omitting  the  stakes 
and  beginning  about   18   in.   farther   from  the  center  each  time, 
until  the  side  ditches  are  excavated  to  the  required  depth  and 
the  road  is  approximately  to  the  required  cross  section. 

(5)  Bring  the  outside  faces  of  the  side  ditches  to  a  uniform 
slope    by    making    one    or    two    trips    of    the    machine   with    two 
wheels,   one   front   and   one    rear,   on   the   bank   and   the   cutting 
edge  of  the  blade  against  the  slope. 

(6)  Make  several  trips  over  the  road,  cleaning  out  the  ditches 
and   smoothing  up   the   surfaces.     The  last   few   trips   should   be 
made  with  the  blade  reversed,  as  this  method  tends  to  produce 
a  better  compacted  surface.     But,  in  any  event,  it  is  necessary 
that  during  the  first  few  months  after  the  grading  is  completed 
the  road  surface  should  be  kept  smooth  while  it  is  being  com- 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  325 

pacted   under  traffic.     To  do  this   may   require   frequent  use   of 
the  grading  machine  or  the  drag. 

The  method  of  operating  a  grading  machine  described  above 
necessarily  will  have  to  be  modified  at  times  in  order  to  meet 
special  conditions.  Where,  for  example,  the  ditch  area  is  cov- 
ered with  heavy  sod  or  contains  a  number  of  large  roots,  it  may 
be  very  desirable  to  plow  this  area  and  cut  the  roots  with  an  ax 
before  using  the  grading  machine.  If  this  is  done  the  plow 
furrows  should  be  turned  toward  the  center  of  the  road  and 
the  line  of  the  initial  furrows  should  be  controlled  by  two 
rows  of  stakes  as  described  above.  If  the  sod  is  very  tenacious 
it  should  be  harrowed  with  a  disc  harrow  ahead  of  the  grading 
machine,  and  after  the  material  has  been  moved  over  toward  the 
center  of  the  road  the  lumps  of  sod  should  be  thrown  out.  A 
method  sometimes  followed  is  to  skim  off  the  sod,  by  means  of 
hand  shovels,  ahead  of.  the  grading  machine,  but  this  method 
is  expensive  and  seldom  justified. 

Whether  or  not  it  is  necessary  to  contend  with  any  consider- 
able quantity  of  sod,  the  use  of  a  disk  harrow  usually  will  prove 
helpful  in  securing  a  smooth  uniform  road  surface  with  the 
grading  machine.  In  general  it  is  sufficient  to  give  the  loosened 
material  a  thorough  harrowing  after  the  road  has  been  brought 
approximately  to  its  required  shape,  but  before  the  final  shaping 
is  done. 

Where  continuous  long  stretches  of  road  are  to  be  graded  with 
grading  machines,  it  frequently  is  economical  to  substitute  a 
traction  engine  for  the  teams  and  to  employ  two  machines. 
Where  this  is  done  the  first  machine  is  connected  immediately 
behind  the  tractor,  either  directly  behind  or  to  one  side,  as  the 
conditions  require,  and  the  second  machine  is  connected  behind 
and  to  one  side  of  the  first.  Otherwise  the  method  of  operation 
is  not  essentially  different  from  that  already  described. 

The  rate  at  which  a  road  can  be  graded  up  with  a  grading 
machine  var-ies  to  a  great  extent,  and  depends  largely  on  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Where  the  original  cross  section  of  the 
ground  is  approximately  level,  and  the  soil  conditions  not  un- 
favorable, a  grading  machine  drawn  by  six  well-trained  horses 
should  cut-out  the  side  ditches  and  shape  the  road  in  from  20 
to  35  round  trips.  Allowing  for  a  reasonable  amount  of  lost 
time,  the  rate  at  which  the  team  travels  should  average  from 
1^/2  to  2  miles  per  hour,  and  under  the  circumstances  assumed 
above,  the  length  of  road  graded  per  day  should  average  not 
less  than  one-fourth  mile.  Such  favorable  conditions  seldom  are 
found  for  any  considerable  stretch  of  road,  except  in  the  prairie 


326  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

section  of  the  Middle  West,  and  the  average  rate  of  grading 
with  a  grading  machine  is,  therefore,  much  less  than  one-fourth 
mile  of  road  per  day. 

Finishing  the  Surface.  No  matter  how  the  grading  of  an  earth 
road  may  be  accomplished,  it  usually  is  economical  to  bring  the 
road  surface  to  its  final  shape  by  means  of  a  grading  machine. 
In  making  excavations  it  is  not  generally  considered  practical 
to  form  the  crown  and  side  ditches  with  scrapers  or  hand  tools 
alone,  and  the  cross  section  is,  therefore,  frequently  left  approxi- 
mately flat.  The  grading  machine  is  then  used,  in  the  manner 
already  described,  to  produce  the  required  cross. section. 

Construction  Costs.  In  the  following  statements  and  data  an 
effort  is  made  to  show  the  approximate  range  of  cost  rather  than 
the  average. 

The  following  data  (Table  I)  are  intended  to  furnish  a  rough 
guide  in  making  estimates  of  grading  cost  at  a  flat  rate  per 
cubic  yard.  They  are  based  on  labor  at  15  ct.  per  hr.;  horses 
at  12^  ct.  per  hr.  The  depreciation  of  grading  equipment  and 
repairs  are  figured  at  5%  per  mo.  while  in  use,  and  it  is  ex- 
pected that  the  force  will  be  organized  economically  and  man- 
aged efficiently. 

TABLE  I  —  GRADING  MACHINE  WORK 

Assumed  conditions :  Original  cross  section  flat ;  team  to  consist  of  six 
to  eight  well-trained  horses ;  no  material  moved  longitudinally. 

Character  of  soil  Cost  per  mile 

Light  prairie,  free  from  stumps,  roots,  etc ^  60  to  $  80 

Average  clay  loam  100  to  150 

Heavy  clay,  moderate  amount  of  sod  and  roots,  plowing 

necessary  throughout  200  to  250 

Heavy  clay,  exceptionally  difficult  conditions  From  $250  up 

Crowning  and  shaping  road  which  has  been  graded  with 

scrapers,   etc 50  to      75 

Prof.  A.  B.  McDaniel  in  Engineering  Record,  July  31,  1915, 
states  that  in  a  case  of  road  construction  in  VanBuren  County, 
Iowa,  a  60-hp.  gasoline  tractor  and  graders  of  so-called  "  recla- 
mation "  type  were  used.  Sixty  miles  of  earth  road  was  built 
at  a  cost  of  $20  per  mile.  The  road  measured  30  ft.  from  cen- 
ter to  center  of  the  side  ditches,  which  had  a  width  of  20  in. 
and  a  depth  of  36  in.  The  earth  was  the  ordinary  loam  and 
clay  of  the  prairie  country. 

The  "  reclamation  "  type  of  grader  has  pivoted  axles,  so  that 
the  wheels  can  always  be  kept  in  a  vertical  position;  thus  the 
weight  of  the  machines  is  utilized  to  counteract  the  side  pressure 
of  the  earth  on  the  mold-board,  and  prevents  side  draft.  Where 
.a  large  amount  of  road  construction  is  included  in  one  job, 
it  is  economical  to  use  a  traction  engine  for  hauling  the  grader. 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  327 

Two  graders  may  be  hauled  by  one  engine,  and  thus  serve  to 
move  the  earth  from  the  ditch  to  the  center  of  the  road  at  one 
trip. 

Tractor  Grading.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  4,  1916, 
gives  the  following:  Tractor-grader  outfits  are  being  used  ex- 
tensively in  Utah  on  highway  work.  One  of  the  most  notable 
undertakings  with  these  outfits  was  the  construction  of  approxi- 
mately 100  miles  of  earth  road  in  Box  Elder  County.  This  work 
was  carried  out  in  1914  by  the  State  Road  Commission.  The 
highway  was  constructed  over  a  virgin  soil,  sage  brush  country, 
on  a  new  location  encircling  the  north  end  of  Great  Salt  Lake. 
It  extends  southwestwardly  from  Snowville  to  intersect  the 
Nevada  line  just  west  of  Lucin  and  forms  part  of  the  Midland 
Trail. 

Two  International  Harvester  Co.'s  Mogul  gasoline,  60-hp. 
traction  engines  and  two  road  graders  haitdled  the  work  almost 
exclusively.  A  cross  section  24  ft.  wide  from  gutter  to  gutter 


/*/-, 


-> 

C4C 

Fig.  35.     Cross  Section  of  Midland  Trail,  Box  Elder  County,  Utaiu 

with  9-in.  crown  above  the  shoulders  was  adhered  to  almost 
entirely,  the  width  of  the  road  being  increased,  however,  to  30' 
ft.  in  width,  through  towns  and  settlements.  The  cross  section 
mentioned  is  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  35; 

The  progress  of  the  grader  and  traction  work  on  the  longer 
tangents  of  the  road  amounted  to  an  average  of  1^4  miles  per 
10-hr,  day,  the  cost  being  $75  per  day,  or  a  unit  cost  of  $60 
per  mile.  The  record  run  made  on  this  project  for  grader  and 
tractor  work  was  2y2  miles  per  day  at  the  same  rate,  amounting 
to  only  $30  per  mile  of  road,  thereby  surpassing  all  previous 
records  for  speed  and  economy  of  road  construction  in  the  state- 
Surveying,  clearing  right  of  way,  plowing  and  finishing,  however, 
amounted  to  considerable;  moreover,  many  stretches  required 
team  and  hand  construction.  The  average  cost  of  the  100  miles 
of  road  was  $275  per  mile,  not  including  bridges  and  culverts. 

Two  Road  Graders  Used  with  a  Tractor.  The  following  is 
from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  15,  1918.  Using  power 
machinery  only,  125,000  cu.  yd.  of  dirt  were  moved  last  summer 
on  an  Illinois  road  job,  at  a  cost  of  4.1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The. 


328  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

work  was  done  in  connection  with  the  improvement  of  a  road 
leading  north  toward  Pontiac,  111.  The  first  5  miles  of  this 
highway  was  changed  from  a  narrow  winding  road  to  a  level, 
well  drained  all  the  year  road,  60  ft.  wide  between  fences  and 
40  ft.  wide  between  drainage  ditches. 

The  work  of  clearing  the  right-of-way  was  started  on  May  1, 
19.17,  and  completed  June  16,  1917,  during  which  period  5.18 
acres  were  cleared  of  a  tangled  mass  of  brush  and  shrubs  and 
over  200  live  trees  from  3  in.  to  3  ft.  in  diameter.  Trees  were 
pulled  by  a  75-hp.  caterpillar  tractor  using  a  100-ft.  cable.  Two 
cable  outfits  were  used,  so  that  the  tractor  was  not  delayed 


Fig.  36.     Leveling  Crown  with  Graders. 

waiting  for  hitches  to  be  made.  The  cost  of  clearing  the  roadway, 
including  labor,  interest  on  investment  and  an  allowance  of  20% 
for  depreciation  of  equipment,  was  $990,  or  $191  per  acre. 

The  grading  was  started  on  June  18,  1917.  One  75-hp.  cater- 
pillar tractor  was  used  to  pull  two  Western  graders,  one  12-ft. 
to  make  the  cut,  followed  by  an  8-ft.  to  carry  the  dirt  to  the  cen- 
ter of  the  road.  A  Western  elevating  grader  pulled  by  a  75-hp. 
caterpillar  tractor  was  used  in  some  places  in  making  fills. 
However,  on  some  of  the  deeper  fills  it  was  necessary  to  use  some 
other  method,  in  order  to  make  time>  and  a  75-hp.  caterpillar 
tractor  was  used  in  connection  with  a  caterpillar  land  leveler. 
This  land  leveler  is  a  tool  used  extensively  in  the  West  and  is 
in  reality  a  large  scraper  having  a  capacity  of  approximately 
3y2  yd.,  see  Chapter  VI.  With  this  machine  the  dirt  could  be 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS 


320 


taken  up  and  carried  across  the  road  and  then  unloaded  gradu- 
ally or  at  one  time,  as  conditions  required. 

The  gravel  for  the  surfacing  of  the  road  was  taken  from  a 
near-by  creek  with  a  dragline  excavator  which  delivered  it  to  a 
loading  hopper.  With  the  dragline  excavator  working  steadily 
it  was  possible  to  keep  the  hopper  filled,  so  that  when  the  tractor 
trains  came  up,  wrhich  consisted  of  one  75-hp.  caterpillar  tractor 
and  six  reversible  trailers,  they  could  be  loaded  without  delay 
or  without  shoveling. 

With  this  equipment  a  total  of  a  little  over  125,000  cu.  yd. 
of  dirt  was  moved  in  75  working  days.  The  total  cost,  including 
labor,  interest  on  investment  and  an  allowance  of  20%  covering 


Fig.  37.     Caterpillar  Land  Leveler  on  Road  Work. 

depreciation  on  equipment,  was  $5,147,  or  4.1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  At 
no  time  were  more  than  8  men,  including  the  superintendent, 
employed  on  the  job.  Horses  or  mules  were  not  used  at  any 
time  in  the  work. 

A  Large  Drifting  Scraper  and  Tractor  is  described  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Feb.  19,  1919.  In  developing  the  70,000-acre 
tract  of  the  Crocker-Huffman  Land  &  Water  Co.  at  Merced,  Cal., 
several  interesting  dirt-moving  methods  were  employed  by  Mr. 
Henry  Lage,  manager  of  the  company.  In  building  the  irriga- 
tion ditches  the  dirt  was  loosened  by  a  scarifier  hauled  by  a 
caterpillar  tractor.  Scrapers  and  mule  teams  were  employed  in 
scooping  out  the  dirt  loosened  by  the  tractor  and  scarifier.  Pre- 
vious to  the  use  of  the  outfit,  the  dirt  had  been  loosened  by  means 


330  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  road  plows  pulled  by  mule  teams.  Five  16-mule  teams  were 
used  in  this  work  and  each  plow  required  three  men  to  hold  it, 
in  addition  to  the  driver.  For  the  five  outfits,  20  men  were 
required,  which  at  $2.25  made  the  labor  cost  $45  per  day.  The 
total  cost,  figuring  the  80  mules  at  $1  each  per  day,  amounted 
to  $125.  With  the  tractor  and  scarifier  outfit  the  cost  of 
loosening  the  dirt  was  $18  per  day — the  cost  for  the  tractor 
and  the  operator. 

One  of  the  greatest  problems  in-  connection  with  the  develop- 
ment was  the  leveling  of  the  land.  Livestock  was  first  used 
for  the  purpose,  400  mules  being  employed  with  fresnos.  Later 
caterpillar  tractors  were  substituted  for  the  mules,  one  tractor 
being  used  with  seven  fresnoes.  The  difficulty  with  this  method 
was  that  one  man  was  required  with  each  scraper,  and  with 
seven  men  in  each  battery  of  scrapers,  it  was  difficult  to  get 
the  unity  of  action  necessary  to  make  the  work  completely  suc- 
cessful. Mr.  Lage  then  proceeded  to  experiment  and  finally 
brought  out  a  land  leveling  machine  which  he  termed  a  ground 
plane.  With  this  plane  he  was  able  to  do  as  much  work  as  he 
had  heretofore  accomplished  with  24  mule  teams  and  fresnoes. 
The  plane  has  since  been  developed  and  improved  by  the  Holt  Mfg. 
Co.  and  is  now  known  as  the  Caterpillar  Land  Leveler. 

The  machine  is  designed  and  built  especially  for  use  with 
tractor  power.  In  the  largest  size  (11^  ft.  leveler)  the  bowl 
is  2  ft.  5  in.  high  and  the  wings  extend  3"^  ft.  forward.  The 
capacity  is  4  to  5  yd.  The  smallest  size  (6  ft.  leveler)  has  a 
capacity  of  2  to  2i£  yd.  The  bowl  is  raised  or  lowered  while 
the  leveler  is  in  motion  by  a  power  device,  consisting  of  a  sprocket 
keyed  to  the  axle  and  another  one  running  loose  on  the  upper 
shaft  but  attached  to  a  friction  cone  clutch  by  means  of  which 
the  connection  between  the  drive  and  shaft  is  made.  When  the 
machine  is  standing  still  the  bowl  can  be  raised  by  a  large 
hand  wheel.  The  depth  of  cut  thus  can  be  regulated,  and  the 
load  dumped  in  one  place  or  spread  evenly. 

Road  Grading  and  Dragging  with  Tractor.  The  following  ac- 
count appears  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  April  2,  1919. 

By  using  a  light  tractor  for  hauling  in  grading  the  Road  Com- 
missioners of  Marquette  county,  Michigan,  were  able  to  carry 
out  work  equivalent  to  that  accomplished  by  a  3-team  grader 
outfit.  The  tractor-grader  outfit  was  used  for  trimming  of 
shoulders  and  reshaping  grades  when  the  work  was  light.  In 
the  grader  work,  it  was  found  that  the  machine  made  cuts,  which 
were  nearly  equivalent  to  two  team  cuts  but  not  quite  as  heavy, 
that  it  operated  nearly  twice  as  fast  as  teams  successfully,  but 
that  any  higher  speed  was  too  fast  to  do  the  work  well.  It  was 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  331 

therefore  considered  that  the  tractor,  taking  into  consideration 
its  power  plus  its  effective  speed,  replaced  from  two  to  three 
teams  in  such  work.  It  is  planned  to  use  the  tractor  con- 
tinuously on  a  section  gang,  combining  two  of  the  sections, 
where  team  hire  is  difficult,  and  putting  on  a  section  gang  in- 
stead of  having  a  patrolman  and  a  drag  man  for  each  section. 

A  light  tractor  also  was  employed  during  the  1918  season  in 
dragging  operations.  In  this  work  the  drag  man  found  that  he 
could  make  his  section  in  approximately  5  or  6  hours,  entirely 
covering  it,  during  the  period  when  his  section  was  all  in  the 
proper  condition  of  moisture  for  drag  maintenance.  The  section 
in  question,  is  a  stretch  on  the  outside  end  of  one  of  the  county 
roads  and  is  entirely  wooded.  Dragging  with  horses,  it  took  a 
full  day  of  10  hr.  and  often  an  hr.  or  two  overtime  to  cover 
the  section.  K.  I.  Sawyer  is  County  Road  Superintendent. 

Earth  Moving  Methods  and  Equipment  for  Road  Construction 
are  described  by  A.  R.  McVicar,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
April  2,  1919. 

Cost  of  Grading  with  Drag  or  Slush-Scrapers  in  order  to  do 
good  work  with  the  scraper  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  ground 
properly  plowed  and,  therefore,  we  must  select  the  proper  plow. 
As  for  the  long  handled  farm  plow,  on  account  of  the  shape  of 
the  mould  board,  in  stiff  clay  or  gumbo,  this  plow  simply  turns 
*the  furrow  over,  leaving  it  almost,  if  not  entirely,  intact,  making 
it  almost  impossible  to  load  into  a  scraper.  The  railroad  plow, 
on  account  of  the  abrupt  out-turn  of  the  mould  board,  leaves 
the  furrow  broken  into  short  chunks,  a  proper  condition  for 
loading. 

All  classes  of  earth,  no  matter  how  loose  or  soft,  require  to  be 
plowed,  for  the  reason  that  you  will  find  a  certain  suction  in 
unplowed  earth  that  does  not  exist  in  plowed  earth.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  plow  narrow  at  all  times,  and  for  shovels  or  slush- 
scrapers,  as  deeply  as  possible.  It  is  not  necessary  nor  ad- 
visable to  plow  so  deep  for  wheelers.  I  would  like  to  make 
this  claim  for  the  slush-scraper,  that  there  can  be  more  earth 
moved  in  the  same  time  for  less  money  with  the  slush-scraper 
than  with  any  other  device  known.  That  is  to  use  it  where 
and  how  it  is  intended  to  be  used,  viz.,  making  a  side  fill,  a  side 
cut  and  fill,  or  wasting  a  cut  to  a  depth  of  not  more  than  6  ft. 

It  takes  five  scraper  holders  and  one  4-horse  plow  team  and 
ten  "  slusher  "  teams  to  make  a  complete  gang,  the  ten  scrapers 
to  be  divided  into  five  swings,  with  one  holder  and  two  teams 
to  each  swing,  with  one  swing  to  every  100  ft.  of  road.  By 
keeping  the  teams  going  in  a  circle  they  will  move  1,080  yd. 
per  day,  or  an  average  of  90  yd.  per  team,  plow  teams  included. 


332  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

At  a  rate  of  $6  per  team,  the  cost  per  team  and  half  the  time 
of  a  scraper  holder  would  be  $7  per  day;  that  would  be  moving 
this  earth  for  7%  ct.  per  yard.  Taking  an  end  haul  of  100-ft. 
distance,  including  the  turn  at  either  end  would  bring  the  round 
trip  up  to  250  ft.  Traveling  at  the  rate  of  2y2  miles  an  hour, 
eight  scraper  loads  per  cu.  yd.,  would  be  moving  30  yd.  per 
team,  costing  21%  ct.  per  yd.  Two  No.  3  wheelers,  one  snatch 
team,  one  4-horse  plow  team,  two  wheeler-holders  and  one  dump 
man  on  this  same  haul  at  a  total  cost  of  $36  per  day  will  move 
300  yd.  or  an  average  per  team  of  60  yd.,  bringing  the  cost,  per 
cu.  yd.,  moved  at  12  ct.  Increasing  this  haul  to  200  ft.  with 
the  slushers  would  bring  the  cost  per  yd.  to  about  21  ct.,  an 
extra  cost  of  9%  ct.,  while  the  cost  with  the  wheelers  would 
increase  to  14i£  ct.  per  yd.  or  an  extra  cost  of  about  2}£  ct. 

By  these  figures  you  will  see  that  the  economic  limit  of  the 
slusher  haul  is  where  you  leave  the  circle.  The  limit  of  the 
wheeler  haul  is  about  600  ft.  But  in  the  event  of  replacing  the 
wheelers  with  dump  cars  the  limit  should  be  considered  400  ft., 
being  the  distance  where  the  cost  of  wheelers  equals  or  exceeds 
that  of  the  cars. 

Grading  with  Grader  or  Road  Scraper.  I  have  tried  out  the 
road  grader  drawn  by  two  teams  of  horses  that  proved  very 
satisfactory.  Then  I  tried  three  teams.  This  was  more  of  a 
success,  but  altogether  too  expensive.  I  then  secured  two  8-16  hp. 
kerosene  tractors,  which  proved  to  be  a  little  on  the  light  side. 
I  then  got  a  10-20,  which  seems  to  be  alright.  I  have  been  told 
that  the  10-20  is  also  too  Hght,  but  that  is  a  matter  of  opinion, 
as  I  believe  that  the  tractor  is  heavy  enough  for  the  grader 
and  that  the  grader  is  heavy  enough  for  the  work  I  have  to  do. 

The  earth  can  be  taken  off  the  roadbed  or  onto  it  in  better 
shape  by  going  twice  over  it  with  this  light  outfit  than  by  pulling 
up  a  conglomerate  mass  of  lumps  and  stones  with  one  turn  of 
the  heavier  outfit. 

We  have  in  connection  with  this  outfit  a  van  in  which  the 
operators  live.  We  usually  leave  this  van  about  1  mile  from 
the  end  of  the  road  and  work  both  ways  from  it. 

In  starting  work  where  the  ditches  are  formed,  that  is,  after 
a  fashion,  we  have  the  sods  removed  from  the  outer  edge  of  the 
ditch  towards  the  fence,  that  is,  where  the  roadbed  is  not  the 
required  width.  Next,  I  have  the  sod  shoulders  on  the  roadbed 
removed  toward  and  then  across  the  ditch  on  to  the  boulevard. 
This  being  done,  if  we  find  that  the  ditches  are  deep  enough 
for  proper  drainage  and  the  center  of  the  roadbed  high  enough, 
we-  then  continue  to  heel  off  more  from  the  shoulders.  This 
earth  follows  the  sod  to  the  boulevard.  By  doing  this  we  are 


SCRAPERS  AND  GRADERS  333 

forming  the  crown  of  the  road  as  well  as  lessening  the  apparent 
depth  of  the  ditch,  although  in  reality  deepening  it.  Next  the 
grader  passes  up  and  down  the  center  of  the  road  with  plenty 
of  pressure  on  the  blade  to  remove  all  the  solid  lumps.  This  is 
to  have  as  smooth  a  surface  as  possible  to'  receive  the  loose  earth 
which  is  to  come  up  from  the  ditch  in  the  finishing  process. 
Having  this  smooth  surface  to  receive  the  loose  earth  is  as  neces- 
sary as  to  have  a  smooth  and  uniform  surface  on  which  to  lay  a 
permanent  pavement.  This  road,  when  finished,  has  a  width  of  24 
ft.  and  a  crown  of  12  in. 

A  Gasoline  Tractor  on  Road  Work.  Mr.  G.  R.  Buchanan  in 
Engineering  Ncivs,  Aug.  27,  1914,  presents  some  very  interesting 
data  regarding  the  use  of  gasoline  traction  engines  on  road  work 
in  Caroline  County,  Va.  The  type  of  tractor  selected  was  a 
combination  kerosene-gasoline  tractor,  costing  $3,000.  This  trac- 
tor developed  50-hp.  on  belt  pull  and  25-hp.  on  draw-bar  pull. 
More  tractive  power  was  developed  on  gasoline  than  on  kerosene, 
and  while  the  former  fuel  was  more  expensive  it  developed  that 
1  bbl.  of  gasoline  lasted  as  long  as  1.25  bbl.  of  kerosene.  The 
fuel  tank  was  of  1-bbl.  capacity,  and  this  lasted  from  7  to  10  hr. 
when  the  machine  was  running. 

Grubbing  was  attempted  with  the  tractor  but,  after  a  few 
successful  efforts,  the  gears  were  badly  smashed.  In  one  case, 
damage  to  gears  amounting  to  $150  were  made  on  a  tree  stump 
which  could  have  been  blown  u.p  with  dynamite  costing  less  than 
$1.  Probably  if  the  belt  power  of  the  tractor  had  been  applied 
to  a  stump  puller  it  might  have  proved  successful. 

The  tractor  regularly  hauled  when  grading  two  large  size 
Buckeye  road  graders  of  a  much  heavier  type  than  are  commonly 
used  in  the  South.  These  machines  when  hauled  by  mules  re- 
quired six  animals.  In  hauling  with  the  tractor  the  graders 
were  set  very  much  deeper  than  it  was  possible  when  hauling 
with  mules.  One  grader  was  hitched  with  an  angle-coupling 
so  that  it  ran  in  the  ditch,  with  the  steering  gear  locked  to 
hold  it  in  that  way.  This  obviated  the  necessity  of  the  steers- 
man required  with  mule  graders.  The  second  grader  was  hitched 
to  a  double-length  pole,  so  that  it  followed  the  first  grader  and 
caught  the  dirt  thrown  from  the  ditch,  and  pushed  it  further 
toward  the  ground.  Work  was  done  with  tractor-drawn  grader 
in  two  trips  which  required  no  less  than  ten  trips  of  the  mule 
drawn  grader. 

There  is  some  work  that  tractors  can  not  possibly  do,  such  as 
light  hauling,  patching  ruts,  and  filling  from  borrow  pits.  It 
was  estimated  that  the  tractor  moved  earth  for  2..S  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.,  which  by  mule  power  had  cost  3.2  per  cu.  yd.  These  figures 


334  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

covered  labor,  fuel,  lubricating  oil,  etc.,  for  the  tractor,  and  feed, 
stable  cost,  labor,  etc.,  for  the  mules,  but  not  depreciation 
charges. 

The  depreciation  of  the  tractor  during  the  season  was  figured 
at  $800,  while  a  maintenance  account  of  repairs  of  about  $400 
was  incurred.  This  repair  charge  was  largely  due  to  breakage 
in  gears  resulting  from  stump  pulling.  During  the  season  the 
tractor  moved  about  100,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth,  which  gives  a 
depreciation  and  repair  cost  of  $0.0012  per  cu.  yd. 

Bibliography.  "  Hand  Book  of  Construction  Plant,"  Richard  T. 
Dana.. — "  Roads  and  Pavements,"  Ira  O.  Baker. — "  Excavating," 
Allen  Boyer  McDaniel. — "  Highway  Engineers  Handbook,"  Harger 
and  Bonney. — ''  Earth  Dams,"  Burr  Bassell. — "  Irrigation  Works 
Constructed  by  the  U.  S.  Government,"  Arthur  P.  Davis. 

"  The  Use  of  Hoisting  Engines  for  Loading  Wheeled  Scrapers 
on  the  Goulburn-Warango  Water  Works,  Victoria,  Australia," 
G.  H.  Dunlop,  Kng.  News,  June  23,  1904. — "  Construction  Work 
on  the  Southern  Indiana  Railway,"  Eng.  News,  Feb.  25,  1904. 


CHAPTER  X 
METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 

General  Types  of  Contractors'  Cars.  Cars  used  for  hauling 
earth  may  be  divided  into  four  general  classes:  Non-dumping 
cars,  '"  static  "  and  "  rotating  "  dumping  cars  and  tipple  dumping 
or  mine  cars. 

Non-Dumping  Cars  consist  almost  entirely  of  the  standard 
broad  gage  railroad  flat  cars.  They  are  loaded  in  various  ways, 
one  of  which  is  by  a  special  type  of  steam  shovel  known  as  a 
railway  ditcher  which  is  mounted  on  a  track  on  top  of  the  cars 
and  which  works  its  way  along 'the  train  filling  the  cars  behind 
it.  These  cars  are  emptied  by  drawing  a  heavy  plow  unloader 


Fig.  1.     Loading  Non -Dumping  Flat  Cars. 

attached  to  the  locomotive  by  cable  from  one  end  of  the  train 
to  the  other. 

Static  Dumping  Cars  are  so  arranged  as  to  hold  the  burden 
in  a  quiescent  state,  and  are  unloaded  by  the  opening  of  a  gate 
in  the  bottom  or  side,  allowing  the  load  to  flo.w  gradually  out. 
Their  greatest  effectiveness  is  obtained  in  discharging  an  easily- 
flowing  burden  containing  a  certain  amount  of  "  life  " —  that  is, 
a  material  that  does  not  adhere  to  itself  or  the  car,  such  as 
sand, 'rock,  gravel,  etc. 

Rotary  Dumping  Cars  are  mounted  trucks  which  remain  sta- 
tionary while  the  body  is  overturned  or  tilted  at  an  angle  sufn- 

335 


336 


HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


cient  to  discharge  the  load  either  to  one  side  or  the  other. 
\Yhile  the  body  is  in  process  of  being  tilted,  the  sides  or  gates 
for  retaining  the  burden  are  automatically  lifted  or  lowered  or 
swung  outward,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  sliding  movement 
of  the  load  in  process  of  dumping.  There  are  two  classes  of  car 


L 


^ I . 

—     '~'*ytt'M"*L'?  — :v^_ 


SECTIONTM«o-CeNTEH«rCAR.          SET  CnONTMno'CCNTER  or  BOLSTER. 

Fig.  2.     The  Goodwin  Patent  Dump  Car. 


included  in  this  type,  those  requiring  individual  dumping  and 
those  dumping  by  air  or  other  means  making  it  possible  to 
discharge  a  whole  train  load  at  once.  Rotary  cars  are  particu- 
larly adapted  to  the  carrying  of  clay,  earthy  soil,  alluvial  ma 
terial,  etc.  They  are  generally  used  for  hauling  earth. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


337 


Fig.   3.     30-Ton   Side  Dump  Car. 


Fig.    4.     3-cu.    yd.    Side    Dump    Car     (Made    by    Kilbourne    and 

Jacobs  Mfg.  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio).     Wheel  Base 

48  in.,  gage  36  in.,  Weight  4,300  Ib. 


.338 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Rocker  Double  Side  Dump  Cars  are  widely  used  on  construc- 
tion work.  Fig.  5  shows  a  car  of  this  type  made  by  the  Easton 
Car  Construction  Co.,  of  Easton,  Pa.  These  cars  are  made  for 
capacities  of  from  18  cu.  ft.  to  135  cu.  ft.  and  weigh  from  900 
Ib.  to  6,900  Ib. 

Tipple  Dump  or  Mine  Cars  can  only  be  used  in  connection  with 
an  automatic  dumping  device.  In  general  the  car  is  tilted  truck 
and  all  and  at  the  same  time  an  end  gate  is  held  open  until  the 
material  slides  out. 


Fig.  5.     Rocker  Double  Side  Dump  Car. 

Track  Mover.  Samuel  A.  Taylor,  in  an  address  before  the 
Railway  Club  of  Pittsburgh,  in  1911,  gave  a  description  of  a 
track  moving  machine  which  is  used  on  earth  dumps.  The 
operation  is  described  as  follows:  When  the  fill  has  been  made 
to  such  a  width  that  they  wish  to  move  the  track  over,  the  track 
mover,  consisting  of  heavy  chains  and  hooks  hanging  from  the 
end  of  a  boom,  takes  hold  of  the  track  and  lifts  it  until  the  ties 
are  clear  of  the  ground.  Then  a  side  arm,  in  which  is  placed  a 
pulley  on  which  a  wire  rope  passes,  having  hooks  attached  to  the 
end,  is  then  fastened  to  the  rails.  This  rope  is  operated  by  a 
small  engine,  which  swings  it  over  to  its  new  position.  That 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


339 


machine  displaces  a  great  deal  of  labor  and  is  very  economical 
in   cost  of  operation. 

A  Track  Throwing  Car.  An  interesting  device,  invented  by 
Davis  Creerse,  was  described  and  illustrated  in  Engineering  News, 
Dec.  21.  1899.  This  apparatus  (Fig.  7)  is  fitted  to  the  rear 
end  of  a  flat  car.  It  consists  of  -a  timber  frame  on  which  is  a 
hand  hoist  operating  a  bull  pole.  The  end  of  this  pole  carries 
a  14-in.  wheel  which,  when  the  machine  is  in  operation,  bears 
against  the  web  of  the  outer  rail.  When  in  operation  the  car 


Fig.  6.     Tipple  Dump  Car  Made  by  Austin  Mfg.  Co.,  of  Harvey,  111. 

is  heavily  loaded  with  iron  rails  and  is  hauled  over  the  track, 
the  "  bull  pole  "  throwing  the  track  at  the  rear  of  the  moving  car. 
The  track  may  be  shifted  any  distance  from  6  in.  to  3  ft. 

Switch  for  Narrow  Gage  Tracks.  Fig.  8,  which  is  taken  from 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  28,  1910,  shows  a  contractor's 
switch  which  is  very  simple  of  construction  alid  operation.  It 
is  also  quite  rigid  and  strong  enough  to  carry  heavy  loads  with- 
out a  great  amount  of  wear.  The  idea,  as  shown,  is  in  joining 
the  two  inside  rails  together  as  a  switch  point  and  shifting  the 
point  back  and  forth  between  the  outside  rails  in  the  positions 
indicated  on  the  plan.  The  ties  are  capped  with  i/£ -in.  plates 
a.s  wearing  surfaces  and  the  switch  points  are  brace!  rigidly.  The 
design  is  the  idea  of  Mr.  C.  R.  Neher,  who  is  constructing  en- 


340 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


341 


gineer  for  the  Atlantic,  Gulf  &  Pacific  Co.,  at  Whitehall,  N.  Y., 
and  the  switch  has  been  used  in  the  contract  work  of  this  com- 
pany in  a  number  of  places. 

Use  of  Cars.  In  ordinary  construction  work  light  (3-yd.)  cars 
are  generally  run  on  light  rails  (16  to  40  Ib.  to  the  yard)  with 
ties  wide  spaced  (4  ft.  c.  to  c.  usually)  and  not  ballasted.  To 
lay  such  track  with  labor  at  30  ct.  per  hr.  has  cost  the  author 
about  $4  per  100  ft.  of  track,  or  $200  per  mile,  after  delivery  of 
materials.  The  author  has  used  4  x  4-in.  ties,  but  cannot  recom- 
mend them,  for  after  once  using  they  are  so  split  by  the  spikes 


Fig.  8.     Details  of  Special  Contractor's  Switch. 


as  to  be  of  little  value.  A  6  x  6-in.  tie,  5  ft.  long,  is  the  best 
for  general  use  on  these  narrow-gage  roads. 

Roughly  laid  as  such  track  is,  with  light  rails,  and  wide 
spacing  of  ties,  it  is  not  safe  to  estimate  the  rolling  resistance  at 
less  than  about  40  Ib.  per  ton  of  load  on  the  car  wheels  ( including 
the  weight  of  car  itself)  on  a  level  track. 

It  is  very  commonly  stated  that  20  Ib.  is  the  force  required 
to  pull  a  2,000-lb.  load  over  light  rails.  This-  may  be  so  over 
carefully  laid,  clean  track,  with  ties  close-spaced,  and  with  car 
wheels  well  lubricated;  but  over  the  ordinary  rough  contractor's 
track,  20  Ib.  is  much  too  low  an  estimate. 

In  the  "  Coal  and  Metal  Miners'  Pocket  Book "  is  a  table 
giving  actual  results  of  traction  tests,  including  several  hundred 
separate  tests  under  varying  conditions.  From  these  tables  we 
have  summarized  the  following: 


342  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Per  short  ton 

Pull  to  start  mine  cars   (old  style)   loaded  90  Ib. 

Pull  to  start  mine  cars   (new  style),  empty  80  Ib. 

Pull  to  keep  up  ^4-mile  per  hr.  speed   (old  style  car)....  50  Ib. 

Pull  to  keep  up  %-mile  per  hr.  speed   (new  style  car) 33  Ib. 

Pull  to  keep  up  41/£-mile  per  hr.  speed    (old  style  empty)  56  Ib. 

Pull  to  keep  up  4^-mile  per  hr.  speed  (old  style  full) 66  Ib. 

Pull  to  keep  up  4^-mile  per  hr.  speed  (new  style  empty)  30  Ib. 

Pull  to  keep  up  4%-mile  per  hr.  speed   (new  style  full)  38  Ib. 

The  foregoing  was  for  trains  of  1  to  4  ears,  but  with  a  train 
of  20  cars  the  pull  was  46  Ib.  for  old-style  cars  and  26  Ib.  for 
new-style  cars  per  short  ton  on  a  level  track.  The  mine  cars 
used  had  a  wheel  base  of  3.5  ft;  they  weighed  2,140  to  2,415  Ib. 
empty  and  7,885  to  9,000  Ib.  loaded.  The  diameter  of  the 
wheels  was  16  in.,  and  of  axles  2}  £  in.  for  old-style  car  to  2^ 
in.  for  new-style  car,  with  a  steel  journal  5^4  in.  long,  well 
lubricated  in  all  cases,  in  fixed  cast-iron  boxes.  The  new-style 
cars  had  better  lubrication,  the  importance  of  which  is  well 
shown  by  the  results  of  the  tests.  The  track  in  the  mine  was 
level  and  in  good  condition. 

The  resistance  to  traction  on  upgrades  is  practically  20  Ib. 
per  short  ton  for  each  1%  (1  ft.  rise  in  a  100  ft.)  of  upgrade; 
so  that  on  a  5%  grade,  for  example,  it  will  require  a  100-lb. 
pull  on  a  rope  to  overcome  the  gravity  resistance  of  a  ton,  plus 
40  Ib.  more  to  overcome  the  rolling  resistance,  or  a  total  of  140 
Ib.  per  ton.  Working  steadily  for  10  hr.,  a  single  horse  can 
just  about  do  the  work  necessary  to  pull  a  car  up  a  4%  grade, 
that  is  the  tractive  force  of  a  1,200-lb.  horse  is  about  120  Ib. 
working  steadily  all  day  long;  in  other  words,  a  horse  can  exert 
a  pull  on  a  rope  of  about  ^Q  its  own  weight.  Many  a  con- 
tractor will  say  that  this  is  absurdly  low,  but  experience  has 
shown  it  to  be  not  far  from  right.  However,  for  a  short  time 
a  horse,  like  a  man,  can  exert  a  great  deal  more  force. 

The  author  has  had  a  heavy  team  pull  a  load  of  10,000  Ib.  up 
a  5%  grade  on  a  macadam  road;  and  actual  test  on  a  spring 
balance  has  shown  that  a  light  pair  of  mules  have  exerted  a 
pull  of  1,000  Ib.  (or  500  Ib.  each)  ascending  a  steep  earth  road. 

So  it  is  evident  that  for  a  few  minutes  a  horse  can  exert  a 
pull  about  500  Ib.  if  he  has  a  good  foothold,  but  he  must  have 
long  rests  between  such  exertions.  It  requires  about  two  times 
as  much  force  to  start  a  car  as  it  does  to  keep  it  in  motion, 
hence  a  horse  should  never  be  worked  within  half  his  capacity, 
that  is  he  should  not  be  required  to  exert  over  250  Ib.  pull  at 
any  place  where  cars  are  apt  to  stop. 

A  dump  car  with  a  box  2  ft.  deep,  5  x  5.5  ft.,  holds  2  cu.  yd. 
water  measure,  but  even  when  heaped  up  with  loose  earth  it  will 
seldom  hold  2  cu.  yd.  of  earth  measured  in  cut.  Such  a  dump 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  343 

car  weighs  about  2,000  Ib.  and  2  cu.  yd.  of  earth  (place  measure) 
weigh  about  5,400  Ib.,  or  a  total  of  7,400  Ib.,  or  3.7  tons.  A 
strong  horse  could  pull  one  such  car  loaded  on  a  level  track  all 
day  long,  and  could  go  up  a  short  4%  grade  occasionally  if  he  did 
not  stop  on  the  grade.  Cars  will  coast  down  a  2%  grade -once 
they  are  started,  so  it  is  not  advisable  to  have  steeper  grades, 
when  brakes  are  not  provided  for  the  dump  cars. 

Mr.  P.  B.  Lieberman  in  a  paper  in  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E., 
Vol.  LV,  1917,  gives  the  result  of  tests  made  at  the  Greensburg 
Coal  Co.'s  mine  at  Greensburg,  Pa.,  on  mine  cars  with  and 
without  roller  bearings.  His  conclusions  were  that  the  use  of 
roller  bearings  reduced  the  draw  bar  pull  47%  on  speeds  of 
between  5  and  6  miles  per  hr. 

On  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  a  great  deal  of  material  was 
loaded  with  a  steam  shovel  into  small  dump  cars  that  were 
hauled  away  by  horses  on  a  slightly  down  grade  to  the  foot  of  an 
"  incline,"  where  they  were  pulled  with  a  %-in.  wire  cable  to  the 
top  of  the  bank  by  a  60-hp.  winding  engine  (13x  16-in.  cylinder) 
stationed  at  the  top  of  the  bank;  the  cars  were  then  hauled  to 
the  dump  by  horses.  One  team  pulled  two  cars  holding  3  cu.  yd. 
each,  or  five  cars  holding  1  cu.  yd.  each.  The  same  team  could 
pull  back  6  empty  3-cu.  yd.  cars.  Two  faces  were  worked  in 
opposite  directions  from  each  "  incline."  Even  then  the  "  in- 
cline "  engine  could  handle  more  material  than  two  shovels  could 
excavate.  In  one  case  2,400  cu.  yd.  were  raised  in  10  hr.  An 
extra  team  was  used  to  "  spot "  the  cars.  ( See  Gillette's  "  Rock 
Excavation.") 

In  excavating  mud  the  author  once  used  an  incline  120  ft. 
long  rising  12  ft.  in  that  distance;  then  there  were  80  ft.  of 
level  track  at  the  foot  of  the  incline  and  40  ft.  of  level  track 
on  a  trestle  at  the  top.  Using  a  team  of  horses  and  a  single  car 
holding  1  cu.  yd.,  with  a  hemp  rope  passing  around  a  pulley  at 
the  top  of  the  incline,  120  carloads  were  raised  every  10  hr. 
The  team  actually  traveled  14.5  miles  a  day  in  doing  this  work, 
part  of  which  it  will  be  seen  was  exceedingly  hard. 

There  are  many  comparatively  small  jobs  where  a  few  dump 
cars  and  some  light  rails  will  enable  a  contractor  to  move  earth 
far  cheaper  than  with  wagons.  Ordinarily  the  dumping  of  the 
cars  where  the  fill  is  light  will  cause  the  earth 'to  run  back  and 
block  the  track.  It  is  therefore  customary  first  to  build  a  tem- 
porary trestle,  and  fill  it  in  with  earth;  then  the  track  is  shifted 
from  time  to  time  to  keep  it  close  to  the  edge  of  the  embank- 
ment. Even  where  the  fill  is  so  light  as  not  to  pay  to  trestle,  the 
author  has  found  cars  economic;  for  then  the  earth  can  be 
shoveled  from  the  cars  at  a  cost  of  12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  (wages 


344  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

being  30  ct.  per  hr.),  which  is  often  less  than  the  added  cost 
of  hauling  with  wagons. 

Cars  Moved  by  Hand.  In  excavating  narrow  open  cuts,  or 
tunnels  either  in  earth  or  rock,  a  small  dump  car  running  on 
16-lb.  rails  is  often  used  with  profit.  A  man  can  readily  push  a 
small  dump  car  holding  y3  cu.  yd.  of  earth  (nearly  half  a  ton) 
on  a  well  laid,  clean  level  track  at  a  walk  of  220  ft.  a  minute 
all  day  long.  With  wages  at  30  ct.  per  hour  the  cost  of  moving 
earth  in  this  way  is  1.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  every  100  ft.  of  haul, 
which  it  will  be  seen  is  very  much  less  than  the  cost,  10  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.,  by  wheelbarrows  for  every  100  ft.  of  haul.  In  view 
of  this  low  cost,  and  in  view  of  the  ease  with  which  a  16-lb. 
track  can  be  laid  and  shifted  when  made  in  one  rail  sections, 
it  is  surprising  the  contractors  do  not  oftener  use  the  small  end 
dump  car  pushed  by  a  man. 

Cars  and  Portable  Track.  G.  P.  Blackiston  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  July  13,  1910,  gives  the  following: 

An  immense  bank  of  special  earth  was  practically  encircled 
by  a  deep  canyon  with  the  exception  of  a  very  narrow  stretch 
of  land  connecting  the  mainland  as  it  were,  with  the  high  bank. 

The  margin  of  profit  being  small,  ordinary  methods  of  trans- 
portation were  out  of  the  question.  The  length  and  narrowness 
of  the  stretch  of  connecting  land  did  not  permit  the  use  of 
wagons  or  carts,  while  the  use  of  steam  shovels  at  the  working 
end  was  quite  out  of  the  question  due  to  the  impracticability  of 
transporting  the  shovel  to  the  bank.  The  use  of  dump  cars 
operated  upon  portable  tracks  was  also  impracticable  unless 
they  could  be  loaded  with  .the  minimum  of  labor.  This,  there- 
fore, meant  that  the  material  could  not  be  transported  at  any 
distance  in  shovels  from  the  bank  to  the  cars;  in  short,  that  the 
cars  must  be  placed  at  the  very  feet  of  the  laborers  shoveling  — 
permitting  them  to  transfer  the  earth  directly  from  the  bed  to  the 
car  —  yet  there  was  no  room  for  a  vast  complicated  system  of 
switches. 

With  all  this  to  contend  with,  the  contractor  laid  a  portable 
railroad  across  the  narrow  strip  of  ground  to  the  bank.  Here, 
by  means  of  several  short  spurs,  Fig.  9,  he  placed  his  cars 
abreast  at  the  distance  of  about  10  ft.  apart.  This  permitted 
the  laborers  to  load  the  respective  cars  from  three  sides  and 
without  moving  a  step  to  secure  the  load.  As  the  work  prog- 
ressed another  section  of  the  portable  track  (attached  to  steel 
ties)  was  laid  and  the  next  cars  loaded  at  a  position  closer  to 
the  base  of  supply.  The  cars  when  loaded  were  conveyed  by 
gravity  to  the  unloader  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  ravine,  some 
626  ft.  away. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


345 


By  this  method  coupled  with  the  use  of  steel  dump  cars  and 
portable  tracks  made  by  the  Orenstein-Arthur  Koppel  Co.,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  the  material  was  loaded,  conveyed  and  dumped  for 
less  than  6.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


'NT 

Fig.  9.     Track  Arrangement  for  Loading  Cars  by  Hand. 


Cost  with  Horse-Drawn  Cars.  Hauling  cars  with  horses  is 
ordinarily  cheaper  than  with  locomotives  for  short  distances, 
unless  the  contractor  already  has  the  locomotives  on  hand. 

Referring  to  the  forepart  of  this  chapter,  it  is  seen  that  a 
strong  team  will  pull  about  5  cu.  yd  of  earth  over  fairly  level 
track  at  a  walk.  With  a  speed  of  team  2.5  miles  an  hour,  the 
cost  is  1430  of  an  hour's  wages  of  team  and  driver  per  cu.  yd. 
for  every  100  ft.  of  haul  from  pit  to  dump.  At  this  rate  it  is 
as  cheap  to  haul  with  horses  as  with  locomotive  up  to  a  distance 
of  nearly  a  mile,  provided,  of  course,  that  a  contractor  has  to 
rent  or  buy  the  locomotive,  and  does  not  already  have  it  on 
hand.  A  locomotive,  however,  possesses  one  decided  advantage  in 
that  it  can  push  cars  out  into  a  trestle;  whereas,  a  block  and 
tackle  must  be  used  with  a  team  to  get  the  cars  out  onto  the 
trestle.  If  there  were  no  delays  either  at  the  pit  or  at  the 
dump,  and  a  team  were  moving  all  the  time,  we  thus  see  that  it 
could  haul  3,300  cu.  yd.  100  ft.,  or  100  cu.  yd.,  3,300  ft.  Mani- 
festly the  first  rate  is  impossible  not  only  because  there  are 
necessary  delays,  but  because  enough  men  could  not  be  got^ 


346  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

around  the  cars  to  load  3,300  cu.  yd.  a  day.  Ordinarily  where 
cars  and  a  team  of  horses  are  used  about  20  shovelers  are 
employed,  seldom  more  than  30  shovelers,  not  infrequently  only 
10.  Ten  men  working  at  a  face  of  earth  may  each  undermine 
and  load  15  cu.  yd.  a  day,  which  a  team  could  haul  in  cars  a 
distance  of  2,200  ft.,  making  30  round  trips  if  there  were  no 
delays.  As  a  matter  of  fact  there  will  be  about  two  minutes 
consumed  each  trip  changing  team  from  the  empty  to  the  full 
cars,  and  another  four  minutes  at  the  pit  dumping.  Delays 
while  shifting  track  will  ordinarily  add  about  four  minutes  more 
each  trip,  making  a  total  of  10  minutes  "lost  time"  each  trip, 
or  two  minutes  for  each  cu.  yd.  This  means  a  cost  of  }£0-hr.'s 
wages  of  team  and  driver  for  lost  time  per  cu.  yd.  hauled.  In 
this  10  minutes  "lost  time"  the  team  could  travel  1,100  ft.  and 
return;  hence,  instead  of  travelling  2,200  ft.  and  return  as  above 
assumed,  the  team  would  really  have  time  to  travel  only  halt 
that  far. 

Rule.  To  find  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  loading  from  a  "  face  " 
and  moving  average  earth  with  cars  and  horses,  add  together 
these  items: 

%-hour's  wages  of  laborer  undermining  and  shoveling  earth. 

%0-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver  "  lost  time." 

^-hour's  wages  of  man  on  dump,  dumping,  making  trestle,  and 
track  shifting. 

Then  add  ^oQ-hour's  wages  of  team  with  driver  for  each  100  ft. 
of  haul.  With  wages  of  man  at  30  ct.,  and  horse  at  15  ct.  per 
hr.,  this  rule  becomes :  To  a  fixed  cost  of  32  ct.  add  0.2  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  for  every  100  ft.  of  haul;  and  add  the  cost  of  materials 
for  the  dumping  trestle  plus  $250  per  mile  of  track,  divided  by 
the  total  number  of  cu.  yd.  moved  over  the  track  before  it  is 
torn  up. 

NOTE. —  Where  a  steam  shovel  is  used,  hauling  cars  by  horses 
is  especially  disadvantageous  because  of  delays  in  switching  and 
"  spotting  "  cars  in  such  short  trains  as  team  hauls. 

Cost  with  Horse-Drawn  Cars.  The  cost  of  excavating  and 
transporting  earth  with  Koppel  1.5-yd.  V-shaped  dump  cars  at 
Attleboro,  Mass.,  is  given  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept. 
30,  1908. 

These  cars  were  operated  on  a  30-in.  gage  track,  and  were  4 
ft.  5  in.  high,  and  about  5  ft.  7  in.  wide  They  weigh  1,080  Ib. 
Some  of  them  were  equipped  with  brakes.  The  cars  were  operated 
in  trains  of  4  cars,  and  coasted  to  the  dump  by  gravity,  being 
hauled  back  to  the  cut  by  one  horse  and  a  driver.  Thus  five 
horses  were  used  for  the  40  cars.  The  dead  load  pulled  back 
by  the  horse  was  about  4,400  Ib.  A  20-lb.  rail  was  used,  laid  on 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS        .14? 

wooden  ties,  spaced  at  3-ft.  centers.     In  all  2.25  miles  of  track 
was  used  on  the  job.     Several  turn  outs  and  switches  were  used, 
thus  allowing  the  cars  to  be  kept  almost  continually  in  motion. 
The  total  cost  for  plant  outside  of  small  tools  was: 

40  cars  at  $90   $3,600 

70  tons  rails  at   $32    2,240 

4,000  ties  at  12%  ct 500 


Total    $6,340 

Estimating  interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  to  the  outfit  at 
2%  per  month,  we  have  a  monthly  charge  of  about  $127  for  plant. 
The  material  was  a  boulder  clay,  consisting  of  loam,  clay,  gravel 
and  hardpan,  and  while  most  of  it  required  but  little  loosening 
with  picks,  yet  some  of  it  had  to  be  drilled  with  short  holes 
and  shot  with  20%  dynamite.  Some  of  the  work,  where  the 
banks  were  low,  was  worked  from  on  top,  but  most  of  it  was 
worked  from  abreast.  Men  shoveled  the  material  with  short 
handled  shovels. 

The  excavated  material  was  hauled  from  700  to  1,000  ft.,  the 
average  haul  being  about  850  ft.  There  were  80  men  employed 
on  the  job  working  under  3  foremen..  A  10-hr,  day  was  worked. 

During  the  month  of  June  in  25  working  days,  15,000  cu.  yd. 
of  material  were  excavated.  The  cost  for  this  work  was  as 
follows : 

3  foremen,  25  days  at  $5   $    375.00 

75  men,  25  days  at  $1.80  3,375.00 

5  drivers,  25  days  at  $1.80  £25.00 

5  horses,  25  day's  at  $1  125.00 

300  Ib.  dynamite  at  10  ct 30.00 

Plant  charges    (estimated)    127.00 

Total  for  15,000  cu.  yd $4,257.00 

This  includes  all  the  cost  except  general  expenses,  and  the 
month's  proportion  for  laying  track.  The  item  of  transporta- 
tion for  an  850-ft.  haul  is  low,  since  it  amounts  to  only  %  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  per  100  ft.  of  haul.  The  total  cost  was  28.3  ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

Comparative  Costs  with  Wheelers  and  Cars.  The  following 
data  of  the  cost  of  grading  25,000  cu.  yd.  of  average  earth  for 
a  railroad  siding  near  Homewood,  Pa.,  is  given  by  Mr.  Arthur. 
Reiche  in  The  Industrial  Magazine,  Aug.,  1907.  Part  of  the 
work  was  done  by  scrapers  and  part  by  Koppel  1-yd.  double- 
side  dump,  V-shaped  cars. 

The  car  work  was  in  a  wide  cut  and  borrow  pit,  the  bank 
averaging  5  ft.  in.  height.  Two-thirds  of  the  material  was  aver- 
age earth,  the  remainder  being  hard  gravel  requiring  a  three- 
horse  rooter  plow  for  loosening. 


348      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Portable  track  of  24-in.  gage  with  steel  ties,  was  used. 
The  cars  were  hauled  in  two  trains  of  four,  a  train  being  pulled 
by  one  horse.  Dumping  was  from  a  trestle  about  20  ft.  high 
constructed  of  round  timber  cut  locally.  The  average  haul  was 
650  ft.  Temporary  spur  tracks  were  laid  over  the  cut  and 
the  plowing  done  on  each  side  of  them.  (It  has  been  the  ex- 
perience of  the  author  that,  when  the  depth  of  cut  is  4  ft.  or 
more,  it  is  economical  to  work  at  a  face,  undermining  the  earth, 
or  plowing  it  with  a  sidehill  plow,  rather  than  working  from 
the  top.  This  is  particularly  true  in  hard  material  where  a 
few  light  charges  of  powder  will  loosen  a  large  quantity  of  ma- 
terial much  more  cheaply  than  with  a  plow.) 

The  labor  costs  on  the  car  work  were  as  follows: 

1  foreman     $3.00 

16  shovelers  at  $1.65   26.40 

1  plow  team  and  driver 7.50 

1  horse  and  driver    3.50 

3  dump  men  at  $1.65   4.95 

1  track   man    2.00 


Total  per  10-hr,  day   $47.35 

The  wheel-scraper  work  was  nearly  all  borrow-pit  work,  the 
soil  being  easily  plowed  by  a  3-horse  grading  plow.  No.  3 
Western  wheelers  were  used.  The  daily  labor  force  charges 
were  as  follows : 

Foreman    $3.00 

2-horse  teams    5.00 

3-horse  snap  teams    7.50 

2  scraper  loaders  @  $1.75  3.50 

Total  per  10-hr,  day  $19.00 

The  daily  records  showed  that  the  cost  by  car,  including  the 
wages  of  carpenters  building  the  trestle  was  24.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd., 
the  average  haul  being  600  ft.  The  cost  by  wheel  scrapers  was 
26.25  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  the  average  -haul  being  350  ft. 

The  plant  required  for  the  car  work  was  as  follows :  Double 
track  trestle,  24  in.  gage,  6  ft.  between  centers  of  tracks,  6  x  8-in. 
stringers  22  or  24  ft.  long,  2  x  6-in.  ties  on  2.5  ft.  centers,  2  x  12-in. 
running  boards  between  rails,  12-lb.  rails,  trestle  legs  of  green 
poles  averaging  30  ft.  in  length  at  5  ct.  per  ft.,  cost  complete 
$1.50  per  lin.  ft.  of  double  track  trestle,  or  $225  for  150  ft. 
erected;  five  split  switches  at  $18,  cost  $90;  two  iron  turntables 
at  $30,  cost  $60;  three  %-cu.  yd.  steel  cars  $190;  total  $565. 
Good  for  5  yr.  with  10%  for  repairs  and  renewals. 

A  Motor  Truck  Hauling  Industrial  Railway  Cars.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Aug.  2,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

A  Four  Wheel  Drive  truck  is  used  in  place  of  a  locomotive  to 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  349 

draw  a  train  of  heavily  loaded  trailers  on  a  narrow  gage  track. 
The  truck  itself  straddles  the  rails,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  enough  traction  is  secured  to  pull  the  'train  easily  up  a  5% 
grade,  although  no  load  whatever  is  carried  on  the  body  of 
the  truck. 

The  crushed  rock,  gravel  and  cement  hauled  by  this  outfit  are 
being  used  in  the  construction  of  a  16-ft.  concrete  highway 
going  north  from  Sioux  City,  la.,  on  what  is  known  as  the  Perry 
Creek  road.  The  large  amount  of  material  hauled  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  from  500  to  600  lin.  ft.  of  pavement  are  being 
laid  daily.  The  track  is  four  miles  in  length  and  ten  round 
trips  are  made  each  day.  Each  trailer  carries  n/2  cu.  yd.  of 
gravel  or  crushed  rock,  making  a  total  pay-load  of  24  to  26 
tons.  The  truck  pulls  this  load  while  running  in  high  gear,  and 
travels  at  12  to  15  miles  per  hr. 

Fifty  teams  and  wagons  were  unable  to  do  the  work  which 
is  now  being  done  by  this  truck  and  string  of  trailers,  accord- 
ing to  the  contractors,  and  an  enormous  saving  in  cost  is  effected. 
The  average  daily  cost  of  operating  the  truck  and  trailers  in  this 
service  is  $17. 

Hauling  with  Dinkeys.  The  ordinary  "  contractor's  locomo- 
tive," or  "  dinkey,"  travels  on  a  track  of  3-ft.  gage.  The  size 
of  dinkey  commonly  used  weighs  8  short  tons,  and  is  listed  as 
having  a  tractive  pull  of  2,900  Ib.  on  a  level  track.  Whether 
the  actual  tractive  capacity  is  exactly  2,900  I  do  not  know; 
but  it  must  be  approximately  that,  for  any  locomotive  can  exert 
a  pull  of  25%  of  the  weight  on  its  driving  wheels  even  on  clean 
rails.  The  loads  that  a  dinkey  can  pull,  however,  are  much 
over-estimated  in  catalogues,  due  to  too  low  rolling  resistances 
assumed  for  cars. 

It  is  said  in  some  of  the  catalogues  that  the  resistance  to 
traction  is  6^  Ib.  per  short  ton.  This  rate  applies  only  to 
the  best  of  standard  gage  railway  tracks  with  heavy  rails,  well 
ballasted,  and  with  heavy  wheel  loads.  On  a  contractor's  narrow 
gage,  light  rail  track,  the  resistance  to  traction  is  probably  not 
much  less  than  40  Ib.  per  ton,  and  where  the  cars  are  loaded 
it  is  doubtless  more,  due  to  the  dirt  on  the  rails. 

The  resistance  due  to  gravity  is  20  Ib.  per  short  ton  per  1% 
of  grade;  but,  of  course,  the  tractive  pow^r  of  a  locomotive 
falls  off  20  Ib.  for  every  ton  of  its  own  weight  for  each  1%  of 
grade. 

Based  upon  these  data,  and  upon  the  assumption  that  the 
resistance  to  traction  is  40  Ib.  per  short  ton,  an  8-ton  dinkey  is 
capable  of  hauling  the  following  loads,  including  the  weight 
of  the  cars: 


350  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Level 

1%  gr 
2% 
3% 
4% 
5% 
6% 
8% 

track   

Total  tons 
70 

ade 

46 

33 

26 

21 

.     .                                  17 

14 

10 

Note :  On  a  poor  track  not  even  as  great  loads  as  the  above  can 
be  hauled. 

Due  to  the  accidents  that  frequently  occur  from  the  breaking 
in  two  of  trains  on  steep  grades,  and  from  the  running  away 
of  engines,  it  is  advisable  to  avoid  using  grades  of  more  than  6%. 

When  heavily  loaded,  a  dinkey  travels  5  miles  per  hr.  on  a 
straight  track ;  but  when  lightly  loaded,  or  on  a  down  grade, 
it  may  run  9  miles  an  hr. 

The  following  are  the  average  struck  measure  capacities  of 
the  dump  cars  made  by  one  firm  (variations  of  weight  of  several 
hundred  pounds  occur,  according  to  the  make)  : 

Capacity,   cu.   yd.    .  1  \Vz          2  2%          3 

Weight,   Ib 1.700       2,000       2,300       2,800       3,500 

A  car  seldom  averages  its  struck  capacity  of  earth  measured 
"  in  place,"  even  when  the  car  is  heaped  full  with  a  shovel ;  for 
not  only  are  there  vacant  places  in  the  corners  of  the  car,  but 
the  loose  earth  is  20%  to  30%  more  bulky  than  earth  "  in 
place." 

The  number  of  dinkeys  required  to  keep  a  shovel  busy  can  be 
estimated  from  the  data  given.  On  short  hauls  (1,000  ft.  or 
less)  one  very  often  sees  only  one  dinkey  serving  a  1%-yd. 
shovel.  In  such  cases  the  dinkey  is  not  heavily  loaded,  so  that  it 
can  run  fast,  and  by  having  enough  men  to  dump  a  train  of  6 
cars  in  2  or  3  min.,  a  fairly  good  daily  output  of  the  shovel 
can  be  secured. 

In  dumping  the  cars,  estimate  on  the  basis  of  one  3-yd.  car 
dumped  by  each  man  in  1}£  to  2  min.  The  men  work  in  groups 
of  2  or  3  in  dumping  the  cars,  and  enough  men  are  usually  pro- 
vided on  the  dump  to  dump  a  train  in  3  min. 

When  two  or  more  dinkeys  are  serving  one  shovel,  and  long 
trains  (12  cars)  are  being  used,  it  would  seem  that  very  little 
lost  shovel  time  would  occur  due  to  switching  in  an  empty  train; 
but,  even  under  favorable  conditions,  I  find  that  iy2  to  2  min. 
per  train  are  lost  in  switching.  This  is  another  reason  why  a 
shovel  served  by  only  one  dinkey  makes  so  good  a  showing  on 
short-haul  work.  Still  another  reason  is  that  at  the  time  the 
shovel  is  shifting  forward,  the  dinkey  can  often  make  its  round 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  351 

trip ;  and  on  shallow  face  work  this  shifting  of  the  shovel  occurs 
frequently. 

The  method  of  using  a  hoisting  engine  and  cable  to  move 
the  cars  is  quite  common  in  railroad  work,  where  the  hauls  are 
short,  say  1,000  ft.  or  less.  The  track  is  laid  on  a  rather  steep 
grade,  at  least  3%  from  the  pit  to  the  dump,  and  the  cars 
coast  down  by  gravity  usually  in  trains  of  4  cars  holding  about 
2  cu.  yd.  each.  The  hoisting  engines  pull  the  cars  back  with  a 
wire  rope.  A  team  of  horses  will  have  all  it  can  do  to  pull  a 
train  of  4  such  cars  even  on  a  slight  down  grade  to  the  dump. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  team  that  is  working  steadily  can  not 
be  counted  on  to  pull  more  than  two  cars  holding  3  cu.  yd. 
each,  on  a  level  track  of  the  kind  ordinarily  used  in  contract 
work. 

The  3-ft.  gage  track  commonly  used  is  laid  with  rails  weighing 
15  to  40  Ib.  per  yd.  of  single  rail.  A  30  or  35-lb.  rail  makes 
a  track  that  is  not  easily  kinked  under  the  loads,  even  when 
ties  are  spaced  4  ft.  centers.  A  6  x  6-in.  tie,  5  ft.  long,  is  the 
best  size.  I  have  tried  4  x  4-in.  ties,  but  they  are  easily  split 
by  the  spikes,  and  are  not  of  much  value  after  being  used  once; 
whereas  the  6  x  6-in.  ties  can  be  laid  5  to  6  times.  After  the 
rails  and  ties  are  delivered,  and  the  roadway  graded,  such  a  track 
can  be  laid  for  $200  per  mile,  or  $4  per  100  ft.,  when  wages  are 
30  ct.  per  hr.  And  the  track  can  be  torn  up  and  loaded  on 
wagons  for  $2  per  100  ft.;  there  being  1  ton  of  30-lb.  rails,  and 
375  ft.  B.  M.  of  6xG-inx5-ft.  ties  per  100  ft.  of  track. 

Trautwine  assumes  that  a  contractor's  locomotive  will  readily 
haul  a  train  of  10  dump  cars  holding  1.5  cu.  yd.  each  as  a 
speed  of  5  mi.  per  hr.  He  assumes  9  min.  lost  time  each  trip 
loading  and  dumping;  and  a  train  force  as  follows: 

1  engineman    $  3.00 

1  dump    foreman    3.00 

3  dumpmen  @  $1.50  4.50 

Vz  ton  coal   @   $3   1.50 

Oil,   water,  etc 1.00 

1  switchman     • 1 .50 

$14.50 

On  these  assumptions  he  figures  that  a  locomotive  in  10  hr.  will 
haul  as  follows : 

4.350  cu.  yd.  with  a  1-mile  haul. 

2,700  cu.  yd.  with  a  2-mile  haul. 

1,950   cu.   yd.  with   a  3-mile  haul. 

1,500  cu.  yd.  with  a  4-mile  haul. 

600  cu.  yd.  with  a  10-mile  haul. 

Trautwine  then  makes  a  very  serious  error,  for  he  entirely  over- 
looks the  fact  that  no  steam  shovel  can  load  the  full  4,350  cu.  yd. 


352  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

in  a  day  that  the  locomotive  might  handle  on  a  1-mi.  haul;  and  he 
fails  to  see  that  in  reality  the  cost  of  hauling  with  a  contractor's 
locomotive  does  not  depend  greatly  upon  the  length  of  haul.  In 
reality  it  matters  very  little  whether  the  haul  is  long  or  short; 
for  the  steam  shovel  is  the  limiting  factor,  and  a  shovel  may  not 
average  500  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

In  widening  cuts  on  railway  work  it  is  often  necessary  to  use 
flat  cars  holding  5  to  10  cu.  yd.  of  earth,  seldom  over  7  cu.  yd., 
unless  drop  sideboards  are  provided.  A  flat  car  is  ordinarily  8.5 
ft.  wide  over  side  sills  and  32  ft.  long  over  end  sills. 

In  freezing  weather  the  floors  of  the  cars  should  be  sprinkled 
with  brine  just  before  loading,  a  man  with  an  ordinary  garden 
sprinkler   being  detailed   for   the  work.     The   brine  will   prevent 
the  earth  from  freezing  to  the  car  floor  for  3   or  4  hr.;    but  a 
loaded  car  should  never  be  left  standing  over  night,  for  it  will 
take  4  to  6  men  a  day  to  unload  a  frozen  car  load  of  earth. 
For  costs  of  hauling  with  dinkeys  and  cars  see  Chapter  XI. 
General  Types   of  Light  Locomotives.     Light   locomotives   are 
made  to  run  by  steam,  gasoline,  electricity  and  compressed  air. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  each  of  the  four  types. 

Steam  Locomotives  burning  coal  are  in  most  general  use.  Oil 
and  wood  burning  machines  are  available.  The  Shay  locomo- 
tive is  a  steam  machine  differing  from  the  usual  type  in  that 
instead  of  horizontal  cylinders  directly  connected  to  the  drivers, 
it  has  vertical  cylinders  driving  a  pinion  wheel  which  in  turn 
is  engaged  with  gear  on  the  driver.  The  result  is  an  engine 
of  great  tractive  force  and  slow  speed. 

Gasoline  Locomotives  are  now  being  built  and  their  use  is 
increasing. 

Electric  Locomotives  are  useful  wherever  current  can  be  ob- 
tained and  used  without  danger.  Both  storage  battery  and  con- 
tact type  machines  are  used. 

Compressed  Air  Locomotives  are  most  useful  in  coal  mines  and 
in  certain  industrial  works  where  there  is  danger  of  igniting  gas 
or  other  combustible  material.  Their  ultimate  efficiency  is  low. 
Resistance  of  Rolling  Friction.  According  to  the  H.  K.  Por- 
ter- Company's  catalog,  the  resistance  due  to  rolling  friction 
varies  with  the  character  and  condition  of  rolling  stock  and 
track.  With  extra  good  cars  and  track  it  may  be  as  low  as 
5  Ib.  per  ton  of  2,000  lb.;  but  6}£  lb.  may  be  taken  for  first- 
class  cars  and  track,  8  to  12  lb.  for  reasonably  good  conditions, 
and  as  high  as  20  to  40  lb.  for  bad  cars  and  track,  and  60  to  80 
lb.,  or  even  more,  for  excessively  hard-running  cars  and  very 
rough  track.  Cars  with  wheels  fast  on  axles  and  suitable  bear- 
ings and  oil  boxes  should  not  exceed  8  to  12  lb.;  logging  cars 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


353 


^  »O  ^ 


°  4P 


i^s^^  s  Ss  ^^1  ffl!3 

-iS  I 


CO1" 


354  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

may  run  6y2  to  12  Ib.  if  of  good  construction,  up  to  20  or  even 
40  Ib.  if  with  poor  arrangement  for  oiling.  Contractors'  dump 
cars  are  usually  hard-running,  say  10  to  25  Ib.;  coal-mine  wagons, 
with  loose  wheels,  are  seldom  less  than  15  Ib.,  and  often  exceed 
30  Ib.  and  with  the  holes  in  the  wheels  worn  out  of  true,  and 
the  wheels  scraping  against  the  sides  of  the  car,  may  develop 
60  to  80  Ib.,  or  even  greater  resistance.  Street  cars  may  be 
reckoned  at  15  to  25  Ib.  The  resistance  of  flange  friction  on 
wooden  rails  is  an  indeterminate  quantity,  but  usually  twice 
the  resistance  on  steel  rails.  Poorly  laid  track  and  crooked 
rails  increase  the  resistance  indefinitely.  Overloading  cars  also 
increases  the  resistance  greatly.  The  resistance  is  greater  in 
cold  weather.  The  resistance  of  rolling  friction  per  ton  is  greater 
for  empty  cars  than  for  loaded  cars. 

TABLE    II.     PERCENTAGE    TABLE    FOR    APPROXIMATE    COMPUTA- 
TION OF  HAULING  CAPACITY 

Grades  Percentages   figured   to   include   Frictional 

Resistances   per   ton   of   2,000  Ib. 


1%  Grade 

2% 
3% 
4% 
5% 


10% 
11% 

To  obtain  the  hauling  capacity  on  any  grade  for  track  of  any 
frictional  resistance,  multiply  the  hauling  capacity  of  the  loco- 
motive on  a  level  for  a  rolling  friction  of  6^  Ib.  per  ton.  (This 
is  given  in  Table  I)  by  the  factor  given  above  an:l  point  off  two 
decimal  places.  The  actual  resistance  of  rolling  friction  may  be 
determined  by  noting  on  what  down  grade  a  car  once  started 
will  just  keep  in  motion.  If  a  car  will  hardly  keep  in  motion 
if  started  down  a  1%  grade,  its  frictional  resistance  is  just 
about  equal  to  20  Ib.  per  ton;  the  same  proportion  will  hold 
for  other  grades. 

Water  and  Fuel  Consumption  of  Locomotives.  The  number 
of  gallons  required  per  mile  by  a  locomotive  is  approximately  1% 
of  the  total  resistance  to  be  overcome.  The  total  resistance  is  ex- 
pressed in  Ib.  and  is  equal  to  20  times  the  percentage  of  grade  plus 
the  rolling  friction  in  Ib.  per  ton,  times  the  total  weight  of  the 
train,  engine,  tender,  cars  and  load  expressed  in  tons  of  2,000  Ib. 

The  number  of  Ib.  of  coal  required  per  mile  under  the  most 


;he  percentage 
apacity  is 

6%  Ib. 
100 
.     23 

10  Ib. 
65. 

ro.4 

15  Ib. 
43.3 
17 

20  Ib. 
32.5 
14  5 

30  Ib. 
21.6 

11  .r> 

40  Ib. 
16.2 
93 

12  5 

11  5 

103 

9  3 

7  7 

66 

8.3 
6  0 

7.7 
5  6 

7.1 
5  3 

6.6 
4  9 

5.6 

4  3 

49 
3  8 

4  5 

4  3 

4  0 

38 

3  4 

3  0 

.       3.6 

2  9 

3.4 

2.8 

3.2 
2.6 

3.0 
25 

2.8 

9  0 

2.5 
2.0 

23 

2  2 

2  1 

2  0 

1  8 

16 

1  9 

1  8 

1  7 

1  6 

1  5 

1  4 

1  5 

1  5 

1  4 

1.4 

1.2 

1.1 

.       1.3 

1.2 

1.2 

1.1 

1.0 

.9 

METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  355 

favorable  conditions  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  the  number  of 
gallons  of  water.  Under  unfavorable  conditions  as  much  as  40% 
more  coal  may  be  required.  This  relation  of  coal  to  water  re- 
quired is  based  on  the  assumption  that  1  Ib.  of  coal  will  evapor- 
ate from  5  to  8  Ib.  of  water. 

Filling  in  Flats  with  Dredged  Material.  (Engineering  News, 
May  27,  1897.)  In  1874  work  was  commenced  at  Boston  for 
reclaiming  the  South  Boston  Flats,  and  this  work  consisted 
of  the  construction  of  seawalls  and  bulkheads  of  masonry,  and  • 
the  filling  of  the  remainder  of  the  area  with  dredged  materials. 
The  walls  were  packed  with  oyster  shells  and  gravel,  filling  with 
a  slope  of  45%  from  the  top  of  the  wall.  The  material  used 
for  filling  was  stiff  clay  dredged  from  the  harbor.  This  was 
distributed  by  small  cars  on  tramways  and  trestles.  The  con- 
sistency of  the  material  became  semi-fluid  by  handling,  weighing 
about  125  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.,  and  great  care  was  necessary  in  de- 
positing near  the  walls,  it  being  usually  placed  in  a  layer  4 
or  5  ft.  deep.  This  layer  was  left  for  several  weeks  in  order 
that  it  might  become  consolidated  while  work  was  going  on  in 
other  places. 

Detailed  descriptions  of  the  methods  used  in  1886  for  filling 
120  acres  are  given  by  Mr.  Frank  W.  Hodgon  in  Journal  of 
Association  of  Engineering  Societies,-  Vol.  7,  page  5.  The  ma- 
terial used  for  filling  consisted  chiefly  of  blue  and  yellow  clay 
with  some  fine  sand  and  gravel  in  places.  This  was  dredged  from 
various  parts  of  the  harbor,  placed  in  scows  that  were  floated  at 
high  water  over  the  area  to  be  filled,  and  then  dumped.  This 
process  was  continued  until  the  filling  had  reached  a  height  of 
about  3  ft.  above  mean  low  water,  that  portion  dumped  being 
an  average  of  5  ft.  in  thickness. 

To  construct  the  remaining  10  ft.  in  height  of  fill  the  material 
was  redredged  from  the  scows,  loaded  on  cars,  and  distributed  on 
trestled  tracks.  The  cars  as  a  rule,  held  7  cu.  yd.,  but  some 
held  10  cu.  yd.  The  sides  were  hinged  and  the  bottoms. were 
shaped  like  an  inverted  V,  so  that  half  the  material  was  dumped 
on  each  side  of  the  track.  The  cars  were  first  dumped  along  the 
entire  length  of  the  trestle  in  order  to  give  stability  to  the  piles 
supporting  the  trestle.  Then  dumping  was  commenced  at  the 
further  end  of  the  track. 

The  material  after  having  been  handled  several  times  was  in  a 
semi-fluid  condition  and  it  assumed  a  slope  20  to  1  or  25  to  1. 
Great  care  was  exercised  to  keep  the  dump  moving  as  otherwise 
it  would  dry  and  set  on  the  surface.  Alternate  parallel  tracks 
were  filled  first  in  order  to  prevent  the  filling  from  forcing 
adjacent  tracks  out  of  line.  Material  dredged  by  scoops  or  dipper 


356  HANDBOOK  OF.  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

dredges   in  the  first  place  and  then  loaded   into  cars  by  clam 
shell  dredges  was  broken  up  more  and  worked  better  than  when 
•    first  dug  by  and  also  loaded  by  clam  shell  dredges. 

Attempts  were  made  to  place  the  material  from  cars  that  had 
been  carried  on  scows  and  loaded  directly  at  the  dredging  site, 
but  this  material  was  firm  and  would  not  run  from  the  cars. 
Other  attempts  to  carry  the  track  directly  on  the  dump  instead 
of  on  a  trestle  failed  completely  because  the  tracks  could  not  be 
held  up. 

The  dump  was  leveled  by  men  with  wheel-barrows;  150  ft.  from 
the  track  being  about  the  economical  limit  of  haul.  Attempts 
at  spreading  the  material  with  scoops  drawn  first  by  oxen  and 
later  by  a  hoisting  engine  and  cable  were  also  unsuccessful. 

Cost  with  Horse-Drawn  Cars  and  Portable  Track.  We  are 
indebted  to  A.  W.  Sperry  for  the  following  data  appearing  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  14,  1908,  regarding  the  use 
of  steel  Koppel  cars. 

Six  to  nine  cars  were  used,  of  36-cu.  ft.  capacity,  running  on  a 
24-in.  gage  track.  These  cars  weigh  900  lb.,  and  stand  4  ft.  2  in. 
above  the  top  of  the  rail.  They  cost  about  $80  apiece.  The 
rail  was  of  20-lb.  section,  costing  about  $30  per  ton. 

The  excavation  was  made  from  a  borrow  pit  alongside  a  rail- 
road track,  with  the  result  that  no  ties  were  needed  for  the 
dirt  track,  but  the  rails  were  laid  directly  on  the  old  ties  and 
between  the  rails  of  the  standard  gage  track.  This  is  an  eco- 
nomical method  when  lighter  rails  are  used  than  those  in  the 
standard  gage  track,  but,  when  the  same  weight  rail  is  used  in 
both  tracks,  then  it  is  necessary  to  lay  only  one  rail  for  the  dirt 
track,  using  one  rail  of  the  standard  gage  track  for  the  dirt  cars. 
This  effects  a  considerable  saving  in  money  in  track.  In  all 
2,000  lin.  ft.  of  track  were  used. 

There  were  7,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  taken  from  the  lower  pit, 
and  hauled  an  average  of  1,000  ft.,  down  grade,  about  one-half 
being  a  2%  grade  and  the  other  half  a  4%  grade.  In  making 
the  fill,  at  times  the  rail  was  laid  on  grades  as  high  as  8  or 
10%.  The  cars  would  readily  coast  from  the  lower  pit,  and  were 
drawn  back  by  horses. 

The  material  was  a  glacial  deposit,  containing  from  15  to 
20%  of  large  boulders,  fully  50%  of  which  had  to  be  blasted. 
The  cost  of  blasting  is  included  in  the  record  of  cost  given 
below.  These  boulders  prevented  the  material  from  being  classed 
as  earth.  Under  most  specifications  for  excavation,  the  material 
would  have  been  classed  as  earth  and  loose  rock. 

The  cars  were  taken  to  the  dump  in  trains,  a  brakeman  being 
used  on  each  train.  Three  to  four  horses  working  single,  with 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  357 

a  driver,  hauled  the  cars  back  to  the  cut.     One  man  was  also 
used  on  the  dump,  and  he  also  attended  to  the  track  work. 
A  10-hr,  day  was  worked  and  the  following  wages  were  paid: 

Laborers     $1.40  to  $1.65 

Brakemen     1.75 

Dumpman     1.75 

Firemen     3.00 

Drillers     1.65 

Single  horse   and  driver   , 3.00 

From  35  to  45  laborers  were  used  on  the  work,  from  3  to  6 
drillers  and  2  firemen.  The  firemen  attended  to  the  blasting. 
It  was  necessary  to  build  a  temporary  trestle  across  a  highway 
at  a  cost  of  $195. 

The  following  is  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  item  of  the 
work  compiled  from  the  total  cost: 

Loading   cars    $0.215 

Temporary   trestle   across   highway    0.015 

Drillers     0.035 

Explosives     0.010 

Dumpmen  and  track  work   0.023 

Horses   and   drivers    0.045 

Brakemen     0.022 

Freight  and  hauling  on  outfit   0.025 

Depreciation  of  plant   (about  7%%)    0-015 

Superintendence     0.015 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.420 

frn'i*  I'M  ;  M'.'IU     =  '••-  •  '        :  *.!i  ,..-'     .  -.,<     |,     j.   ,.    ;      .,-J;     -'= 

Owing  to  the  large  number  of  boulders  in  this  work,  scrapers 
could  not  have  been  used  in  excavating  the  material*  The 
boulders,  too,  were  very  hard  on  the  cars;  nevertheless  the  cars 
stood  up  well  under  the  work.  Owing  to  the  down  grade,  the 
cars  were  much  more  economical  in  doing  this  work  than  either 
dump  carts  or  wagons  would  have  been. 

The  track  work  cost  about  $80  for  this  job,  thus  making  an 
average  cost  of  4  ct.  per  lin.  ft.,  or  $210  per  mile,  of  track  laid 
and  taken  up;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  no  ties  had  to 
be  laid,  as  it  was  an  "  industrial  track "  made  in  portable 
sections. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  cost  of  blasting  was  4^  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  excavated,  more  than  75%  of  the  cost  being  for  the  drill- 
ing. As  there  were  only  about  700  cu.  yd.  o*£  boulders  blasted, 
the  most  per  cu.  yd.  for  blasting  for  the  boulders  actually 
blasted  was  45  ct.  The  hauling  of  the  material  cost  nearly  7  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  class  of  material  excavated  and 
the  cost  of  blasting  and  the  temporary  trestle,  the  cost  for  the 
work  is  very  reasonable. 


358  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Portable  Railways  in  Road  Construction.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Mar.  4,  1914,  gives 'the  following: 

For  roadwork  portable  track  is  laid  along  the  side  of  the  grade 
or  along  the  shoulders,  and  extends  from  the  railway  siding, 
gravel  pit,  stone  quarry  or  other  source  of  supply  to  the  places 
where  work  is  being  done. 

The  equipment  used  on  roadwork  near  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  con- 
sisted of  about  four  miles  of  narrow-gage  portable  track,  40 
(36-x24-in.)  dump  cars  and  two  5-ton  dinkey  locomotives.  The 
cars  were  hauled  in  trains  of  12  cars  each,  the  arrangement 
being  so  made  that  there  was  always  one  train  of  loaded  cars  on 
the  way  to  the  site  of  the  work,  one  train  of  empties  returning 
for  material  and  one  train  of  cars  being  loaded.  The  average 
amount  transported  was  80  cu.  yd  per  day. 

While  hauling  stone  three  miles  from  a  crusher  at  the  quarry 
to  the  road  the  cost  of  operating  the  trains  was  as  follows: 

Fuel  and  oil  for  locomotives  and  cars   $  8.00 

Labor : 

2  enginemen    at    $2.75    5.50 

2  brakemen  at  $1.75    3.50 

1  track  foreman  at  $3   3.00 

1  track  laborer  at  $1.75     1.75 


Totals $21.75 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $0.272 

As  the  material  was  hauled  three  miles  the  labor  and  fuel 
cost  was  9  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  per  mile.  The  average  cost  of  grading 
the  shoulder  or  berm  of  the  road  ready  for  track  laying  and 
laying  track  was  between  2  and  3  ct.  per  foot  of  track. 

Cost  with  a  Light  Railway  on  Road  Work.  The  Easton  Car 
and  Construction  Co.  of  Easton,  Pa.,  furnish  the  following  data 
on  18  miles  of  road  built  for  the  state  at  Bremen,  Ind.  The 
cars  used  are  standard  1^  yd.  capacity  rocker  dump  car.  Trains 
consisted  of  from  15  to  21  cars  which  weigh  1,400  Ib.  each 
when  empty  and  hold  1%  cu.  yd.  of  wet  gravel  weighing  3,100 
Ib.  per  yd.  The  average  train  is  20  cars  or  60  tons  on  grades 
varying  from  level  to  2%  against  the  loads.  The  locomotive 
starts  this  load  on  a  grade,  as  the  grade  is  too  long  for  a  level 
start  to  do  much  good.  Curves  of  30  ft.  radius  are  used,  and  the 
portable  track  is  composed  of  20-lb.  rails  on  steel  ties  3  ft.  apart. 
This  portable  track  is  made  in  15-ft.  sections  complete  with  steel 
ties  and  fish  plates,  so  that  a  section  may  be  easily  handled 
by  two  men.  One  car  in  perhaps  five  or  six  is  equipped  with 
brakes  on  all  four  wheels,  operated  by  means  of  standard  brake 
mast  and  freight  car  type  of  hand  wheel.  The  engineer  on  the 
job  states  that  they  make  three  round  trips  in  a  9-hr,  day,  7 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  359 

miles  each  way,  or  42  miles,  which  is  an  average  of  about  5 
miles  per  hr.,  including  delays  for  loading,  switching  and  all 
other  causes.  They  fill  the  300  gal.  water  tank  after  each  trip, 
although  this  is  not  necessary.  It  takes  them  4  min.  to  fill  the 
tank  by  means  of  a  syphon  which  is  always  attached  to  the  lo- 
comotive. They  also  fill  the  coal  bunker  which  holds  approx- 
imately 400  Ib.  after  each  trip,  or  three  times  each  day ;  the  con- 
sumption of  coal  in  9  hr.  is  therefore  1,200  Ib. 

The  cost  of  hauling  per  day  of  10  hr.,"  the  haul  being  5  miles, 
is  as  follows: 

(Average  speed  including  time  for  coaling,  taking  water  and 
coupling,  5  miles  per  hr.  Actual  time  8  to  10  miles  per  hr.) 

Engineman    $  3.00 

Helper  for  switching  and  coupling  cars   ! 2.00 

Coal,   y2  ton  at  $4   2.00 

Oil  and  waste   .50 

Laying   and   taking   up   track  at  $50  per   mile  x  5   miles  =  $250    (150 

average  working  days  per  season )    1.67 

2  laborers  on  track 4.00 

Interest  and   depreciation   on   outfit  costing  $12,000,    at  20%,    includ- 
ing repairs  for  one  year  based  on  150  working  days  16.00 

Total  per  day  worked  $29.17 

Eight-ton  locomotive  will  haul  20  loaded  cars  or  more  per 
trip,  averaging  30  yd.  on  grades  up  to  2%%,  and  make  5  round 
trips  on  5  miles  haul  in  10  hr.,  or  haul  150  cu.  yd.  per  day, 
equal  to  750  cu.  yd.  miles;  cost  per  cu.  yd.  mile,  3.9  ct. 

Hauling  Macadam  Over  a  Portable  Track  in  111.  According 
to  Fred  Tarrant,  in  Engineering  News,  Feb.  18,  1915,  two  20-hp. 
locomotives,  6  miles  of  portable  track,  and  1.5-yd.  steel  dump 
cars  were  used  in  the  construction  of  a  12.5-mile  water-bound 
macadam  road,  10  ft.  wide,  in  Illinois.  Rails  and  ties  were  made 
in  15-ft.  sections,  weighing  225  Ib.  Two  flat  cars  were  used  for 
hauling  the  track,  but  trains  of  dump  cars  coupled  together 
with  6-ft.  poles  were  better. 

A  track  crew  of  four  men  could  lay  an  average  of  2,000  ft. 
of  track  per  day.  In  order  to  keep  the  track  in  good  alignment 
one  man  was  required  continuously  to  watch  and  correct  low 
joints  and  loose  connections.  i-v^-i 

By  placing  10  to  12  cars  ahead  of  the  locomotive,  and  from 
12  to  16  cars  behind  it  —  depending  upon  the  grade  —  one  lo- 
comotive could  handle  long  trains.  Where  the  grade  was  4% 
or  over,  the  engine  dropped  to  the  rear  end  of  the  train,  and 
pushed  the  forward  cars  to  the  top  of  the  hill,  returning  for 
the  other  half  of  the  train  later.  Switching  in  the  yard  was 
handled  by  a  mule.  The  equipment  on  one  job  was  rented  for 
6  months,  and  in  five  months,  35,473  cu.  yd.  of  broken  stone 


360  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

were  handled,  with  an  average  haul  of  3.17  miles,  at  a  cost  on 
the  rental  basis,  including  all  the  expenses  and  hauling  both 
ways,  of  14.8  ct.  per  ton-mile.  This  included  also  the  neces- 
sary expenses  for  the  equipment  in  first  class  shape.  Team  haul- 
ing on  this  job  was  estimated  to  cost  at  least  28  to  30  ct.  a  ton- 
mile. 

Hauling  Macadam  Over  a  Portable  Track  in  Mich.  R.  P. 
Mason,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.  7,  1915,  gives  the 
following : 

We  had  a  very  considerable  stretch  of  macadam  road  to  build 
and,  in  anticipation  of  a  continuous  program  covering  several 
years,  a  Koppel  hauling  outfit  was  purchased  consisting  of  a 
30-hp.  locomotive,  50  cars,  a  tracklaying  car  and  four  miles  of 
24-in.  gage  portable  track  with  curves  and  switches.  This 
track  is  20-lb.  rail  made  up  in  15-ft.  sections  with  seven  steel 
ties  to  the  section.  This  unit  is  readily  handled  by  two  men. 
It  is  necessary  to  have  track  that  is  really  portable  and  for  this 
reason  this  type  was  selected. 

Owing  to  the  very  narrow  gage  a  low  center  of  gravity  lo- 
eomotive  is  v6ry  desirable  and  the  selection  of  the  above  type 
with  the  water  tank  beneath  proved  to  be  wise,  as  it  kept  the 
rails  on  occasions  when  a  less  stable  engine  must  have  cap- 
sized. The  cars  have  roller  bearings  and  are  extremely  easy 
running. 

Our  season's  work  was  9.5  miles  of  16-ft.  macadam  6  in.  in 
depth  compacted,  laid  in  two  courses,  on  what  is  known  as  the 
Manistique  Trunk,  or  the  road  connecting  Escanaba  with  Man- 
istique. 

We  contracted  for  a  sufficient  supply  of  stone  to  keep  the 
outfit  busy  to  maximum  capacity,  to  be  delivered  in  hopper  bot- 
tom cars;  and  I  would  say  that  this  is  a  matter  not  to  be  over- 
looked, there  must  be  a  sufficient  and  constant  supply  of  stone 
and,  if  shipped  to  the  job,  the  railroad  equipment  must  be  in  pro- 
portion and  of  proper  and  uniform  type  of  cars  to  facilitate 
rapid  unloading,  or  the  efficiency  of  the  work  will  suffer.  The 
total  output  of  a  good  sized  quarry  is  required  to  keep  this  outfit 
busy  and,  as  we  have  handled  over  400  cu.  yd.  per  day  on  short 
and  medium  haul,  it  is  evident  that  no  small  crushing  plant  or 
undeveloped  quarry  would  keep  things  going. 

A  loader  consisting  of  a  24-ft.  belt  elevator  carrying  16-in. 
steel  buckets,  driven  by  a  6-hp.  gas  engine,  carries  the  stone  from 
a  pit  beneath  the  standard  track  into  two  small  bins  —  one  for 
the  large  stone  and  one  for  screenings  —  the  stone  being  deflected 
into  the  proper  bin  by  a  hinged  door.  A  powerful  winch  with 
steel  cable,  driven  by  the  same  engine,  is  used  to  spot  the  cars, 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  361 

both  standard  and  small.  The  pit  mentioned  is  fitted  with  a  slid- 
ing door  to  control  the  flow  of  stone  to  the  belt.  The  capacity 
of  this  loader  is  about  600  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

The  portable  track  is  laid  under  the  bins  with  a  siding  to  take 
care  of  the  empty  train.  Suitable  doors  in  the  bins  furnish  the 
means  of  filling  the  train  and  the  average  time  of  filling  a  25-car 
train  is  y2  hr.  Train  was  supposed  to  be  always  loaded  and 
ready. 

Tracklaying  is  handled  generally  by  three  to  four  men  and  a 
car  of  steel  is  sent  out  as  needed  at  the  head  end  of  the  stone 
train,  carrying  20  sections,  or  300  ft.  ^  of  track.  As  our  day's 
macadam  work  seldom  exceeded  one-eighth  of  a  mile,  two  to 
three  cars  of  steel  per  day  were  sufficient.  The  track  is  laid  on 
the  shoulder  after  the  grade  is  complete  and  made  'as  permanent 
as  possible,  for  it  is  found  that  it  pays  to  have  the  track  well 
leveled  and  solid  in  order  to  make  time  with  the  train.  At  least 
one  man  was  kept  going  over  the  track  constantly,  especially  in 
wet  weather,  to  keep  it  in  shape.  As  fast  as  any  considerable 
section  of  the  road  was  finished  the  track  was  thrown  to  the  center 
of  the  road,  the  metal  thus  giving  a  perfect  roadbed  for  the  long 
haul. 

The  speed  of  the  train  was  about  10  miles  per  hr.,  though 
that  was  not  maintained  as  an  average  on  account  of  a  number 
of  railway  grade  crossings  where  a  watchman  was  stationed 
and  where  a  short  section  of  track  had  to  be  placed  and  re- 
moved for  the  passage  of  every  train. 

Trains  of  20  cars  were  hauled  on  the  start  and  five  cars  were 
added  later,  making  25-car  trains,  and  it  is  the  intention  to 
haul  30-car  trains  this  season,  as  we  find  that  the  locomotive 
will  easily  handle  that  many  on  our  ordinary  grades.  Cars  were 
loaded  with  1^4  cu.  yd.  which,  when  dumped  at  a  standstill,  just 
made  one  course  of  the  large  stone.  The  loaded  train  is  always 
pushed  in  order  to  have  the  locomotive  back  of  the  dumped 
stone.  The  haul  was  about  3y2  miles  each  way  from  the  set-up; 
season's  average  nearly  eight  trains  per  day  and  236  cu.  yd.  per 
day  of  stone. 

The  spreading  was  done  with  a  road  machine  hauled  by  two 
teams.  When  the  cars  were  dumped  there  was  .always  some  stone 
left  in  them,  but  as  the  machine  cut  close  to  the  cars,  after  the 
second  trip  the  remainder  was  removed  with  a  rake  in  a  moment 
and  the  train  was  free  to  pull  out.  The  unloading  did  not  con- 
sume to  exceed  10  min. 

The  road  machine  finished  the  spreading  while  the  train  was 
making  another  trip  and  a  very  little  trimming  with  rakes  left 
the  road  in  perfect  condition  for  rolling. 


362  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  crew  required  was  about  as  follows: 

Loader    4  men 

Train     2  men,    engincman    and    brakciutui 

Spreading     2  teams    and   teamsters 

Spreading     5  to  7  men 

Rolling    3  men 

Sprinkling    2  teams  and  teamsters 

Foreman    1 

Watchmen 1  or  more 

Tracklaying     4 

Wages  were  $2  per  day  for  laborers,  $5  for  teams  with  team- 
sters, $3  for  rollermen,  engineman,  $90  per  month. 

Compared  with  team  haul  the  method  described  shows  a  saving 
of  about  30  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  or  nearly  $700  per  mile.  We  also 
save  39  ct.  on  our  stone  and  10  ct.  on  the  unloading,  making  a 
total  of  about  $1,800  per  mile  over  previous  prices.  The  saving 
on  haul  alone  would  be  more  marked  on  a  longer  haul.  We 
also  used  the  outfit  in  grading  where  material  had  to  be  moved 
some  distance  and  found  it  extremely  convenient  and  economical. 
Another  very  decided  advantage  of  road  building  by  this  method 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  there  is  no  hauling  over  the  road  during 
construction  and  it  is  opened  to  traffic  in  perfect  condition.  It  is 
also  easier  to  keep  the  subgrade  from  being  cut  up  and  therefore 
takes  less  stone  for  a  given  thickness. 

The  following  costs  include  everything  that  is  a  proper  charge 
to  the  work,  the  cost  of  moving  outfit  from  one  point  to  another, 
laying  up,  and  tracklaying  includes  taking  up  as  well.  Load- 
ing includes  setting  up  loader  and  in  one  case  building  a  siding 
1,000  ft.  long.  The  number  of  watchmen  makes  the  hauling  cost 
high;  a  greater  output  will  cut  down  the  spreading  and  the 
overhead  in  this  case  is  high  on  account  of  the  short  season. 

No.  of  days  worked   93 

Miles  of  finished  stone    9.44 

No.   yards   stone  used    21,920 

No.   yards  stone  used  per  mile    i .  2.310 

No.  days  to  build  mile  of  road  —  average  9.4 

No.  yards  stone  per  day   236 

Cost  of  tracklaying  per  mile  of  finished  road   $108.10 

Cost  per 
cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  stone  at  our  siding   $0.860 

Loading    trains    052 

Tracklaying     047 

Engineer     020 

Brakeman     013 

Watchmen     017 

Coal    012 

Oil,  grease  and  waste   002 

Repairs    003 

Total    . $0.114 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  363 


Interest  and  depreciation  on  hauling  outfit  $0.052 

Spreading     114 

Sprinkling     043 

Rolling     082 

Foreman  and   timekeeper    030 

Total $0.269 

Interest  and  depreciation  on  all  other  machinery   $0.040 

General    expense    •. .        .031 

Total    $0.071 

Total  cost  per  yd.   (loose)   of  finished  road  $1.418 

Cost  per  mile   $3,275.58 

Hauling  with  Gasoline  Mine  Motors.  The  installation  of  three 
gasoline  mine  motors  to  replace  mule  haulage  in  the  entries  of 
the  mines  at  Walden's  Ridge,  Tenn.,  as  described  by  G.  E.  Syl- 
vester in  Mines  and  Minerals,  has  displaced  23  mules  and  re- 
duced the  cost  of  hauling  by  49.1%.  All  the  extra  work  in  the 
mine  entry  necessary  for  the  installation  of  these  motors  was 
some  slight  trimming  to  give  ample  clearance  and  going  over  the 
track  to  replace  with  20-lb.  rail  the  places  on  the  entry  where 
a  lighter  rail  had  been  used.  The  following  is  an  abstract  of 
Mr.  Sylvester's  article  as  published  in  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, May  31,  1911: 

There  was  no  difficulty  found  by  reason  of  the  many  curves, 
as  the  motors  have  a  4-ft.  wheel  base  and  can  take  a  curve  of 
25-ft.  radius.  The  locomotives  are  6  tons  each  and  were  built 
for  the  mine  gage  of  33  in.  They  are  designed  with  4-cylinder 
engines,  of  ample  power  to  slip  the  wheels,  and  all  parts  are 
well  protected,  as  is  necessary  for  mine  use. 

The  mine  cars  used  are  about  1,400  Ib.  in  weight  and  carry 
1.2  tons  of  coal.  As  the  grade  is  in  favor  of  the  loads,  the 
empty  cars  up  the  entry  make  the  load  for  the  motor.  The 
regular  20-car  trips  are  handled  without  difficulty,  and  on  trial 
trips  40  cars  have  been  taken  up  the  entry. 

The  comparative  estimate  of  mule  and  motor  haulage  on  one 
entry  is  as  follows: 


COST  OF  COAL  HAUL  ON  NO.  2  ENTRY,  1%  MILES  OR  3  MILES 
FOR  ROUND  TRIP 

10  twenty  car  trips  equals  224  tons 

By  mules  — 

4  drivers  at  $1.65   $  6  60 

9  mules  at  $0.50    4.50 


Total  by  mules    $11.10 


364  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

By  motor  — 

1  motor-man,    per   day    $2.05 

•'..    1  coupler,    per   day    1.65 

13  gal.  gasoline  at  HVfe  ct 1.50 

2  Ib.  carbide  at  4  ct 08 

%  gal.  gasoline  engine  oil  at  23  ct 12 

1  gal.  transmission  case  oil   24 

Total  by  motor    $5.64 

iving 
Or,  49.1%. 

These  motors  use  12  to  13  gal.  of  gasoline  each  per  shift.  The 
gasoline  tanks,  of  which  there  are  two  on  each  motor,  are  so 
placed  in  the  frame  as  to  be  well  protected  in  case  of  derailment 
or  accident.  The  tank  can  only  be  filled  when  detached  from  the 
motor,  and  in  changing  these  tanks  it  is  necessary  to  have  the 
valve  closed.  There  are  two  extra  tanks  with  each  motor  and 
these  are  filled  on  the  outside.  When  brought  into  the  mine  they 
are  perfectly  sealed  until  after  being  exchanged  with  empty  tanks 
on  the  motor.  There  is  therefore  no  handling  of  exposed  gasoline 
in  the  mine.  The  motors  are  made  by  the  Geo.  D.  Whitcomb  Co. 
of  Kochelle,  111. 

Cost  of  Mine  Haulage  by  Electric  Locomotives.  Mr.  W.  F. 
Murray  is  the  author  of  an  article  on  mine  haulage  appearing  in 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  and  in  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Feb.  27,  1907. 

The  following  figures,  abstracted  from  the  latter  account,  show 
an  actual  comparison  of  cost  of  haulage  by  mules  and  by  electric 
locomotives  in  a  mine  where  14  mules  were  replaced  by  one  loco- 
motive. The  output  of  the  mine  averaged  1,500  tons  per  day 
for  245  working  days  per  year.  The  cars  weigh  2,400  Ib.  empty 
and  hold  3,600  Ib.,  making  a  total  loaded  weight  of  6,000  Ib.; 
1,500  tons  per  day  for  245  days  makes  a  total  of  367,500  tons 
yearly  output. 

Cost  of  Mule  Haulage.  Mules  cost  $180  each  and  harness  $25 
per  set.  The  investment  cost  for  mule  haulage  is  therefore  as 
follows : 

14  mules  at  $180  $2,520 

14  sets  of  harness  at  $25  350 

Total    $2,870 

Figuring  annual  depreciation  at  20%  and  interest  at  6%  we 
have  for  interest  and  depreciation  charges: 

Depreciation  on  $2,870  at  20%    $574 

Interest  on  $2,870  at  6%    172 

Total $746 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  365 

It  costs  50  ct.  per  mule  per  day  for  feeding,  care  and  repairing 
harness.  The  wages  of  drivers  are  $2.80  per  day.  In  addition, 
it  is  the  custom  in  the  West,  where  mule  haulage  is  employed,  to 
have  a  boss  driver  whose  duties  consist  of  directing  the  drivers 
to  the  different  rooms,  of  seeing  that  the  diggers  have  sufficient 
cars,  etc.  The  boss  driver's  wages  in  this  case  were  $85  per 
month.  We  have  then: 

14  mules  245  days  at  $0.50   $1,715 

6  drivers   245  days   at  $2.80    4,116 

1  boss  driver  12  months  at  $85   1,020 


Total • $6,851 

The  total  tonnage  hauled  being  367,500  tons,  we  have  by  divid- 
ing this  sum  into  the  above  totals  the  following  costs  per  ton 
hauled : 

Depreciation  and  interest  on  plant  0.20  ct. 

Labor  and  keep  of  mules   1.86  ct. 

Total  per  ton   2.06  ct. 

Cost  of  Electric  Haulage.  Compared  with  mule  haulage  the 
investment  in  "  plant "  for  electric  haulage  is  high.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  figures: 

Engine,   locomotive,    boiler   and   generator    $9,000 

Switches,  insulators  and  wire   1,200 

Cost  of  erecting,   etc 1,000 

Total $11,200 

The  interest  on  investment  and  the  cost  of  repairs  and  de- 
preciation are  as  follows: 

Interest  on  $11,200  at  6%   $    672 

Depreciation  on  boilers,  engines,  etc.,  at  9%   810 

Depreciation  on  switches,   wires,  etc.,   at  5%    110 

Repairs  on  boilers,  engines,  etc.,  at  9%   810 

Repairs  on  switches,  wires,  etc.,   at  5%   110 

Total    $2,512 

The  cost  of  labor  and  supplies  are  figured  as  follows: 

Engineman  at  $75  per  month  ..." '. $    900.00 

Fireman  at  $85  per  month   1,020.00 

Motorman  at  $2.80  per  day   686.00 

Nipper  on  motor  at  $1.50  per  day  367.00 

Oil  and   waste    100.00 

Sand     .  50.00 


Total    $3,123.50 

The  total  is  too  small  by  the  amount  of  the  cost  of  coal  re- 
quired to  run  the  boilers.     In  reply  to  a  letter  calling  the  omis- 


300  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

sion  to  Mr.  Murray's  attention,  we  are  informed  that  the  cost 
of  the  coal  consumed  must  be  charged  to  several  items  of  work, 
such  as  pumps  and  fans,  as  well  as  to  haulage,  and  that  "  after 
considering  the  cost  of  coal  consumed  the  advantage  is  in  favor 
of  the  locomotive."  Taking  the  figures  as  they  stand  and  di- 
viding 367,500  tons  into  the  totals,  we  have  the  following  costs 
per  ton  hauled : 

Depreciation,  interest  and  repairs  0.68  ct. 

Labor  and  supplies   0.85  ct. 


Total     1.53  ct. 

Comparison  of  Costs.  A  comparison  of  the  two  methods  of 
haulage  on  the  basis  of  cost  per  ton  hauled  gives  according  to  the 
above  figures  the  following: 

Mule  haulage,   ct.  per  ton    2.06 

Electric  haulage,   ct.  per  ton    1.53 


Difference  in  favor  of  electricity 0.53 

This  difference  would  be  somewhat  less,  it  is  to  be  noted,  were 
the  cost  of  fuel  charged  into  the  cost  for  electric  haulage.  In 
round  figures,  the  saving  by  electric  haulage  in  place  of  mule 
haulage  is  barely  }£  ct.  per  ton,  or  for  367,500  tons  a  saving  of 
$1,837  per  year.  In  discussing  these  figures  Mr.  Murray  says: 

"  These  estimates,  taken  from  an  actual  case,  show  a  consider- 
able difference  in  favor  of  electric  haulage.  The  cost  of  installing 
mechanical  haulage  is  greater  than  when  a  mine  is  supplied  with 
mules;  however,  when  we  consider  the  cost  of  erecting  a  stable 
and  the  great  loss  due  to  mules  killed  in  accidents,  the  initial 
expenditure  is  not  so  favorable  to  the  use  of  mules. 

"  The  chief  advantage  in  using  mules  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
mule  can  enter  any  portion  of  the  mine  unhindered,  while  the 
locomotive  cannot  leave  the  trolley.  Another  lact  worthy  of 
consideration  is  the  difference  in  weight  of  the  rails  that  may  be 
used  in  each  system;  by  mule  power,  steel  as  light  as  16  Ib.  can 
be  used,  while  in  other  systems  it  is  not  advisable  to  lay  less  than 
35-lb.  rails.  Also  with  locomotives  an  additional  expense  must 
be  incurred,  in  bonding  the  rails. 

Central-Control,  Electrical  Car  Haulage.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, May  18,  1910,  gives  the  following: 

A  considerable  part  of  the  clay  excavated  from  the  North  Shore 
Drainage  Canal,  Chicago,  will  in  time  be  used  by  the  National 
Brick  Co.  for  making  brick.  This  company  has  the  contract  to 
remove  the  spoil  banks  for  a  part  of  the  canal  through  the  city 
of  Evanston,  111.,  and  also  has  a  contract  for  excavating  another 
part  of  the  canal  known  as  Section  8A.  At  present  the  work  of 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  367 

excavation  is  going  on  at  a  rate  required  by  the  brick  company 
to  obtain  only  as  much  clay  as  it  uses  for  the  manufacture  of 
brick.  After  the  canal  is  completed  the  company  will  concern 
itself  with  the  removal  of  the  spoil  banks  left  on  other  sections. 

For  the  work  of  excavation  proper,  two  70-ton  steam  shovels 
are  used  and  these  are  worked  side  by  side  in  the  cut  and  up 
against  the  dead  end  of  the  canal  section.  The  distinctive  feature 
of  the  plant  is  that  the  clay  is  hauled  by  motor-driven  dump  cars, 
moving  in  a  continuous  circuit  and  operated  by  a  central-control 
electric  haulage  system.  Car  movements  are  controlled,  except 
during  dumping,  by  one  man  located  in  a  tower  in  such  a  posi- 
tion as  to  command  a  general  view  of  the  work.  This  is  one  of 
the  first  applications  of  this  system  on  contract  work.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  cost  is  not  more  than  that  of  a  haulage  system 
of  equal  capacity  equipped  with  locomotives  (which  latter  would 
require  at  least  three  times  the  number  of  cars),  while  the  cost 
of  operation  is  materially  lower  than  that  for  the  locomotive 
haulage  system.  The  equipment  for  this  work  consists  of  a 
power  plant,  10  cars,  and  about  a  mile  of  narrow-gage  track. 

The  power  plant  consists  of  a  55-KW.  generator  belted  to  a 
60-hp.  engine.  This  plant  supplies  current  for  lights  and  for 
power.  The  current  is  carried  on  a  third  rail,  of  12  Ib.  section, 
which  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  track.  The  tracks  are  of 
30-lb.  rail  and  3-ft.  gage. 

The  cars  are  of  3  cu.  yd.  capacity  and  their  weight,  when  empty, 
is  about  4,400  Ib.  Each  car  is  equipped  with  a  single  motor  of 
about  12  hp.  capacity  and  with  contact  shoes  taking  current  from 
the  third  rail.  The  motors  are  of  special  design,  and  each  has  in 
connection  with  it  a  solenoid  brake  which  forms  a  part  of  the 
electric  control  system.  The  brakes  and  controlling  mechanism 
are  operated  by  current  taken  from  the  third  rail  at  a  reduc-.d 
voltage  from  that  for  normal  propulsion. 

The  track  arrangement  on  which  these  cars  are  operated  is 
merely  a  double  track  with  a  cross-over  at  each  end.  At  the 
loading  end  the  track  ends  in  a  30-ft.  stub  lying  between  the 
steam  shovels.  The  loaded  cars  pass  from  here  for  a  short  dis- 
tance on  level  grade,  but  in  rising  out  of  the  canal  cut  the  track 
is  on  a  temporary  trestle  laid  at  a  12%  grade.  The  tracks  pass 
along  the  bank  of  the  canal  to  the  brickyard  and  up  again  onto  a 
trestle,  where  they  are  dumped  by  hand. 

The  novel  feature  of  the  haulage  system  is  the  control  of  all 
the  cars  by  one  man  from  a  central  point.  The  control  of  the 
cars  consists  of  starting  them  from  the  shovel,  bringing  them  up 
the  incline  and  along  the  top  of  the  canal  bank  to  the  dumping 
platform  and  starting  them  on  their  downward  trip.  In  case  of 


368  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

emergency  a  car  may  be  stopped  or  started  on  any  portion  of 
the  track,  but  ordinarily  the  operation  is  continuous.  Upon  the 
down-grades  the  car  is  automatically  governed  as  to  speed,  usu- 
ally requiring  no  attention  from  the  operator.  The  car  by  its 
momentum,  on  down-grade,  becomes  its  own  motive  power  and 
the  motor  becomes  a  generator.  The  motors  are  series  wound  and 
it  is  only  necessary  to  reverse  the  armature  connection  to  make 
them  act  as  generators.  A  certain  amount  of  resistance  is 
mounted  upon  the  car  and  so  adjusted  as  to  form  sufficient  elec- 
trical load  upon  the  motor,  working  as  a  generator,  to  hold  the 
car  to  a  certain  calculated  speed.  This  operation  forms  the 
"dynamic  brake"  and  will  never  allow  a  car  under  any  condi- 
tion to  attain  a  greater  speed  on  down-grade  than  this  set  speed. 
The  conductor  rail  is  divided  into  sections  ( separated  by  insulated 
joints),  each  section  having  independent  connection  with  the 
controlling  apparatus  at  the  tower,  or  control  station.  Thus 
the  cars  on  each  section  can  be  controlled  independently  of  those 
on  any  other  section.  With  more  than  one  car  on  a  section, 
however,  all  these  cars  are  controlled  as  a  unit.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  tower  man  to  keep  the  shovels  supplied  with  an  empty  car 
at  all  times  and  so  to  distribute  the  empty  cars  on  their  return 
to  the  shovels  that  there  will  be  continuous  operation  without 
"  bunching  "  the  cars. 

The  advantage  of  the  operation  of  individual  cars  over  that 
of  trains  is  quite  apparent.  When  one  car  is  loaded  it  is  not 
compelled  to  wait  for  the  other  cars  to  be  loaded,  as  is  the 
case  where  cars  are  hauled  in  trains.  A  car  loaded  at  the  shovel 
will  be  1,000  ft.  on  its  way  before  the  next  car  is  loaded.  This 
makes^  it  possible  to  keep  all  the  cars  working  all  the  time  and 
avoids  keeping  more  than  one  car  waiting  for  loading  or  un- 
loading at  any  one  time.  It  is  claimed  that  this  system  operates 
with  only  one-third  of  the  cars  required  when  trains  are  used. 
Another  advantage  is  that  these  cars,  on  account  of  their  light 
weight  as  compared  to  a  dinky  engine  required  for  a  train,  do 
not  require  as  heavy  rails  nor  so  much  labor  to  keep  tracks  in 
condition  and  ballasted  as  is  required  where  engines  are  used. 

The  outlay  for  this  equipment  was  about  $28,000.  During  the 
first  year  the  maintenance  cost  was  abnormally  high,  due  to 
the  fact  that  no  electrical  man  had  been  employed  to  look  after 
the  equipment.  During  the  second  year,  however,  a  careful  cost 
was  kept  on  the  maintenance  and  the  cost  given  amounted  to 
$505  for  the  entire  year.  The  system  used  is  the  invention  of 
Mr.  F.  E.  Woodford,  President  Woodford  Engineering  Co.,  Chi- 
cago, 111. 

Cars  Hauled  by  Cables.      (Engineering  News,  May  21,  1903.) 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


369 


On  parts  of  the  work  of  constructing  the  P.  C.,  &  W.  R..R.  in 
Ohio,  the  dump  cars  were  hauled  by  cables  from  a  hoisting  engine. 
On  one  section  four  3-yd.  dump  cars,  weighing  empty  2,500  Ib. 
each,  were  pulled  by  a  cable  from  a  hoisting  engine  on  the  bank 
above  and  ahead  of  the  shovel.  The  cars  coasted  down  to  the 
dump  by  gravity  and  were  hauled  a  short  distance  to  the  trestle 
by  a  team.  Much  time  would  have  been  saved  had  a  double 
drum  engine,  two  cables,  two  trains,  and  a  switch  been  provided. 
On  another  section  where  the  haul  was  1,600  ft.,  one  hoist  was 
located  above  the  shovel  and  the  other  one  half  way  down  the 
hill  to  the  dump.  Snubbing  posts  were  used  to  guide  the  cable 
around  curves.  Two  trains  of  4  cars  each  kept  the  shovel  busy, 
the  waiting  time  which  the  loaded  cars  were  being  replaced 
by  empties  at  the  shovel  being  about  2  min. 


Fig.  10.     Tramming  System  in  Use  at  One  of  the  Shale  Pits  of 
the  Purington   Brick  Co. 


Tramming  System  Used  in  a  Shale  Pit.  According  to  Engi- 
neering-Contracting, Mar.,  1906,  a  highly  economical  tramming 
system  for  steam  shovel  work  has  been  in  use  at  Galesburg,  111., 
in  one  of  the  shale  pits  of  the  Purington  Paving  Brick  Co. 

In  this  work  the  dinkey  locomotive  occupies  a  position  inter- 
mediate between  two  trains  of  cars  which  deliver  two  ways  to  the 
bottom  of  two  machines  leading  to  the  hoppers  of  the  clay  ma- 
chine at  each  end  of  the  pit.  The  cars  are  of  2  cu.  yd.  capacity 
each,  and  the  locomotive  keeps  20  of  these  going,  tramming  them 
alternately  in  teams  of  six  and  four  cars  two  ways  to  the  ends 
of  the  pit,  whence  they  are  hauled,  two  at  a  time,  to  the  hop- 
pers. When  empty  the  cars  run  down  by  gravity  and  are 
switched  automatically  to  the  empty  track. 


370 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Spotting  Cars.  A  device  shown  in  Fig.  1 1  is  used  to  haul  cars 
into  position  at  the  shovel.  This  consists  of  a  long  cylinder  and 
piston  into  which  exhaust  steam  is  admitted.  The  amount  of 
steam  and  time  consumed  in  moving  cars  a  short  distance,  from 
5  to  7  ft.,  with  this  device  is  so  small  as  to  be  negligible. 


Body  of  Steam  Shovel 


Fig.    11.     Device   Used   for   Spotting    Cars. 

Steam  Shovel  Work.  A  90-ton  Marion  steam  shovel,  of  5  cu. 
yd.  dipper  capacity,  but  fitted  with  a  2  cu.  yJ.  capacity  dipper 
was  used.  With  this,  digging  from  a  50  ft.  bank  an  average 
of  17,422  cu.  yd.  of  shale  was  handled  per  month  of  26  9-hr, 
days,  or  670  cu.  yd.  per  day.  It  is  estimated  that  this  is  less 
than  one-half  the  amount  that  could  be  handled  were  the  shovel 
digging  loose  gravel.  As  it  is,  the  shovel  is  digging  only  one- 
third  of  the  time.  The  material  was  delivered  to  twenty  2-cu.  yd. 
cars,  trammed  two  ways,  1,500  ft.  and  2,000  ft.  respectively,  to 
bottom  of  two  inclines,  and  then  hoisted  by  cable  to  an  elevation 
of  20  ft.  above  the  track  and  dumped  into  the  hoppers  of  the 
machines. 

The  cost  per  month  of  26  working  days  of  9  hr.  each  for  the 
steam  shovel  work  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

1  engineman     $110.00 

1  crane   man   85.00 

1  fireman,  22  ct.  per  hr 52.65 

3  track  men    (shovel),  17%  ct.  per  hr 128.85 

1  locomotive  engineman    80.00 

1  switchman,    20  ct.   per  hr 46.80 

*2  hoistmen,  20  ct.  per  hr 93.60 

39  tons   coal,   for  shovel,   $2   78.00 

13  tons  coal    (locomotive),   $2    26.00 

26  tons  coal    (hoist),  $2    52.00 


Total   per   month    , 

Hoistmen  dump  the  cars. 


. .     $752.90 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


371 


As  17,422  cu.  yd.  of  shale  were  handled  per  month,  the  labor 
and  fuel  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was  4.3  ct.  The  charges  for  superin- 
tendence, oil,  waste  and  incidentals  are  not  included  in  the 
above  estimate;  adding  these  .the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  amounts  to 
practically  5  ct. 

A  Cable  Haulage  Plant.  In  Engineering  News,  Jan.  21, 
1904,  is  an  article  describing  the  plant  of  the  Bronson  Portland 
Cement  Co.  in  detail. 


Fig.  12.     Sketch  Showing  Track  Arrangement  at  Mills. 

The  marl  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  cement  is  dredged 
from  under  water  by  a  dipper  dredge,  equipped  with  a  1^-yd. 
bucket  and  digging  to  depths  of  30  ft.  The  dredge  loads  directly 
into  cars.  These  cars  were  formerly  drawn  by  horses  but  the 
increased  capacity  of  the  plant  required  a  more  rapid  method  of 
transportation.  As  the  marsh  was  overlaid  by  a  2  to  5-ft.  layer 
of  unstable  muck  the  use  of  heavy  engines  was  impracticable, 
so  a  cable  haulage  system  was  installed. 


Fig.   13. 


Sketch   Showing  Manner  of  Carrying  Haulage  Rope 
Around  Curves. 


The  1^-yd.  steel  dump  cars  are  hauled  in  trains  of  ten  or 
more,  being  "  spotted  "  from  the  engine  room  in  accordance  with 
signals  by  rope  and  bell  made  by  a  trip  rider.  Fig.  12  shows 
the  arrangement  of  the  tracks  and  Fig.  13  the  method  used  in 
carrying  the  haulage  cable  around  the  curve. 

The  full  width  of  the  dredge  cut  is  excavated  on  one  side,  the 
track  being  laid  as  the'  cutting  proceeds.  Then  the  full  width  is 


372  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

excavated  on  the  other  side.  Finally,  by  means  of  a  float  or 
barge  made  of  oil  barrels  to  hold  the  empty  cars,  the  space  where 
the  track  was  laid  is  excavated,  taking  all  the  territory  an 
entire  width  of  175  ft.  for  each  track. 

The  hauling  engine  is  a  double  10-  x  16-in.  cylinder  engine. 
The  rails  weigh  35  Ib.  per  yd.  and  are  laid  on  8-ft.  cedar  or  tam- 
arack ties.  The  haulage  cable  is  of  %-in.  plow  steel,  the  haul 
rope  being  5,500  ft.  long,  and  the  tail  rope  1,100  ft.  long.  As 
may  be  seen,  the  track  leads  up  a  trestle  inclined  at  a  grade 
of  6.37°  to  the  mill.  At  the  top  is  a  track  large  enough  for 
12  cars,  descending  at  a  1%  grade  into  the  building.  Alongside 
this  is  a  side  tr,ack  for  empties.  The  cars  are  drawn  into  the 
building  by  a  separate  tail  rope  cable.  When  the  cars  reach 
a  point  directly  above  the  bins,  the  tail  rope  is  quickly  disen- 
gaged and  immediately  attached  to  the  empty  train,  the  short  tail 
rope  cable  being  attached  at  the  same  time.  The  haulage  rope 
is  likewise  transferred,  and  the  empties  are  pulled  out  without 
delay.  The  loaded  cars  are  dumped  by  two  men,  and  the  cars 
washed  out  with  a  jet  or  hose.  These  cars  after  being  dumped 
are  hauled  to  the  siding  by  passing  the  rear  short  cable  around 
a  sheave  on  the  side  track. 

The  force  required  is  as  follows :  Dredge,  3  men ;  trip  rider,  1 ; 
track  cleaner,  1 ;  dump-men,  2.  An  average  of  1^  men  in  addi- 
tion is  required  for  laying  and  removing  track.  Ten  cars  are 
loaded  in  from  6  to  10  min.,  and  a  round  trip  about  6  min.  The 
output  is  about  30  cars  or  50  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  More  than  60,000 
cars  were  delivered  in  8  months. 

Life  of  Cable  on  an  Engine  Incline.  The  life  of  a  %-in.  wire 
cable  used  to  haul  cars  on  an  incline  operated  in  connection  with 
steam  shovels  on  the  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Canal  was  150,000 
cu.  yd.  of  solid  rock,  cars  being  hauled  350  ft.  horizontally  and 
60  ft.  vertically.  Details  of  the  methods  and  cost  of  that  work 
are  given  in  Chapter  XVI  of  Gillette's  "  Rock  Excavation." 

Flat  Car  Unloaders.  Flat  cars  are  ordinarily  unloaded  with 
an  unloading  plow  designed  for  the  purpose.  The  car  carrying 
the  plow  or  scraper  is  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  "  mud  train  " 
of  10  to  30  cars.  One  end  of  a  1^4-in.  wire  cable  is  hooked  to  the 
plow  and  the  other  end,  which  is  attached  to  an  ordinary  car 
coupling  link,  is  coupled  to  a  car  or  to  the  engine.  Usually  this 
cable  is  400  ft.  long  and  extends  -over  12  cars.  The  brakes  on 
all  these  12  cars  are  set  tight,  and  the  engine  is  started  with 
the  forward  cars  if  there  are  more  than  12  in  the  train.  If  the 
rear  12  cars  are  pulled  along,  blocks  are  laid  on  the  track  to  hold 
them,  or  a  few  cars  may  be  chained  to  the  track.  The  engine 
moves  ahead  at  a  rate  of  2  or  3  miles  an  hour,  until  the  plow 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


373 


has  traveled  the  length  of  the  12  cars,  and  the  material  is  thus 
scraped  off  the  side  of  the  cars.  The  engine  is  backed  up  a  few 
feet,  when  4  to  G  men  throw  the  cable  off  to  one  side.  Then  the 
remaining  full  cars  are  backed  up  to  the  last  half  empty  car 
where  the  plow  is,  the  cable  is  coupled  to  the  engine  and  the  plow 
pulled  forward  as  before.  The  plow  is  left  on  the  last  car  which 
is  unloaded  by  the  next  train.  The  time  of  unloading  is  10  to 
30  min.,  average  20  min.,  the  engine  doing  as  much  in  that  time 
as  8  or  10  men  would  do  in  a  day. 

When  unloading  on  curves  the  time  is  longer,  for  snatch  blocks 
must   be   used  to  keep   the  -cable   on   the   cars.     A   snatch   block 


Fig.   14.     Side  Unloader.     Made  by  Marion  Steam  Shovel  Co., 
Marion,  Ohio. 


every  third  car  is  generally  enough.  The  cable  passes  over  the 
snatch  block  sheave,  and  the  block  is  held  with  a  chain  passing 
over  the  side  of  the  car,  and  fastened  to  the  bolster  or  arch  bar 
of  the  car.  When  the  plow  reaches  a  snatch  block  it  must  be 
stopped,  the  block  and  chain  being  removed  and  carried  forward. 
Unloading  this  way  takes  about  twice  as  long  as  on  straight 
track. 

When  much"  material  is  to  be  handled  on  flat  cars,  two  things 
should  be  done;  (1)  the  cars  should  all  be  rigged  with  hinged 
sideboards  that  can  be  dropped  down  when  unloading,  for  then 
a  car  will  carry  14  cu.  yd.;  (2)  and  a  hoisting  engine  should  be 
rigged  upon  a  car  by  itself  for  the  purpose  of  pulling  the  plow 


374  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

cable  instead  of  using  the  locomotive  for  that  purpose.  A  10-  x  12- 
in.  double  cylinder  engine  with  a  1-in.  cable  for  loose  gravel, 
1%-in.  for  heavier  material,  will  unload  a  train  of  cars  often 
in  half  the  time  taken  by  locomotives,  since  the  cars  need  not  be 
blocked  or  chained  to  the  track,  and  there  is  little  danger  of 
breaking  the  cable  as  often  happens  where  a  locomotive  pulls 
the  plow,  Furthermore,  since  this  unloading  engine  on  its  car 
is  a  part  of  the  "  mud  train,"  it  can  do  the  unloading  while  the 
whole  train  is  moving  ahead,  and  thus  spread  the  material  along 
a  greater  length  of  track. 


Fig.  15.     Center  Unloader.     Made  by  Marion  Steam  Shovel  Co., 
Marion,  Ohio: 

After  the  material  is  unloaded  by  a  plow  alongside  a  track  it 
can  be  most  economically  spread  with  a  leveler  or  spreader. 
This  spreader  is  a  car  provided  with  projecting  side  wings  which 
can  be  raised  by  a  winch  when  not  in  use. 

The  spreader  car  is  loaded  with  5  to  15  tons  of  scrap  to  hold 
it  to  its  work,  and  moves  at  6  to  10  miles  per  hr.,  thus  leveling 
off  a  ridge  a  mile  long  in  6  to  10  min.  Ordinarily  the  spreading 
is  done  by  the  last  train  before  the  close  of  the  day,  but  in 
freezing  weather  spreading  must  be  done  oftener.  . 

Hauling  and  Unloading  on  the  Panama  Canal.  In  1908,  ac- 
cording to  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  26,  1908,  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  Commission  had  27  unloading  plows  in  use.  These 
were  of  the  right  hand,  left  hand,  and  center  dump,  types.  Used 
in  connection  with  them  were  18  Lidgerwood  unloaders. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  OARS  375 

From  the  Cule*bra  Cut  to  the  Tabervilla  dump,  trains  of  17 
cars  were  used  to  carry  earth  and  rock.  These  trains  were 
loaded  under  the  shovel  and  carried  directly  to  the  dump  without 
being  made  up  a  second  time,  the  distance  being  16  miles.  On 
June  23,  54  of  these  trains  were  unloaded  by  four  unloaders  in 
8  hr.,  handling  a  total  of  17,280  cu.  yd.  This  is  at  the  rate  of 
4,320  cu.  yd.  per  machine,  being  540  cu.  yd.  handled  per  hr. 
for  each  machine. 

The  canal  commission  used  four  styles  and  sizes  of  cars:  The 
large  Lidgerwood  flats,  20-ycl.  Western  side  dumps,  12-yd.  Western 
and  Oliver  side  dumps  and  the  old  French  6-yd.  dump  cars.  The 
Culebra  or  Central  division  in  order  to  reduce  their  loads  to 
place  measurement  allowed  the  following  loads  per  car: 

Lidgerwood  flats,  20  cu.  yd. 

20-yd.  Western  dumps,  17  cu.  yd. 

12-yd.  Western  and  Oliver  dumps,  10  cu.  yd. 

6-yd.  French  dumps,  5  cu.  yd. 

One  train  made  up  of  12-yd.  Western  dump  cars  hauling  from 
Culebra  to  Mamei  dump,  nine  miles,  loaded,  hauled  and  dumped 
294  cars  in  6  days,  being  3,528  cu.  yd.  loose  measurement  or 
2,940  cu.  yd.  place  measurement.  This  meant  490  cu.  yd.  place 
measurement  handled  by  this  train  a  day.  This  was  the  highest 
record  made  by  a  train  using  these  cars  and  running  to  this 
dump.  With  a  train  made  up  of  12  cars,  this  meant  4  round 
trips  per  day,  or  a  distance  of  72  miles  traveled  in  8  hr.  by  the 
train.  The  efficiency  of  the  larger  cars  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
a  train  of  24-yd.  flat  cars,  making  a  haul  of  16  miles,  carried 
to  the  dump  960  cu.  yd.  place  measurement  per  day,  as  compared 
to  490  cu.  yd.  place  measurement  with  12-yd.  cars  on  a  nine  mile 
haul. 

Methods  of  Handling  TInloader  Plow  Cables.  In  The  Rose 
Technic,  Oct.,  1903,  Wm.  S.  Hawley  has  an  article  on  grading 
railroads  which  contains  a  description  of  a  method  used  for  un- 
reeling an  unloader  plow  cable. 

A  Lidgerwood  unloader  engine  operated  the  1^-in.  plow  cable. 
This  was  long  enough  to  stretch  over  30  cars.  To  unreel  the 
cable  its  end  was  attached  to  a  chain  stretched  across  the  track 
between  two  piles.  These  two  piles  were  driven  about  14  ft. 
center  to  center,  one  on  each  side  of  the  track,  with  their  tops 
about  8  ft.  above  the  rails.  A  short  length  of  chain,  the  ends  of 
which  were  hooked  together  when  the  cable  was  ready  to  be  un- 
reeled, was  fastened  to  each  pile.  After  the  cable  had  been  fas- 
tened to  the  chains  the  train  moved  forward,  thereby  pulling  it 
out. 

The  cars  held   12  cu.  yd.  each,  and   there  were   15   cars   in   a 


376  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

train.  Eacli  car  had  a  wooden  apron/  one  end  of  which  rested 
on  the  next  car,  thus  forming  a  continuous  floor  over  which 
the  plow  traveled.  The  material,  after  being  dumped,  was  leveled 
by  a  spreader  with  air-operated  wings.  This  machine  leveled  to 
a  distance  of  18  ft.  from  the  center  of  the  track. 

In  Engineering  Record,  Feb.  17,  1900,  the  construction  of  the 
Jerome  Park  Reservoir  is  described.  A  50-hp.  engine  operated  a 
Lidgerwood  plow  used  for  unloading  the  cars.  The  train  gener- 
ally consisted  of  a  flat  car  carrying  a  Lidgerwood  unloader  en- 
gine, followed  by  an  empty  car  at  the  front  end,  after  which  came 
12  cars  holding  120  tons  of  rock  or  earth,  and  finally  at  the 
rear  end,  a  flat  car  carrying  the  plow.  The  train  was  drawn 
onto  one  of  five  parallel  tracks  which  were  spanned  by  a  wire 
cable  stretching  between  the  tops  of  two  30-ft.  posts  guyed 
to  deadmen.  A  second  and  parallel  cable  was  stretched  5  ft. 
below  the  tops  of  the  posts,  and  the  two  cables  were  connected 
by  vertical  ropes  to  the  center  of  the  track.  Another  short 
manila  rope  with  a  loop  at  its  lower  end  was  attached  to  each 
vertical  tie.  When  the  drum  of  rope  on  the  car  reached  a  point 
beneath  the  cable  the  end  of  the  plow  rope  was  hooked  on  to  the 
manila  rope,  the  train  moved  forward,  and  when  the  plow  reached 
the  same  point,  the  cable  was  detached  from  the  loop  and  at- 
tached to  the  plow.  The  plow  was  then  drawn  forward  until 
it  reached  the  empty  car  in  the  rear  of  the  unloader.  The  12 
cars  were  unloaded  by  this  method  in  about  5  min. 

Recommendations  for  Using  Cars  on  Steam  Shovel  Work.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  May  1,  1907,  gives  the  following: 

In  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Roadway,  of  the  American 
Railway  Engineering  and  Maintenance  of  Way  Association,  the 
following  questions  were  asked  and  answered.  Hoiv  many  Pit- 
men f  From  three  to  eight  are  recommended;  but  under  ordinary 
circumstances  the  committee  recommends  four  men. 

Would  it  be  advisable  to  have  shovel  made  to  swing  back  of  the 
jack  arm  so  that  cars  can  be  loaded  in  tunnel  or  rock  work  where 
entrance  is  narrow  and  cars  cannot  be  pulled  beyond  shovel?  Re- 
plies in  favor,  13;  against,  23. 

Form  of  Shovel  Track.  "  T  "  rails  on  ties  are  mentioned  by  12 
members,  chain  rails  are  mentioned  by  5  members,  rails  on 
stringers  are  mentioned  by  two  members.  The  committe  recom- 
mends "  T  "  rails  on  ties. 

Length  of  Pieces  for  Ordinary  Work.  The  replies  vary  from  3^ 
to  6  ft.  The  committee  recommends  6  ft. 

What  Form  of  Joint.  The  replies  are  as  follows,  viz.:  Strap, 
27;  chair,  5;  lap,  2;  link  and  pin,  1;  hasp,  1;  U-bolt,  1.  The 
committee  recommends  strap  joints. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  377 

What  Gage  of  Track  for  Dump  Cars?     Standard,  32;   narrow, 
3.     The  committee  recommends  standard. 

What  style  and  capacity  of  cars,  namely,  dump  cars,  flat  cars, 
cars  with  sides  for  plows  and  unloaders  or  other  special  forms, 
would  you  prefer  for  the  following  kinds  of  work?  (1)  Cut 
under  6  ft.,  haul  less  than  one  mile:  Replies  to  circular  letter 
all,  except  one,  favor  the  ordinary  Contractors'  Dump  Cars,  with 
varying  capacities.  The  committee  recommends  6-cu.  yd.  dump 
cars.  (2)  Cut  under  6  ft.,  haul  one  to  six  miles:  6  members 
favor  5-yd.  dump  cars,  2  members  favor  12-yd.  dump  car,  3  mem- 
bers favor  standard  flat  car,  9  members  favor  standard  car,  with 
permanent  sides.  The  committee  recommends  standard  car  with 
permanent  sides  with  swinging  hinged  doors  and  cars  connected 
by  aprons.  (3)  Cut  under  6  ft.,  haul  six  miles  or  over:  7-yd. 
dump  car  is  recommended  by  5  members,  30-yd,  dump  car  is  rec- 
ommended by  1  member,  standard  flat  car  is  recommended  by 
14  members,  car  with  permanent  sides  is  recommended  by  10 
members.  The  committee  recommends  same  car  as  given  in  con- 
nection with  (2).  (4)  Cut  over  6  ft.,  haul  not  less  than  one 
mile:  9  members  favor  5-yd.  dump  car,  3  members  favor  12-yd. 
dump  car,  1  member  favors  15-yd.  dump  car,  9  members  favor 
standard  flat  car,  10  members  favor  standard  car  with  per- 
manent sides.  The  committee  recommends  6-yd.  dump  car.  (5) 
Cut  over  6  ft.,  haul  one  to  six  miles:  Replies  received  all,  ex- 
cept one,  favor  either  standard  flat  car  or  standard  car  with 
permanent  sides.  The  committee  recommends  car  described  un- 
der ( 2 ) .  Cut  over  6  ft.,  haul  over  six  miles :  8  replies  favor 
dump  cars  varying  from  5  yd.  to  30  yd.  capacity;  12  are  in 
favor  of  standard  flat  car  and  9  recommend  standard  car  with 
permanent  sides.  The  committee  recommends  car  described 
under  (2). 

The  committee  recognizes  the  fact  that  the  standard  com- 
mercial flat  car  must  frequently  be  used,  and  when  this  is  neces- 
sary, especial  care  should  be  taken  to  cover  certain  important 
matters :  ( 1 )  See  that  the  car  is  strong  enough  for  the  pur- 
pose. (2)  Note  that  brake-wheels  are  in  good  condition,  and  in 
case  material  is  to  be  plowed  off",  these  must  be  placed  at  side 
of  car.  (3)  Care  should  be  taken  that  stake  pockets  are  in 
good  condition  and  not  spaced  too  far  apart.  Four  feet  apart 
in  center  of  car  and  closer  at  ends  is  considered  good  practice. 
(4)  See  that  the  stakes  are  strong  enough  to  prevent  accident  or 
derailment  of  plow. 

Where  dirt  is  dumped  from  trestle  in  fill  for  haul  less  than 
two  miles,  would  you  use  light  cars  and  light  trestle  or  heavy 
cars  and  strong  trestle?  15  replies  favor  light  cars  and  trestles, 


378  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

12  replies  favor  heavy  cars  and  trestles.  The  committee  recom- 
mends light  cars  and  light  trestles. 

Has  your  experience  with  unloading  plows,  using  cable,  been 
satisfactory?  31  ayes,  6  noes. 

Would  you  handle  cable  by  locomotive  or  an  auxiliary  engine 
and  drum,  and  if  the  latter,  give  kind  and  size?  3  members 
recommend  locomotive  and  32  auxiliary  engine.  Sizes  of  drum 
vary  from  3  ft.  to  5  ft.,  two  members  recommending  each  3  ft., 
4  ft.  and  5  ft.  sizes,  one  member  3^  ft.  and  one  other  4%  ft. 
Engines  are  mentioned  as  10x12  and  12x12,  60-ton  and  25  hp. 
The  committee  recommends  handling  cable  with  an  auxiliary 
engine  and  drum.  The  machine  should  be  able  to  develop  60-ton 
pull  and  will  weigh  about  28  tons.  Steam  cylinders  12  x  12 
in.,  and  diameter  of  drum,  4}£  ft.,  which  will  permit  four  wraps 
of  \y2  cable  to  be  made. 

When  raising  track  do  you  prefer  center  plow  for  unloading 
or  two  side  plows  used  alternately?  29  replies  recommended 
center  plow  and  6  the  use  of  side  plows.  The  committee  recom- 
mends that  when  raise  is  light,  the  center  plow  be  used,  but 
that  side  plows  are  more  advantageous  in  making  heavy  fills. 

Has  your  experience  with  reversible  plow  been  satisfactory? 
Ayes,  1;  noes,  12.  The  committee  does  not  favor  its  use. 

The  Lloyd  Unloading  Machine.  This  device,  described  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Oct.  2,  1007,  is  used  for  filling  high 
embankments  from  dump  cars.  The  general  arrangement,  Figs. 
16  and  17,  consists  of  a  circular  track  at  the  head  of  the  bank, 
around  which  the  cars  are  operated  by  a  cable  and  from  which 
they  are  dumped.  From  the  center  of  the  unloader  radiate  large 
timbers  which  support  the  track,  and  which  rest  on  iron  rollers 
placed  several  feet  apart  and  riding  upon  wooden  sills  on  the 
top  of  the  bank.  At  the  center  is  a  mast  from  the  top  of 
which  steel  rods  support  the  ends  of  the  radial  timbers.  Near 
the  mast  is  a  hoisting  engine  which  operates  the  cable  for  haul- 
ing the  cars.  After  the  train  has  been  uncoupled  from  the  loco- 
motive and  hitched  to  the  cable  it  is  pulled  around  the  track 
and  dumped  while  in  motion.  Material  can  be  dumped  at  any 
point  either  inside  or  outside  making  it  possible  to  fill  from  40 
to  70  ft.  wide.  The  unloader  is  moved  forward  by  its  own 
power,  10  ft.  at  a  time.  The  force  required  consists  of  engineer, 
carpenter,  and  3  laborers.  The  advantages  of  this  machine  on 
high  fills  are: 

( 1 )  The  dispatch  with  which   it  handles  trains ; 

(2)  Low  cost  of  construction  as  compared  to  cost  of  trestle; 

(3)  Ease  of  erecting  and  dismantling. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  OAKS 


379 


Fig.  17.     General  View  of  Continuous  Car  Unloader. 


• 


Fig.    16.     Plan    of    Continuous    Car    Unloader. 


380 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  cost  of  the  machine  including  the  hoisting  engine  is  about 
$5,500.  These  machines  have  been  used  by  E.  B.  and  A.  L. 
Stone  Co.,  Contractors,  Oakland,  Cal. 

A  Swinging  Platform  Dump  Track.     The  device  for  making  a 
wide   fill   was   used   at   a  mine   in   Colorado.    A   platform   was 


Fig.  18.     Plan  and  Elevation  of  Swinging  Dump  Track. 


pivoted  to  swing  laterally  so  that  a  dump  57  ft.  wide  could  be 
built  without  shifting  the  main  track.  Two  men  moved  cars  to 
and  from  the  dump  by  hand,  and  dumped  them  at  the  rate  of  100 
per  day.  The  swinging  truck  was  composed  of  2  pieces  of  8  x 


Fig.  19.     Details  of  Turntable  and  Truck^ 

16-in.  x  32-ft.  pine  upon  which  was  laid  a  platform  of  3-in.  planks 
carrying  the  rails.  The  rear  end  was  supported  on  a  4-wheel 
truck  upon  which  it  pivoted;  the  outer  end  was  supported  upon 
wheels  travelling  upon  a  rail  of  22-ft.  radius  leaving  a  5-ft. 
overhang.  End  dump  cars  were  used. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  381 

Comparative  Cost  of  Handling  Earth  on  Flat  and  Dump  Cars. 
According  to  Itaihvay  Age  (Jasette,  June  18,  1915,  the  cost  of 
handling  earth  on  flat  cars  was  100%  greater  than  the  cost  of 
handling  it  on  dump  cars,  in  work  on  the  new  passenger  terminal 
and  belt  line  at  Kansas  City.  Over  2,000,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
and  rock  were  removed  and  handled  on  flat  cars  and  on  12-yd. 
Western  air  dump  cars.  For  two  months  the  cost  of  handling 
material  with  these  two  types  of  equipments  was  kept  in  two 
files.  The  material  during  these  two  months  consisted  of  approx- 
imately 75%  solid  rock. 

The  flat  cars  were  wooden  construction,  capacities  of  60,000 
Ib.  and  80,000  lb.,  and  had  been  in  constant  service  of  18  months 
at  the  time  this  information  was  collected.  In  justice  to  them, 
it  should  be  said  that  the  repairs  increased  the  average  cost 
by  approximately  1.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  dump  cars  were  of 
steel  frame  construction;  of  80,000  lb.  capacity,  and  had  been  in 
service  5  months.  The  cost  of  engine  service  includes  the  rental 
of  the  engines  and  the  pay  of  the  fuel,  from  the  time  of  their 
arrival  to  the  time  of  their  departure  of  the  trains  at  the 
dump. 

One  great  advantage  of  the  dump  cars  over  the  flat  cars  was 
that  it  was  found  possible  to  unload  at  the  end  of  a  spur  track 
on  the  fill  successfully,  with  the  dump  cars;  while  this  could  not 
be  done  with  the  flat  cars  and  unloader  plow,  because  the  plow 
at  the  end  of  the  train  occupied  a  space  of  at  least  20  ft.  Fur- 
thermore, it  was  impossible  to  do  little  loading  on  the  main 

COST  OF  HANDLING  MATERIAL  ON  FLAT  AND  DUMP   CARS  FOR 
TWO  MONTHS 

First  Month 

Flats  Dumps 

Car  repairs    $.071  $.001 

Engines     082  .024 

Lidgerwood  and  airman 005  .007 

Labor  on  cars   027  .009 

Labor  on  truck   084  .066 

Engineering  and  superintending 004  .004 

Miscellaneous    010  .003 


Total    $0.282  $0.114 

Second  Month 

Flats  Dumps 

Car  repairs    $.070  $.007 

Engines    075  .024 

Lidgerwood   and   airman    004  .008 

Labor  on  cars    034  .008 

Labor  on  track   093  .057 

Engineering  and  superintending 004  .005 

Miscellaneous     006  -004 

Total     .                                               ....     $0.286  $0.113 


382  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

track  by  means  of  this  unloader  and  plow,  because  of  the  danger 
of  delay  of  construction  trains  and  traffic.  On  the  other  hand, 
trains  of  dump  cars  were  frequently  sent  out  to  unload  a  few  min- 
utes ahead  of  passenger  trains,  with  only  slight  danger  of  de- 
laying them. 

Dumping  Cars  with  Derricks.  (Engineering  News,  Aug.  24, 
1905.)  This  method  was  devised  by  W.  J.  Newman.  The  spoil 
from  the  Chicago  tunnel  was  delivered  in  4-cu.  yd.  capacity  cars, 
mounted  on  24-in.  gage  trucks,  by  electric  locomotives  to  the 
dump  at  Grant  Park.  Small  4-wheel  dinkeys  hauled  the  cars  to 
a  75-ton  derrick  of  40  tons  capacity,  with  a  65-ft.  boom.  The 
bottoms  of  the  cars  were  so  arranged  that  when  released  they 
fell  clear  away  from  the  sides,  thus  presenting  no  obstacle  to  the 
dropping  of  the  sticky  clay.  A  car  body  was  lifted  by  the 
derrick,  dumped,  and  placed  back  on  its  underframe.  Very  high 
dumps  could  be  made. 

Removing  Sticky  Material  from  Dump  Cars.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Sept.  25,  1907,  gives  the  following:  In  excavating 
for  a  foundation  at  New  York  City  part  of  the  spoil  was  dumped 
into  seagoing  scows.  The  spoil  was  conveyed  to  the  dock  in  3-yd. 
wooden  side-dump  cars  and  loaded  by  means  of  a  stiff-leg  derrick 
with  60-ft.  boom  seated  in  the  edge  of  the  dock.  The  pivots  on 
the  car  trucks  were  removed  and  the  car  bodies  were  used  as 
skips,  being  lifted  over  the  scows  by  four  chains  attached  to 
their  corners. 

The  excavated  material  was  sticky  and  tenacious  and  some  diffi- 
culty was  encountered  in  getting  the  cars  to  dump  clean.  This 
trouble  was  done  away  in  the  following  manner:  The  original 
dumping  arrangement  of  the  cars  consisted  of  one  long  side 
hinged  by  bars  from  each  end  pivoted  in  the  centers  of  the  end 
walls  and  operated  by  hand  levers.  These  levers  were  removed 
and  the  lower  edges  of  the  hinged  sides  provided  with  latches  to 
lock  them  shut  and  with  rings  engaging  the  hooks  of  two  of  the 
hoisting  chains.  In  dumping,  the  boxes  are  lifted  from  the  cars 
and  set  on  the  deck  of  the  scow,  the  chains  slackened  and  the 
latches  opened.  When  the  hoist  is  again  operated  the  chains  first 
open  up  the  revolving  side  and  then  lift  the  box,  revolving  it  until 
the  open  side  is  down  and  all  the  contents  are  discharged. 

A  Method  of  Unloading  Cars  to  Bins  in  a  Small  Space.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  May  3,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

Fig.  20  illustrates  a  hoisting  tower  located  over  the  material 
track  adjacent  to  bins.  A  clamshell  bucket  is  operated  in  the 
hoisting  tower  to  raise  the  material  from  gondola  cars  to  a  point 
in  the  tower  above  a  swinging  chute.  The  chute  is  automatically 
swung  under  the  bucket  so  that  the  discharged  load  falls  from 
"'  " 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS 


38 


the  bucket  to  the  swinging  chute  and  from  there  is  guided  to 
its  proper  compartment  in  the  bins. 

The  former  method  for  loading  the  bins  was  by  means  of  a 
bucket  conveyor  which  carried  the  material  from  a  pit  below 
street  level.  The  material  was  dumped  into  the  pit  through  a 
grating  from  wagons.  This  method  would  have  been  possible 
at  the  present  location  of  the  plant  if  bottom  dump  cars  could 


Fig.  20.     Arrangement  for  Unloading  Cars  into  Bins. 

have  been  secured,  but  as  this  could  not  be  guaranteed  the  new 
device  was  gotten  up. 

From  8  to  10  cars  are  unloaded  per  8-hr,  day,  allowing  for 
time  lost  for  switching  and  moving  the  cars  for  the  clamshell. 
Three  men  are  used  in  the  car  to  locate  the  bucket  and  an  en- 
gineer and  fireman  are  required  to  operate  the  double  drum  engine 
and  boiler.  The  cost  of  the  labor  is  estimated  as  follows: 


384  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

3  laborers  at  37%  ct.  per  hr $  9.00 

1  engineer  at  75  ct.  per  hr 6.00 

1  fireman  at  37%  ct.  per  hr , .        3.00 

Total  per  day   $18.00 

300  yd.  average  per  day,  per  yd $  0.06 

The  plant  and  methods  were  worked  out  by  Mr.  J.  K.  Thomp- 
son, who  is  superintendent  for  the  contractors. 

Unloading  Cars  by  Sluicing.  J.  C.  Lathrop,  in  Engineering 
News,  Sept.  25,  1913,  describes  a  method  of  unloading  cars  of 
sand,  gravel,  and  cinders,  employed  by  him  in  the  construction 
of  a  fill  near  Akron,  Ohio.  By  means  of  water  pumped  by 
a  20-hp.  motor-driven  pump  from  a  canal,  400  or  500  ft.  away, 
the  material  was  sluiced  from  hopper-bottom  cars  to  any  point 
within  150  ft.  A  4-in.  pipe  line,  with  suitable  valves,  and  100 
ft.  of  2^-in.  hose  was  used. 

The  best  method  was  to  fill  a  car  with  water,  then  open  the 
bottom  gates,  and,  with  a  jet  from  the  hose,  wash  the  material 
into  galvanized  iron  chutes  leading  from  a  point  beneath  the 
car  to  the  place  of  deposit.  Two  men  could  unload  a  car  40 
cu.  yd.  of  sand  or  loam  in  2  hr.,  and  of  cinders  in  3  to  4  hr. 

One  decided  advantage  gained  by  the  sluicing  method  was 
solidity  of  fill. 

The  comparative  cost  of  unloading  cars  by  water  jet  and  by 
hand  was: 

Unloading  10,000  cu.  yd.  (250  cars)  by  water  jet: 

1,000  hr.  labor  at  20  ct $200 

Labor    installing    and    removing    pipe    electrical    connections,     pump 

and  motor   225 

Depreciation  of  plant    (assumed)    100 

Current,  1,000  hp.-hr.  at  2  ct 20 

Total  at  5.45  ct.  per  cu.  yd 545 

Unloading  and  spreading  10,000  cu.  yd.  by  shovels  and  scrapers: 

5,000  hr.  labor  at  20  ct $1,000 

1,600  hr.  team  and  driver  at  60  ct 

Total  at  19.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd $1,960 

Spreaders.  Spreaders  pushed  by  a  locomotive  are  often,  used  in 
connection  with  car  unloading  plows.  Fig.  21  shows  a  spreader, 
made  by  the  O.  F.  Jordan  Company  of  Chicago. 

A  ditching  device  for  use  with  this  spreader  is,  shown  in  Fig. 
22.  It  is  claimed  that  this  can  be  operated  at  the  rate  of  8  to 
12  miles  per  hr.  in  shallow  cuts  and  that  two  or  three  trips 
through  the  cut  are  sufficient  to  form  the  ditch.  In  deep  cuts 
the  material  is  forced  into  a  pocket  back  of  the  plowing  edge 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CARS  385 

which  holds  6  to  10  cu.  yd.     The  material  is  wasted  at  the  end 
of  the  cut  er  on  a  fill. 

Cost  of  Spreading  with  a  Jordan  Spreader.  Mr.  S.  T.  Neeley 
in  Engineering  News,  August  9,  1906,  gives  the  cost  of  spread- 
ing material  dumped  from  12-yd.  Western  dump  cars.  The 


Jordan  Spreader  at  Work. 


spreader  cost  $2,400,  and  the  engine,  which  was  only  partly  em- 
ployed in  this  work,  cost  $2,200. 

The  daily  cost  per  working  day  was  as  follows: 

Interest   and   renewals    $2.00 

Engine  runner  and  fireman   5.50 

2  laborers  at  $2.25   4.50 

Fuel,   etc 5.75 


Total  per   day    $17.75 

The  cost  per  rainy  day  and  holiday  was  $8.50,  giving  a  total 
cost  per  month  of  $440,  or  a  cost  of  1.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  30,800 
cu.  yd. 

Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  24,  1912,  in  an  article  on 
four-tracking  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  R.  R., 
gives  some  data  on  using  a  Jordan  spreader.  On  this  work  dump- 
ing was  done  from  the  main  track  until  the  embankment  to  hold 
a  construction  track  had  been  built.  The  traffic  was  very  heavy 
on  this  road,  so  no  more  material  was  dumped  from  the  main 
line  than  was  absolutely  necessary.  Train  loads  of  150  to  200  cu. 
yd.  were  dumped  and  spread  (using  a  narrow  wing  on  the 
spreader),  in  6  to  8  min.  When  from  12  to  15  min.  were  avail- 
able the  large  wing  was  used,  and  the  earth  was  spread  to  the 
full  working  depth  of  the  spreader. 

If  the  spreader  is  taken  care  of  it  should  be  sold  at  the  end  of 
15  years  for  a  reasonable  price. 


386 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  machine  can  easily  handle  all  material  which  can  be  sup- 
plied by  trains  which  might  be  anywhere  from  1,000  to  20,000 
yd.  per  day. 

The  first  cost  of  the  spreader  was  $5,000. 

_       


Fig.   22.     Ditching  Attachment   for   Jordan   Spreader. 

Bibliography.  "  Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  Richard  T. 
Dana. 

"  Electricity  and  Haulage,"  Francis  A.  Pocock,  Trans.  Am.  Inst. 
M.  E.,  Vol.  18,  p.  412.  "  Wire  Rope  Haulage  and  Its  Application 
to  Mining,"  Frank  C.  Roberts,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  Vol.  16,  p. 
213.  "  Notes  on  Compressed  Air  Haulage,"  J.  H.  Bowden,  Trans. 
Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  Vol.  30,  p.  566. 

"  The  First  St.  Tunnel  at  Washington,"  Eng.  Rec.,  Sept,  3,  1904. 
"  Methods  and  Costs  of  Operating  Automatic  Railways  for  the 
Storage  of  Materials  in  Bulk,"  Eugene  Michel,  Eng.  and  Con., 
May  15,  1912. 


CHAPTER  XI 

METHODS  AND  COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC 
SHOVELS 

Types  of  Shovels.  There  are  so  many  different  designs  of  power 
shovels  in  use  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  make  a  complete 
classification.  For  the  purpose  of  study  of  costs  the  following 
classification  seems  sufficient. 

1.  Non-Revolving  Shovels. 

a.  Standard  Railroad  Shovel. 

b.  Traction  Shovels  mounted  on  broad-tired  wheels  or  cat- 

erpillar   treads,    or    on   "  feet "   as    in   the    so   called 
walking  dredge. 

2.  Revolving  Shovels. 

a.  Heavy  Stripping  Shovels  carried  on  two  parallel  tracks. 

b.  Standard    gage    Railroad    Revolving    Shovels    including 

the  so  called  Railroad  Ditchers. 

c.  Small  Revolving  Shovels  mounted  on  wheels,  skids  or 

caterpillar  treads. 

3.  Miscellaneous  Excavating  Tools  of  the  Shovel  Type. 

How  to  Handle  a  Steam  Shovel  Plant.  Mr.  E.  A.  Hermann's 
excellent  monograph  on  this  subject  is  now  out  of  print,  but  we 
are  indebted  to  his  work  for  some  of  the  following  suggestions. 


Fig.  1.     Side  View  of  Steam  Shovel. 

tm  *;!"<Hi»y,r      e  >.,  fw-i-.fi: '.••.usxjsj 

Figs.  1  and  2  show  the  general  features  of  the  types  of  ma- 
chines designed  to  run  on  tracks.  It  will  be  noted  in  Fig.  2  that 
jacks  are  used  at  the  sides  to  brace  the  machine.  A  revolving 
shovel  can  dispense  with  these  jacks. 

Operation  of  Steam  Shovels.  All  movements  of  the  dipper  are 
usually  controlled  by  two  men,  the  cranesman  and  the  engine- 
man.  The  engineman  operates  the  levers  that  cause  the  raising 
or  lowering  of  the  dipper  and  the  swinging  it  right  or  left.  The 

387 


388 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


cranesman  regulates  the  depth  of  cut  made  by  the  dipper,  releases 
it  from  the  bank  when  full,  and  trips  the  latch  of  the  bottom 
door  when  ready  to  dump  the  bucket.  These  two  men  must  learn 
to  work  in  perfect  unison,  for  the  output  of  the  shovel  depends 
very  largely  upon ,  their  combined  skill.  After  dumping,  the 
bottom  door  latches  by  its  own  weight  when  the  bucket  is  swung 
down  and  back  ready  for  the  next  scoop.  In  loose  gravel  a 
bucketful  can  be  loaded  every  %  to  •%  min.,  in  hard  materials, 
1.5  to  2  min.,  but  one  would  make  a  grievous  blunder  were  he  to 
figure  the  daily  capacity  of  a  shovel  on  any  such  basis,  for  there 
are  always  delays  in  moving  the  shovel  forward  and  placing  the 
jacks  which  has  to  be  done  about  every  4  or  5  ft.,  delays  in 
"  spotting "  cars  ready  for  loading,  etc.  The  laying  of  a  new 


Fig.  2.     Front  View  of  Steam  Shovel. 


section  of  track,  moving  the  shovel  forward  4  ft.  by  its  own 
power,  and  jacking  up  will  ordinarily  consume  3  or  4  min. 

The  width  of  the  cut  or  swath  excavated  by  a  shovel  varies 
from  18  ft.  for  the  smaller  shovels  to  120  ft.  for  the  larger  ones. 
The  depth  of  a  cut  depends  largely  upon  the  material;  easy 
running  sand  or  gravel  might  be  worked  almost  to  any  depth; 
sidehill  cuts  in  loose  gravel  up  to  300  ft.  in  height  have  been 
taken.  There  is  danger  in  such  cases  of  a  slip  that  will  bury  the 
shovel.  Cuts  60  ft.  deep  are  common  in  gravel  pits.  In  average 
material  cuts  of  25  to  30  ft.  are  common,  while  in  hard  tenacious 
material  the  cut  should  not  be  deeper  than  the  height  to  which 
the  dipper  can  be  raised  —  that  is,  14  to  20  ft.  Where  cuts  are 
very  shallow  the  ordinary  steam  shovel  cannot  work  economically 
at  all,  although  the  small  revolving  shovels  seem  better  adapted 
to  shallow  cuts  than  any  of  the  others. 

Beside  the  cranesman  and  the  engineman  there  are  usually  a 


.      COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      389 

fireman,  a  blacksmith,  a  blacksmith's  helper,  two  to  five  car 
repairers,  and  four  to  ten  laborers.  In  average  soil  four  laborers 
are  enough,  but  in  tough  material  that  must  be  broken  down  by 
wedging  or  blasting  ten  and  sometimes  more  are  needed. 

For  breaking  down  the  bank  in  front  of  the  shovel  the  men  are 
provided  with  a  16-ft.  hickory  or  ash  pole,  shod  with  a  pointed 
spike. 

The  blacksmith  and  helpers  are  provided  with  a  portable  shop, 
forge,  etc.;  their  principal  work  consisting  in  repairing  side 
boards,  chains,  etc.,  on  the  cars. 

Higher  Cost  in  Shallow  Cuts.  The  reason  for  the  increased 
cost  in  shallow  cuts  is  quite  apparent  if  one  stops  to  "  figure," 
but  in  deepening  the  Erie  Canal,  for  example,  where  the  cut  was 
only  1  to  2  ft.  deep,  we  have  seen  steam  shovels  used  by  con- 
tractors who  evidently  had  not  stopped  to  "  figure "  beforehand 
—  they  did  their  "  figuring "  afterward,  to  their  sorrow. 

If  a  shovel  could  excavate  a  block  18  ft.  wide  by  2  ft.  deep  by 
4  ft.  forward,  each  move,  it  would  excavate  less  than  3  cu.  yd. 
before  a  move  would  be  necessary.  Obviously  the  bucket  would 
go  out  about  half  full  each  scoop,  but  even  assuming  that  it  were 
full,  and  held  1  cu.  yd.,  we  see  that  more  than  half  the  shovel 
time  would  be  spent  in  moving  forward.  If  the  shovel  load  were 
^  cu.  yd.,  which  is  higher  than  the  average  in  such  a  shallow 
cut,  the  shovel  would  be  doing  useful  work  about  2.5  hr.  out 
of  the  10. 

Widening  Railway  Cuts.  This  is  a  class  of  work  for  which 
steam  shovels  are  so  often  used  that  we  shall  consider  the  methods 
of  attack  in  some  detail. 

Before  the  shovel  can  begin  work  it  is  generally  necessary  to 
excavate  a  section  of  the  cut,  AB,  Fig.  3,  30  to  50  ft.  long,  using 
wheelbarrows,  scrapers  or  the  like.  The  switch  AB  is  laid 
off  the  main  track  for  the  shovel  to  travel  upon,  and  the  "  mud 
train,"  of  10  to  20  flat  cars,  is  drawn  up  on  the  main  track  ready 
to  be  loaded.  The  shovel  is  moved  forward  as  soon  as  all  the 
material  within  reach  has  been  loaded,  and  to  do  this  short  sec- 
tions of  track  4  to  6  ft.  long  are  provided.  These  sections  are 
usually  moved  by  attaching  them  to  the  dipper  with  a  chain,  and 
dragging  them  from  the  rear  to  the  front.  When  the  shovel  has 
moved  forward  the  length  of  a  full  rail,  30  ft.,  rails  are  laid  to 
extend  the  switch  so  as  to  keep  it  close  to  the  shovel.  This  is 
particularly  desirable  where  the  bank  is  apt  to  cave,  for  then  the 
shovel  can  be  moved  back  if  caving  is  anticipated. 

Since  railway  hauls  are  usually  long  it  seldom  pays  to  have  less 
than  two  locomotives  with  trains,  and  unless  automatic  dump 
cars  are  used  two  trains  will  be  found  economic  even  on  short 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


hauls  of  ^  mile  or  so.  This,  however,  is  a  matter  that  the  con- 
tractor or  engineer  may  quickly  determine  by  a  little  observation 
in  each  particular  case.  Three  engines  and  crews  will  be  needed 
for  hauls  of  more  than  10  miles,  or  where  the  traffic  on  the  main 
line  is  so  great  as  to  cause  many  delays  in  moving  the  "  mud 
train."  A  contractor  in  estimating  the  cost  of  widening  railway 
cuts  must  be  careful  to  allow  liberally  for  delays  due  to  traffic  on 


.ifS^X^' 

MS      J;H- 

'^'HF 

1    /  j   -J  K  :.          ^ 

Fig.  3.     Shovel  Widening  Cut. 

hfH,':-,r  ):,*>,.,]    <::;;    Yi,fj,,ivJO 

the  main  line,  which  may  be  40  to  70%  of  the  working   10-hr. 

day. 

As  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  track  on  which  the  shovel  runs  should 
be  a  foot  or  two  lower  than  the  main  track,  not  only  to  provide 
for  material  that  drops  off  the  cars  and  that  washes  in  from  the 
sides  of  the  cut,  but  also  to  drain  the  ballast  on  the  main  track. 

Where  the  traffic  delays  do  not  exceed  5  hr.  out  of  the   10 


_        . 
Fig.  4.     Arrangement  of  Tracks. 


. 
' 


working  hours  it  is  generally  considered  more  economic  to  work 
as  just  described,  but  when  the  delays  become  more  frequent, 
another  method  must  be  employed. 

A  narrow  cut  is  first  made  by  hand  shoveling  so  that  a  switch 
track  for  the  "mud  train"  may  be  laid,  Fig.  4.  In  doing 
this  hand  excavation,  flat  cars  are  often  loaded  by  men  with 
wheelbarrows,  but  this  method  is  slow  since  only  a  very  small 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       39 1 

gang  of  men,  6  to  10,  can  be  worked  at  the  face  of  the  cut.  Three 
to  six  flat  cars  are  run  out  on  the  side  switch,  and  a  plank  run- 
way  laid  on  the  end  car  nearest  the  face  of  the  work.  The  inert 
load  the  car  farthest  from  the  face  first.  The  author  would  sug- 
gest that  a  "  locomotive  crane  "  or  traveling  derrick  moving  back 
and  forth  on  the  main  track  could  be  used  to  excellent  advantage 
instead  of  wheelbarrows  for  work  of  this  character;  and  in  soft 
material,  if  provided  with  a  clam-shell  bucket,  such  a  traveling 
derrick  could  be  operated  with  very  little  hand  shoveling  at  all. 
Upon  the  approach  of  a  train,  the  traveling  derrick  can  rapidly 
move  to  the  side  switch  back  of  the  mud  train.  Instead  of  flat 
cars,  contractors'  dump  cars  may  be  used  and  drawn  away  by 
horses  to  the  dump,  or  one-horse  dump-carts  may  be  used.  The 
work  is  too  confined  for  scrapers  to  be  used. 

After  the  narrow  cut  has  been  made,  the  side  track  is  laid  and 
the  steam  shovel  run  in  on  a  second  switch  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

Cutting  Down  Railway  Grades.  It  often  becomes  necessary  to 
cut  down  railway  grades  at  summits,  when  methods  of  attack 
differing  from  the  foregoing  must  be  adopted.  Fig.  5  shows  the 
most  common  method  of  attack  where  the  mud  train  is  on  the 
main  track.  It  will  be  noted  in  Fig.  5  that  the  steam  shovel 
track  is  on  blocking,  the  grade  of  its  track  being  about  2  ft. 
below  that  of  the  main  track  which  is  about  as  low  as  a  small 
shovel  can  work  and  dump  into  the  cars.  The  blocking  is  made  of 
6- x  12-in.  x  4-ft.  sticks  upon  which  12- x  12-in.  track  stringers  are 
laid,  and  the  track  is  kept  level.  This  blocking  is  generally  5 
ft.  high,  for  a  small  shovel  can  usually  dig  only  5  ft.  below  the 
track  it  runs  upon;  thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  depth  of  each 
slice  or  cut  is  only  5  +  2  —  7  ft.;  and,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  the  suc- 
cessive cuts  are  parallel  with  the  old  main  track  grade  until  the 
last  cut  is  made  to  final  grade.  This  shallow  cutting  and  block- 
ing up  of  the  shovel  track  make  the  work  somewhat  more  ex- 
pensive than  ordinary. 

The  engineer  in  fixing  a  new  grade  should  have  in  mind  the 
fact  that  it  is  cheaper  to  make  an  even  number  of  full  cuts  of 
say  7  ft.  each  than  to  plan  so  that  a  fractional  part  of  a  full  cut 
must  be  made. 

Some  shovels  cut  fully  8  ft.  below  their  track  instead  of  5  ft.r 
and  for  extensive  work  of  this  kind  are  evidently  far  more  eca- 
nomic.  Figs.  6,  7  and  8  show  various  cross-sections  of  cuts. 

It  should  be  noted  that  a  steam  shovel  cuts  a  1  to  1  slope,, 
whereas  the  finished  side  slopes  must  often  be  1.5  to  1.  In 
that  case  the  shovel  can  either  undercut,  as  in  Fig.  7,  or  it  can 
supercut,  as  in  Fig.  8.  Undercutting  is  the  most  economic  for 
no  more  material  is  moved  than  is  necessary;  and  the  rains  will, 


392  HAND-BOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       393 

slough  off  the  upper  part  of  the  cut  until  the  desired  permanent 
side  slope  is  obtained.  But  if  the  work  is  super-cut,  the  slopes 
must  be  trimmed  by  hand,  which  is  an  expensive  method. 

Where  traffic  is  very  heavy  a  temporary  side  track  must  first  be 
built,  as  described  under  Widening  Cuts.     Fig.  9  shows  such  a 


Fig.  6.     Cross  Section  of  Cut. 


v  ^v    r*F--j"" 

Fig.  7.     Cross  Section  of  Cut;  Shovel  Undercutting. 


Fig.   8.     Cross   Section  of  Cut;    Shovel   Super-Cutting. 


•^TT 


Tract 

Fig.  9.     Cross  Section  of  Cut.     Using  Temporary  Main  Track. 

temporary  track  at  A.  If  the  depth  of  the  original  cut  exceeds 
the  height  to  which  the  dipper  can  be  raised,  and  if  the  material 
is  so  tenacious  that  it  cannot  be  broken  down  by  the  men  with 
bars,  then  cuts  are  made  as  in  Fig.  10,  where  L  L  are  the  tempo- 
rary loading  tracks. 


394  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

On  double  track  railways  the  traffic  may  be  diverted  to  one  of 
the  tracks  while  the  other  is  used  for  the  "  mud  train." 

It  will  be  seen  that  each  cut  must  be  studied  as  a  separate 
problem,  the  object  being  to  secure  the  necessary  deepening  with 
the  fewest  possible  number  of  "  swaths  "  or  cuts. 

Railway  Construction  Work.  Where  an  entirely  new  cut  is  to 
be  taken  out,  the  work  may  be  attacked  in  a  way  somewhat 
different  from  the  widening  or  deepening  of  existing  cuts.  There 
are  two  methods  of  attacking  a  new  cut:  (1)  The  through-cut 


Fig.    10.     Using  Temporary  Track   in   a  Deep   Cut. 

method;  or  (2)  the  side-cut  method.  The  work  that  we  have 
just  been  describing  comes  under  the  side-cut  method ;  that  is, 
the  cars  are  loaded  upon  a  track  laid  alongside  of  the  shovel  and 
in  advance  of  it.  The  through-cut  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  11, 
from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  loading  tracks  are  carried 
through  at  the  same  time  with  the  shovel  track.  One  of  the 
loading  tracks  S1,  is  often  dispensed  with,  although  the  work  is 


Fig.   11.     Through  Cut  Method  on  New  Construction. 

greatly  facilitated  by  having  two  cars,  B  and  BI,  always  on  hand 
to  be  loaded. 

In  through-cut  work  only  contractors'  dump  cars  can  t>e  used, 
since  it  is  obvious  that  a  flat  car  could  not  be  run  up  far  enough 
to  be  loaded.  Moreover,  the  frequent  moving  of  the  cross-over 
tracks,  C  and  Ci,  makes  it  important  that  the  track  be  a  light 
one. 

The  great  objection  to  the  side-cut  method  is  that  the  grade 
of  the  natural  ground  is  generally  so  steep  that  a  side-track  can- 
not be  laid  over  which  a  locomotive  can  travel,  and  to  get  a  side- 
track through  the  shovel  often  has  to  do  a  lot  of  dead  work, 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       395 

as  shown  in  Fig.  12,  where  the  shovel  is  shown  in  the  act  of 
cutting  down  the  top  of  the  hill  so  as  to  make  a  trackway  for  the 
loading  track. 

Wheel  scrapers,  or  the  like,  can  in  many  cases  be  used  in  such  a 
case,  and  the  material  may  be  wasted  off  to  one  side  or  put  in  the 
fill,  if  the  haul  is  short.  Where  a  track  can  be  laid  at  once  on  the 
natural  ground,  or  where  such  cutting  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  12  is 
small,  the  side-cut  method  is  of  course  to  be  preferred  since  the 
cars  are  more  quickly  "  spotted,"  that  is,  placed  alongside  the 
shovel  ready  to  be  loaded. 

Where  the  through-cut  method  is  used,  as  in  Fig.  11,  either  a 
team  of  horses  is  used  to  spot  the  cars,  or  a  light  4-hp.  hoisting 
engine  with  cable  may  be  used,  the  engine  being  generally  sta- 
tioned on  the  bluff  in  front  of  the  shovel.  Some  contractors 


Fig.  12.  Side-Cut  Method  on  New  Construction. 

";TJ,Iir^S^ 

use  an  extra  locomotive  for  spotting  the  cars,  and  upon  the 
whole  that  is  the  best  method. 

If  the  steam  shovel  used  is  of  the  traction  type,  weighing  about 
35  tons,  it  can  readily  climb  the  summit  of  most  hills  that  are  to 
be  cut  down,  and  attack  the  work  there  by  the  side-cut  method, 
providing  the  cars  can  be  moved  over  their  track.  A  dinkey  loco- 
motive will  climb  a  10%  grade  with  4  empty  cars,  so  that  if  the 
grades  are  greater,  the  only  methods  remaining  are  to  load  into 
wagons,  or  to  use  a  hoisting  engine  to  pull  the  empty  cars  up  and 
let  the  full  ones  down  to  the  dump. 

By  providing  snubbing  posts  against  which  the  wire  cable  rubs, 
such  a  cable  may  be  used  for  long  distances  (1,000  ft.)  even  on 
curves;  and  by  using  a  second  hoisting  engine  to  take  the  cars 
when  the  first  reaches  the  "  end  of  its  string,"  distances  up  to 
nearly  half  a  mile  may  be  covered.  Where  cables  are  used  in 
this  way  on  the  side-cut  method,  a  train  of  4  to  6  cars  is  usually 
operated,  and  the  track  must  be  laid  on  a  grade  of  at  least  1.5 
to  2%  to  insure  that  the  cars  will  start  and  run  down  by  gravity. 
Each  train  of  cars  is  pulled  up  past  the  shovel,  and  the  last  car 
loaded  first;  then  the  hoisting  engineman  slacks  on  his  brake  and 


396 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


lets  the  cars  "  down  a  notch,"  so  that  the  next  one  can  be  loaded. 

There  is  always  some  lost  time  in  dropping  the  loaded  cars  out 
of  the  way  and  getting  up  a  train  of  empties,  even  where  a  double- 
drum  engine  is  used,  but  the  shovel  can  be  moved  forward  during 
this  interval  and  so  reduce  the  lost  time.  The  cable  method  is 
not  as  economic  as  the  use  of  contractors'  locomotives,  and  is  not 
used  where  it  can  be  avoided. 

Canal  Excavation.  We  come  now  to  a  class  of  work  that  usu- 
ally differs  considerably  from  railway  excavation.  In  modern 
canal  work  the  material  taken  from  cuts  is  not  used  to  make  fills, 
but  is  wasted.  This  generally  makes  an  entirely  different  method 
of  attack  necessary,  for  while  the  upper  part  of  the  excavation 
can  be  taken  out  by  the  side-cut  method,  as  the  excavation  in- 


found  Houst 


CHANNEL 


&  c  t  f  o  m 


Fig.  13.     Arrangement  of  Track  on  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  Work. 

creases  in  depth  a  time  is  reached  when  locomotives  cannot  climb 
the  grades  necessary  to  get  out  of  the  canal  prism  to  the  waste 
dumps.  Since  the  shovels  do  not  have  to  make  frequent  moves 
from  hill  to  hill  as  in  railway  work,  a  larger  type  of  shovel  can 
be  used;  but  there  is  no  gain  in  using  larger  shovels  unless  large 
cars  can  be  delivered  rapidly  enough  to  keep  the  shovel  busy,  or 
unless  the  material  when  blasted  breaks  up  in  such  large  chunks 
that  a  small  shovel  cannot  handle  it  at  all. 

Figs.  13  and  14  show  arrangement  of  track  on  two  sections  of 
the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  work.  Cars  were  handled  with  con- 
tractors' locomotives.  Both  these  examples  illustrate  the  use  of 
the  side-cut  method  of  excavating  the  upper  part  of  a  canal 
section. 

When  the  depth  of  the  cut  reaches  a  point  where  the  locomo- 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      397 

tives  cannot  move  the  trains  up  the  incline,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  install  a  hoisting  engine  plant,  using  a  cable  to  pull  cars  up  the 
incline. 

The  cars  may  be  loaded  by  the  side-cut  method  as  before,  and 
run  to*the  foot  of  the  incline  either  by  locomotives  or  by  teams  of 
horses,  and  there  hoisted  by  the  engine.  At  the  top  of  the  incline, 
either  horses  or  a  locomotive  may  be  used  to  haul  to  the  dump. 

Since  the  hoisting  engine  must  be  moved  when  the  haul  to  the 
shovel  becomes  very  long,  the  hoisting  engine  may  be  mounted 
on  a  platform  car  18x40  ft.,  running  on  a  very  wide  gage  track. 
A  13  x  16-in.  double-drum  engine  has  handled  2,500  cu.  yd.  per 


Fig.  14.     Another  Arrangement  of  Track,  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 

10-hr,  day  on  one  of  these  inclines.  As  such  a  plant  costs  only 
$3,000,  and  is  very  flexible,  being  easily  adapted  to  any  particular 
kind  of  work,  it  is  evidently  meritorious.  Where  an  incline  serves 
only  one  shovel,  instead  of  two,  a  much  smaller  engine  will  evi- 
dently serve. 

Fig.  15  shows  the  asrangement  of  tracks  for  use  with  such  an 
incline.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  tracks  on  the  dump  are  so 
arranged  that  the  loaded  cars  can  be  run  on  track  A,  so  as  to  pass 
the  empty  cars  returning  on  track  B. 

By  using  locomotives  instead  of  horses  to  handle  the  cars  it 
would  not  be  necessary  to  move  the  incline  often,  unless  it  were 
to  keep  down  the  investment  in  rails  and  ties. 

D.  J.  Hauer,  in  Engineering  News,  Dec.  31,  1903,  calls  attention 
to  the  fact  that  through  cuts  and  grade  reductions  work  are  more 
expensive  with  a  steam  shovel  than  widening  cuts,  the  first  class 
of  work  mentioned  being  the  most  expensive  of  the  three.  For 


398 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


through  cuts,  especially  where  they  are  small,  requiring  frequent 
moving,  a  35-  to  45-ton  shovel  is  to  be  preferred,  as  it  is  more 
easily  moved  and  its  1  to  1%  dipper  will  fill  cars  as  fast  as  they 
can  be  shifted.  But  65-  to  95-ton  shovels  are  better  on  grade 


Fig.  15.     Tracks  Used  with  an  Incline. 

reductions  and  double  tracking,  because  they  can  be  moved  on 
the  existing  track.  They  can  be  easily  supplied  with  coal  and 
water  and  more  readily  served  with  cars. 


Fig.  16.     Cross  Section  of  Steam  Shovel  Excavation   (Solid  Lines 

Show  Intended  Final  Cross  Section;  Dotted  Lines 

Show  Section  Actually  Cut  by  Shovel). 

S.  T.  Neely,  in  Engineering  News,  Aug.  9,  1906,  describes  a  job 
where  a  65-ton  Bucyrus  shovel,  loading  12-yd.  Western  dump  cars, 
took  out  the  first  cut  to  a  depth  of  9  ft.  below  the  top  of  rail  of 
loading  track  as  shown  in  Fig.  16, 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      300 

Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  such  a  deep  excavation  is  too 
deep  for  the  fastest  work,  and  that  the  first  cut  was  so  large  as 
to  require  excess  excavation  in  the  remaining  cuts.  A  program 
of  excavation  is  suggested  in  Fig.  17  which  would  obviously  have 
been  more  economical. 


Fig.  17.     A  Better  Method  of  Excavating  Cut  Shown  in  Fig.  16. 


Making  a  Steam  Shovel  Cut  of  Two  Lifts  in  One.  This  is  de- 
scribed in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Mar.  2,  1010,  by  H.  Mor- 
ton Stephens. 

The  work  on  which  this  was  done  was  in  North  Carolina  on 
the  Southern  TCy.  The  outfit  used  consisted  of  two  model  60 
Marion  shovels,  seven  dinkeys,  cars,  rails,  etc.  The  shovels  were 
started  at  opposite  ends  of  the  work,  one  of  them  being  moved  a 
distance  of  0  miles  in  10  days  over  dirt  roads. 

The  first  two  cuts  taken  out  by  one  shovel  contained  about 
52,000  CD.  yd.  and  were  taken  out  in  the  usual  8  ft.  lift  manner. 
The  specifications  of  the  railroad  company  called  for  a  20-ft. 
roadbed  and  1  to  1  slopes  in  cuts,  and  would  not  allow  the 
contractor  for  the  additional  width  made  necessary  by  the  use 
of  a  model  60  shovel,  which  requires,  when  using  a  dinkey  track 
in  the  bottom  of  the  cut  on  the  last  lift,  a  26-ft.  roadbed. 

As  the  remaining  six  miles  allotted  to  this  shovel  were  all 
practically  two-lift  cuts,  averaging  about  13  ft.  in  depth,  and  as 
some  of  the  cuts  were  about  3,000  ft.  long,  it  was  apparent  that 
some  scheme  had  to  be  devised  whereby  this  extra  unpaid  for 
material  would  not  have  to  be  moved. 

Upon  investigation  it  was  found  possible  to  raise  the  boom  on 
the  shovel  by  simply  taking  out  the  links  or  loops  in  the  boom 
support  guy  rods  or  hog  rods,  at  the  end  where  they  are  attached 
to  the  yoke  at  the  apex  of  the  A-frame.  It  was  also  found  neces- 
sary to  make  two  plates  to  fit  on  the  rim  of  the  swinging  circle, 
at  the  corners  of  the  aperture  in  the  same  under  the  boom,  in 
order  to  reduce  the  angle  and  prevent  the  cutting  of  the  cable 


400  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

which  operates  the  swinging  circle.  This  raising  of  the  boom, 
etc.  was  accomplished  in  about  two  hours. 

The  shovel  then  started  in  on  a  single  track  cut  about  3,000  ft. 
long,  with  an  average  depth  of  9  ft.  The  deepest  cut  was  15  ft., 
and  was  taken  out  in  one  lift  by  lowering  the  dinkey  track  1^ 
ft.  With  the  boom  raised  in  this  manner  it  was  possible  to 
dig  a  13^- ft.  lift;  and  when  cuts  are,  say  16  ft.,  it  is  possible 
to  take  them  out  in  one  lift,  by  excavating  a  trench  for  the 
dinkey  track  about  3  ft.  deep.  The  material  coming  from  this 
trench  is  placed  inside  the  slope  stakes,  and  later  taken  out  with 
the  shovel. 

By  this  method  one  trackage  layout  is  sufficient  for  a  cut  of 
the  above  nature.  There  is  no  moving  back,  and  there  is  very 
little  extra  material  taken  out  even  with  a  roadbed  specified  to 
be  only  20  ft.  wide.  The  shovel  is  a  little  faster  acting  with  the 
boom  raised,  as  described,  and  there  is  no  additional  wear  and  tear 
on  the  machinery. 

The  material  encountered  was  almost  all  stiff  clay,  with  a  small 
amount  of  loose  rock.  This  shovel  has  averaged  about  25,000  cu. 
yd.  per  month,  and  has  only  had  one  breakdown,  this  being  a 
very  small  matter. 

Cost  of  Steam  Shovel  Work.  Shovels  are  so  designed  that 
about  3  dipperfuls  can  be  averaged  per  minute  when  actually 
loading  cars ;  but  the  author  finds  that  even  with  well  arranged 
tracks,  and  a  good  high  face,  the  necessary  delays  of  shifting  the 
shovel  ahead,  switching  the  trains,  moving  the  shovel  back  to 
start  a  new  swath,  etc.,  keep  the  shovel  idle  about  half  the  time. 
Occasionally,  under  exceptionally  favorable  conditions,  a  shovel 
may  average  6  or  6i/£  hr.  of  actual  shoveling  per  10-hr,  day. 

The  sixe  of  the  dippers,  as  listed  in  catalogues  often  refers  to 
dippers  heaped  full  of  loose  earth.  The  actual  "  place  measure  " 
averages  about  30%  less  than  the  listed  capacity  of  a  dipper, 
for  not  every  dipper  goes  out  full,  and,  even  if  it  does,  the 
earth  is  not  as  compact  in  the  dipper  as  in  place. 

On  the  basis  of  3  dippers  loaded  per  minute  of  actual  work, 
we  have  the  following  for  dippers  of  different  sizes: 

Dipper —  Output  in  Cu.  Yd.  — 

Nominal,  Actual  (average)                                    Steady  Shoveling 

Yd.  Yd.  10  hr.                    5  hr. 

1  0.7  1,260                          630 
\Vz  1.0  1,800                         900 

2  1.4  2,520                       1,260 
2%  1.7  3,060                       1,530 

We  see  that  where  the  shovel  is  actually  shoveling  5  hr.  out  of 
the  10  (and  this  is  a  good  average),  a  1-yd.  dipper  will  load  630 
cu.  yd.;  a  1^-yd.  dipper,  900  cu.  yd.;  a  2^-yd.  dipper,  1,530  cu. 


COSTS  WITii  S1EAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      401 

yd.  However,  the  track  arrangement  must  be  such  that  cars 
are  promptly  supplied  to  the  shovel,  if  any  such  average  as 
900  cu.  yd.  per  day  per  1^-yd.  dipper  is  to  be  maintained. 

Taking  the  1^-yd.  dipper  as  the  common  size,  we  may  say  that 
in  "  average  earth,"  with  cars  promptly  supplied,  900  cu.  yd. 
are  a  fair  10-hr,  day's  work;  but  if  only  one  dinkey  is  used, 
the  lost  time  may  easily  be  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  650 
cu.  yd.  become  a  good  day's  work  in  "  average  earth."  In  hard- 
pan,  or  exceedingly  tough  clay,  the  output  of  a  shovel  may 
fall  to  about  half  the  output  in  "average  earth";  that  is,  450 
cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day  with  a  1^-yd.  shovel. 

The  size  of  shovel  to  select  for  any  given  work  depends  upon 
the  yardage  of  earth  in  each  cut  —  not  upon  the  total  yardage 
in  the  contract.  On  very  light  cuts,  such  as  street  and  road 
work,  cellars,  etc.,  a  small  shovel  with  a  ^  to  1-yd.  dipper  is 
usually  most  economic.  Use  a  small  26-ton  traction  shovel,  with 
1-yd.  dipper  for  small  railway  cuts,  where  moves  from  one  cut 
to  another  will  be  frequent.  Use  a  55  to  65-ton  shovel  with  1}£ 
to  2i£-yd.  dipper  where  cuts  are  heavy,  and  moves  not  very  fre- 
quent. Use  a  70  to  90-ton  shovel,  with  2%  to  31^-yd.  dipper 
on  heavy  cuts,  where  moves  are  infrequent.  Of  course  a  heavy 
shovel  with  a  small  dipper  is  necessary  in  hardpan  and  very  tough 
material. 

The  cost  of  operating  a  55-ton  shovel  is  ordinarily  as  follows, 
(at  1914  wages  and  prices),  assuming  22  days  worked  during 
the  month,  and  6  months  worked  during  the  year,  or  132  days 
actually  worked  per  year: 

Per  day 
Shovel  Crew:  worked 

1  engineman  on  shovel,  at  $125  per  month  '. $    5.70 

1  craneman  on  shovel,  at  $90  per  month  4.10 

1  fireman  on  shovel,  at  $65  per  month  3.00 

6  pitmen,  at  $1.75  per  10-hr,  day  10.50 

1  night  watchman,  at  $50  per  month 2.30 

Total  shovel  crew   $  25.60 

Coal  for  shovel,  1*4  tons,  at  $4,  delivered   $    5.00 

Water 3.00 

Oil  and  waste    0.50 

Interest  on  $7,200  shovel  at  6%  per  year  -4-  132  days  3.25 

*  Repairs  on  $7,200,  3%  per  month -f- 22  days   '. 10.00 

Depreciation  on  $7,200,  6%  per  year  -j-  132  days  3.25 

Total  steam  shovel  crew,  fuel,  repairs,  etc $  50.60 

Moving  and  housing  shovel  once  during  year,  say,  $500 -=- 132  days..         4.00 
Total  charges  on  shovel   $  54.60 

*  Repairs  are  less  in  earth  than  in  rock.  In  the  soft  rock  on  the  Panama 
Canal,  monthly  repairs  averaged  4%  of  the  first  cost  of  shovels,  working 
one  8-hr,  shift. 


402  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Train  Crew: 

2  enginemen    (on  2  dinkeys),   at  $3 $    6.00 

2  trainmen,    at   $2    , 4.00 

6  dumpmen,    at  $1.75    10.50 


Total  train  crew $  20.50 

Coal  for  2  dinkeys,  0.6  ton,  at  $4  $    2.40 

Water    1.50 

Oil  and  waste   0.50 

Interest jon  $8,000  (2  dinkeys  and  24  cars),  at  6%  per  year  -f-  132  days  3.65 

Repairs  on  $8,000,  at  1%%  per  month -i- 22  days   5.45 

Depreciation  on  $8,000,  at  8%  per  year  -=-  132  days  4.85 

Total  train  crew,  fuel,  repairs,  etc $  38.85 

Moving   and  housing  locomotives   and   cars  once   during  year,   same 

as  for  shovel  -4.00 


Total  charges  of  locomotives  and  cars  $  42.85 

Track  Crew  and  Track: 

6  men  grading  and  track  shifting,  at  $1.75  $  10.50 

Interest  on   $2,250    (rails    (35  Ib.  per  yd.)    and  fastenings  for  1  mile 

track) ,   at  6</r  -f-  132  days   1.00 

Depreciation  on  $2,250,  at  12%  -=-  132  days   2.00 

Interest    on    $750    (ties,    at   30    ct.    each,    2    miles    track),    at    6%  -=- 

132    days     0.35 

Depreciation  on  $750   (ties),  at  10%  per  month  -r-  22  days 3.50 


Total  track  crew  and  track   $  17.35 

Supervision,  Etc. : 

^superintendent,  at  $150  per  month  $  3.50 

1  foreman,  at  $75  per  month  3.50 

1  timekeeper,  at  $65  per  month  3.00 

General  management,  office  expenses,  etc.,  6%  of  daily  payroll  4.00 

Total   supervision,    etc $14.00 

Grand  total    $128.80 

Summarizing  we  have  the  following  daily  cost  and  cost  per  cu.  yd.  when 
the  daily  output  is  1,000  cu.  yd.  (or  22,000  cu.  yd.  per  month) : 

Per  cu.  yd. 
Per  day  ct. 

Shovel    expenses $54.60  5.46 

Train    expenses    42.85  4.29 

Track   expenses 17.35  1.73 

Supervision,    etc 14.00 

Total'.'.' :... $128.80  12.88 

Substitute  existing  wages  and  prices  for  those  above  given. 
Wages  of  construction  forces  and  prices  of  construction  outfits 
are  now  (1019)  double  what  they  were  in  1914. 

Tough  material  and  unfavorable  conditions  frequently  reduce 
the  daily  output  to  600  cu.  yd.,  and  run  the  cost  up  to  21  ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

The  most  variable  of  the  four  main  items  of  daily  expense  is 
Track  Expense.  Often  a  large  crew  of  men  is  kept  busy  grading 
for  new  tracks,  although  it  is  rare  that  more  than  10  or  12 
men  are  thus  engaged  for  each  shovel  crew. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELEC1KIC  SHOVELS       403 

The  estimated  percentages  for  repairs  and  depreciation  are 
liberal,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  repairs  increase  as 
the  machines  grow  older,  and  that  a  high  allowance  should  be 
made  for  depreciation  to  cover  obsolescence,  i.  e.>  the  "  getting 
.out  of  date  "  or  behind  the  times. 

Depreciation  of  ties  is  especially  rapid  in  contract  work,  due  to 
the  destruction  that  occurs  from  frequent  track  shifting.  Depre- 
ciation of  rails  is  also  rapid,  due  to  their  becoming  kinked. 

The  foregoing  itemization  of  cost  should  be  taken  merely  to 
represent  a  fairly  typical  example  (at  prewar  wages),  but  each 
particular  case  will  have  its  varying  conditions  that  must  be 
considered. 

Where  temporary  trestles  must  be  built  to.  carry  the  cars  out 
over  proposed  fills,  as  is  common  on  railway  work,  the  cost  of 
the  trestles  must  be  added  to  the  above  figures.  Much  lighter 
timbers  can  be  used  for  dinkey  locomotives  and  trains  than  for 
standard  railway  tracks.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
round  poles  can  usually  be  secured  for  the  legs  or  posts  of 
trestle  bents,  and  that  each  bent  usually  has  only  two  legs.  The 
squared  stringers,  ties  and  caps  can  usually  be  recovered,  but  the 
posts,  sills  and  sway  braces  are  buried  permanently  in  the  fill. 

The  cost  of  trestles  is  given  in  detail  in  Gillette's  "  Handbook 
of  Cost  Data." 

Analysis  of  Costs  of  Steam  Shovel  Work.  An  abstract  from 
"  Handbook  of  Steam  Shovel  Work,"  a  report  by  the  Construc- 
tion Service  Co.,  to  the  Bucyrus  Co.,  which  was  given  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Dec.  13,  1911,  follows. 

There  are  so  many  factors  entering  into  steam  shovel  work 
that  the  problem  of  determining  the  cost  details  seems  at  first 
highly  complex,  but  systematic  analysis  has  resulted  in  so 
simplifying  it  that  any  man  of  field  experience  ought  to  be  able, 
with  the  help  of  the  following  data,  to  put  his  shovel  work  on  a 
scientific  basis.  To  determine  what  the  work  is  costing  day  by 
day,  is  half  the  problem:  to  determine  what  it  ought  to  cost 
is  the  other  half. 

To  establish  these  factors  it  was  necessary  to  observe  a  large 
number  of  shovels  in  operation,  and  the  data  given  are  the  re- 
sults of  the  observation  of  nearly  50  different  shovels  at  work  in 
various  kinds  of  earth  and  rock. 

The  unit  costs  of  working  by  hand  will  be  nearly  the  same, 
field  conditions  being  equal,  whether  the  job  is  a  large  one  or 
comparatively  small.  The  steam  shovel  is  dependent  for  its  work 
upon  so  many  factors,  any  one  of  which  may  greatly  help  or 
hinder  it,  that  there  is  a  far  greater  diversity  of  results  than 
in  the  case  of  handwork.  The  question  of  how  much  work  there 


404      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

must  be  to  justify  the  use  of  a  steam  shovel  is  vital  in  a  large 
percentage  of  all  excavation  contracts. 

Repairs  and  Depreciation.  Repair  costs  should  be  apportioned 
to  the  work  done  rather  than  considered  a  function  of  the  age  of 
the  shovel.  It  will  be  higher  for  rock  than  earth,  and  higher 
for  poorly  broken  rock  than  for  well  blasted  material.  Time 
alone  doesn't  affect  the  unit  cost  of  repairs. 

In  the  item  of  depreciation  the  reverse  of  this  proposition  ob- 
tains. If  the  machine  be  kept  in  proper  repair,  the  depreciation 
is  effected  by  time  alone,  regardless  of  the  work  the  machine 
is  doing.  Many  concerns  class  this  item  and  repairs  under  one 
account,  but  this  practice  is  inaccurate  and  misleading.  There 
is  a  great  disagreement  among  accountants  as  to  how  depreciation 
should  be  figured  and  there  are  many  so-called  depreciation 
formulas  and  curves.  The  simplest  to  use,  and  one  which  for 
steam  shovel  work  is  satisfactory  if  proper  allowance  is  made 
for  repairs,  is  the  "  straight-line  formula,"  which  is  as  follows : 

(a  — b)  c/d 

X  = .  where  a  =  original  value, 

a 

b  =  value  on  removal. 
c  —  time  in  use. 
d  =  estimated  life. 
X  —  %  of  depreciation. 

Then  X  divided  by  the  output  for  the  period  c  will  be  the  cost  of  deprecia- 
tion per  unit  of  performance. 

The  working  life  of  a  shovel  may  be  assumed  to  be  20  years,  and 
assuming  the  first  cost  at  $150  per  ton,  and  its  scrap  value  at 
$10  per  ton,  the  value  for  X  with  a  10-year-old  shovel,  would  be 

($150-$10)  10 

— X  —  =  46.67%   in  the  10  years  or  4%%  per  year. 

$150       20 

The  interest  on  all  money  invested  in  this  work  must  be  in- 
cluded in  the  costs  of  the  work.  In  this  discussion  the  interest 
is  assumed  as  6%. 

The  height  of  bank  to  which  a  shovel  can  work  has  an  im- 
portant bearing  upon  the  costs.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  higher  the  bank  the  larger  amount  of  material  that  can  be 
removed  without  moving  the  shovel. 

Cost  Formula.  The  following  analysis  of  steam  shovel  work 
is  based  on  the  results  of  observations  of  about  50  shovels  at 
work.  The  wages  of  the  different  classes  of  men  were  standard- 
ized as  listed  below  for  purpose  of  analytical  comparison.  In 
connection  with  this  analysis  the  accompanying  curves  of  cost 
are  useful  in  enabling  a  rapid  estimate  to  be  made  of  the  ap- 
proximate cost  of  steam  shovel  work  in  progress  or  proposed: 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTK1C  SHOVELS       405 

d  =.  time  in  minutes  to  load  1  cu.  ft.  with  dipper  (place  measure). 

c  =  capacity  of  1  car  in  cu.  ft.   (place  measure). 

f  —  time  shovel   is    interrupted   while  spotting   1   car. 

e  —  time  shovel  is  interrupted  to  change  trains. 

g  —  time  to  move  shovel. 

L  '=  distance  of  1  move  of  shovel.' 

N  —  number  of  shovel  moves. 

M  —  minutes  per  working  day  less  time  for  accidental  delays. 

A  or  B  =  area  in  sq.   ft.  of  section  excavated. 

R  i=  cost  in  cents  per  cu.  ft.  on  cars,  for  shovel  work  only  (place  measure). 

L  A  N  —  cu.  ft.  excavated  per  day. 

C  =  shovel   expense  in  cents   in  1  day,   not  including  superintendence  and 

overhead  charges  and  not  including  preparatory  charges, 
n  —  number  of  cars  in  train. 

(1)  Time  to  load  1  car  =  dc. 

(2)  Time  to  load  1  train  ±:ndc  +  nf-fe. 

L  A 

(3)  Number  of  trains  for  1  shovel  move  —  


n  c 

(4)  Time   between    beginning   of   1   shovel   move    and   beginning   of   next  = 

(n  d  c  +  n  f  +  e) (- g. 

n  c     ' 
M 

(5)  N  = 

— 

27Cd       27C/  f  "       e  g   \ 

(6)  B 1 1  —  H 1 I 

M  M  V  c         nc        LA  / 

This   is  equivalent  to  the  equation  B  =  md  +  b. 
27C 

(7)  Where  m  = ,  and 

M 


(8)    b 


(f          e           g   \ 
-  + + 1 
c         nc       LA  / 


The  following  standards  have  been  assumed  for  a  shovel  valued 
at,  say  $14,000: 

Per  year 

Depreciation,   4%%    $    653.34 

Interest,    6%    840.00 

Bepairs,  when  working  one  shift  2,000.00 

$3,493.34 

Per  day 

Assuming  year  of  150  working  days  *  $23.29 

Shovel  runner    5.00 

Craneman     3.60 

Fireman     • 2.40, 

Vz  watchman  at  $50  per  month  1.00 

6  pitmen  at  $1.50    9.00 

1  team  hauling  coal,  water,  etc.,  %  day,  say,  at  $5 2.50 

21/2  tons  coal  at  $3.50  8.75 

Oil,  waste,  etc.,  say   1.50 

Total  per  day   $57.04 

*  For  various  reasons,  such  as  lack  of  continuous  work, 
weather,  etc.,  150  working  days  per  year  is  assumed.  This 
will  vary  greatly  with  local  conditions. 


406 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


It  appears  that  the  equation .  R  =  md  +  b  is  that  of  a  straight 
line.  Now,  since  the  equation 

270  f         e         g 

m  = and  b  =  m  ( 1 1 ), 

M  c        nc      LA 

all  quantities  involved  in  the  equation  excepting  d  are,  or  are 
assumed  to  be,  constant.  The  data  upon  the  value  of  these 
quantities  have  been  represented  in  graphic  form  with  all  in- 
fluencing factors  by  the  five  figures  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E. 


VALUE9-05  270 

IN  SECONDS 
M!N.  AVO.  MAX. 
(RON  6.1  10.6  15.4 
BAND  6.£  12.1  10.8 
CLAY  10.0  13.3  20.0 
ARTH  10.8  18-4.  28.6 
ROCK  12.8  30.7  68.0 


OlPPEfl  CAPACITY 

W.M.  IN  YDS. 
MIN.        AVO.        MAX. 
2.26       2.47       2.6 
1.22       2-01        2.8 
2.00       2.41 
2.00       2.66        3.0 


DIPPER  CAPAC 

P.M.  IN  YDS. 
MIN.    AVG.      MAX 
1.76     2,33       2.67 
1.25* 
1.61 
26 
1.01 


PLACE  MEASURE  (  PM} 
WATER  MEASURE  (WM) 

AVO.  MAX 
0.7  0.84  1.07 
0.66  0.58  0.56 
0.4T  0.61  0.77 
0.4S  0.63  0.77 
0,12  0.43  0.79 


IRON 

SAND 

CLAY 

EARTH 

ROCK 


NOTE-VALUES  OF  27D  ARE  GIVEN  IN  SECONDS  AND  MUST  BE 
REDUCED  TO  MINUTES  FOR  USE  WITH  CURVES  OF  COST 


Fig.   18.     Diagram   for   Use  with   Cost  Curves.     (Value  of   27d 
Shown  Graphically.) 


COSTS  WITH  STi'AM  AND 


SHOVELS      407 


Fig  18  indicates  the  time  to  load   1  cu.  yd.  plaee  measure,  in 
various  kinds  of  material.     Fig.  19  deals  with  the  quantities  e, 


70 


ROCK  OUTS 
CRUSHED  STONE 
EARTH  AND  G. DRIFT  2'45 
IRON  ORE  7 '45 

SAND  AND  G.  PlTS 


OTE- VALUES  Of   6  FOR  USE  IN  COST  CURVES 
MUST  BE   IN  MINUTES 


33K93:;3''!S3c:82:t; 


aosasosffaaeoBs  ,a 


Fig.    19.     Diagram    for    Use    with    Cost    Curves.      (Value    of    e 
Shown  Graphically.) 

average  time  shovel  is  interrupted  to  change  trains.  For  use 
in  plotting  the  equation  above,  those  average  values  of  e,  n,  c 
and  f  involved  in  ordinary  contracting  work  where  side  dump 


408 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


cars  are  used,  have  been  tabulated  separately  in  Fig.  19.  It 
will  there  be  seen  that  the  average  value  for  e,  the  time  between 
trains  is  4  min.  The  average  number  of  cars  per  train,  or  n  = 
10.  The  commonest  form  of  contractors'  dump  car  is  4  yards 
water  measure  or  2.5  yards  place  measure,  and  therefore  c  is 
taken  as  67.5  cu.  ft.  The  ordinary  value  of  f  is  zero,  "since  the 
cars  are  almost  invariably  spotted  while  the  shovel  is  swinging 


50 


PER  CENT  OF  TIME  SHOVEL 

WORKS  PER  DAV 
MIN.  AVG.  MAX. 

BRICK  YARDS  89.25          92.75         95.3 

"•AND*  GRAVEL      81.5  91.8  98.0 

"IRON   ORE  80.0  91.4  99.25 

STRIPPING  79.5  87.6  95.25 

_R.R.  BORROW  PITS  59.79          82.8  96.0 

C.STONE  O.  72.25          82.2  90.9 

ROCK  CUTS  44.0  80.13  99.5 


VALUE  OF   "MM   IN  MINUT 
MIN.          AVO.  MAX. 

427.8  440.2  4(8.4 
549. 0 
548.4 
526.6 
496.8 
402.0 
480.0 


Fig.  20.    Diagram  for  Use  with  Cost  Curves. 

(Idle  time  shown  graphically  in  per  cent,  of  total  time  per  day.  Values 
of  "  M  "  to  be  taken  from  this  diagram.  To  find  "  M  "  take  value  plotted 
below  subtract  from  100%  and  multiply  result  by  total  working  time  per 
day,  generally  10  hours.) 

and  digging.  Fig.  20  deals  with  the  value  of  M  or  the  working 
time,  including  actual  shovel  time  waiting  for  trains  and  mov- 
ing up,  but  not  accidental  delays.  Fig.  21  deals  with  the  time 
of  moving  up,  an  average  value  for  which  is  8  min. 

The  constants  having  thus  been  established,  three  sets  of 
curves  have  been  plotted  on  Figs.  22,  23,  24  which  are  cost  curves. 
Each  plate  is  plotted  with  one  of  the  three  values  of  L  A  1,500, 
3,000  and  0,000  cu.  ft.  (L  being  the  average  shovel  move,  6  ft., 
and  A  the  area  of  the  dug  section  in  sq.  ft.).  Each  of  these 
sets  of  curves  has  been  plotted  for  values  of  M,  ranging  from 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       409 


2  hr.  to  10  hr.  by  hourly  intervals  between  which  intervals  the 
observed  values    (see  Fig.  20)    fall. 

Estimating.  There  are  two  important  uses  to  which  these 
cost  curves  can  conveniently  be  put,  ( 1 )  estimating  the  cost  of 
proposed  work  and  (2)  checking  up  the  cost  of  work  under  way. 
In  estimating  we  may  proceed  as  follows:  Assuming  that  the 
proposed  work  is  to  be  a  railroad  cut  in  rock,  with  average  equip- 
ment, there  are  then  only  three  quantities  to  decide  upon,  namely, 
LA,  27d,  and  M.  The  area  of  the  shovel  section  being  assumed 
at  250  sq.  ft.  and  the  average  distance  of  move  being  6  ft.,  LA 

TIME  MUST  BE  READ  IN  MINUTES 


19 

18 

VALUES  OF  y  
—   MIN.                  AVO.                 MAX.         NO 

19 

OBS,                                              Q 

-  1^430              7/  59"            19'48»          « 
I  »  DISTANCE  OF  SHOVEL  TO  MO 

^                                                  17 

16 

:  —  NO. 
"  OBSERVATIONS          MIN.            AVO. 

MAX.  3      16 

it! 

-     49                           3'0"            6'0" 

15'""                              /      j- 

915 

^n 

—  /-     14 

i  '-'---    13 

a»12 

?11 

* 

Jio 

*"  fl 

—J—               -   10 

2?  9 

H   8 

Ubll 

JMl 

-    V 

ie 

—  x^~\  \ 

O 

5   , 

4 

3 

/ 

^•^  : 

3 

f 

Fig.  21.     Diagram  for  Use  with  Cost  curves.      (Value  of  g  Shown 
Graphically.     Read  Time  in  Minutes.) 

will  equal  1,500  cu.  ft.  Now  refer  to  Fig.  18,  and  select  a  fair 
value  for  the  time  of  loading  1  cu.  yd.  in  rock  work.  Suppose  30 
sec.  be  chosen.  Next  refer  to  Fig.  20  for  the  proper  value  of 
M  to  use  in  rock  work.  The  average  value  is  8  hr.  (80%  of 
10  hr.).  The  cost  per  yard  in  cents  can  now  be  read  directly 
on  cost  curves,  Fig.  23.  With  abscissa  (27d)  as  30  sec.  glance 
upward  till  the  vertical  line  through  30  sec.  intersects  the  8  hr. 
M  line.  Then  on  the  left,  opposite  this  point  of  intersection 
read  9^  ct.  as  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  loaded,  place  measure. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  with  respect  to  the  two  important 
items  of  time  to  load  1  cu.  yd.  with  dipper  and  values  of  M, 
the  cost  curves  are  perfectly  flexible.  Variation  in  the  value  of 


410 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  constants  may  be  allowed  for  by  proper  choice  of  M.  In 
connection  with  the  formula  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  effect 
of  decreasing  the  carrying  capacity  of  each  train,  other  con- 
ditions remaining  the  same.  Suppose  the  carrying  capacity  be 
decreased  from  the  average  10  X  2.5  yd.— 25  cu.  yd.  to  8  X  2  =  16 
cu.  yd.,  place  measure,  what  would  be  the  effect  upon  the  cost 
per  cu.  yd.?  The  new  cost  would  be  10.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  as 
against  the  former  9.5  ct.,  an  increase  of  10%. 

To  use  the  cost  curves  for  checking  up  the  cost  of  work  in 
progress,  proceed  as  follows:  The  field  operations  are  few  and 
simple.  Find  the  average  time  per  dipper  swing.  Knowing 
the  rated  capacity  of  the  dipper  and  the  character  of  the  ma- 


WHERE  LA  —  1800  CU.FT.  EXCAVATION  TO  EACH  SHOVEL  MOVE 


0  10          20          80         40          80         «0          70          80         CO         ICG 

TIME  TO  IOAD  1  CU.YO.,  PUCE  MEASURE  WITH  DIPPER  WORKING  FREELY  IN  SECONDS 

Fig.  22.     Cost  Curve. 

terial,  a  glance  at  the  tabulation  near  the  top  of  Fig.  18  will 
give  the  ratio  of  dipper  capacity  place  measure  to  dipper  capacity 
water  measure,  and  by  using  this  factor  the  average  factor  of 
dipper  (place  measure)  can  be  obtained,  and  thence  the  time  to 
load  1  cu.  ft.  or  yd.  Suppose,  for  instance,  the  average  time 
per  swing  to  be  25  sec.,  in  earth  material,  and  the  capacity  of 
dipper,  214  yd.  On  Fig.  18,  under  ratio  of  place  measure:  water 
measure,  we  find  the  average  value  is  given  as  0.53.  Therefore, 
21/4X0.53  =  1.2  cu.  yd.  per  swing  or  2.88  cu.  yd.  per  min.  or 
0.35  min.  per  cu.  yd.  Make  some  rough  measurements  to  deter- 
mine the  approximate  area  of  the  shovel  section  and  multiply 
this  area  by  the  length  of  move,  and  get  LA,  say  3,000.  -Then, 
from  previous  observations  or  by  an  estimate  of  M,  get  the  time 
worked  per  day,  less  accidental  delays,  say  9  hr.  Now  take  the 


COST!§  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       411 

cost  curves,  Figs.  22  to  24,  and  with  .21  as  abscissa,  read  oppo- 
site the  line,  for  Mr=:9  hr.,  6  ct.  as  the  cost  per  yd.  place  measure. 
If  the  contents  in  the  formula  do  not  agree  closely  enough  with 
the  actual  conditions,  allow  for  this  by  choosing  a  suitable  value 
of  M,  or  substitute  directly  in  the  equation  for  cost. 

27Cd       27C 


Formula  R  = 

M  M     V  c         nc       LA 

Assume  — 

f  —  o,   interruption  of  shovel  while  spotting  cars. 

e  —  4  niin.  time  between  trains. 

n  =  10,  number  of  cars  per  train. 

c  =  2.5  yd.  place  measure  =  6.7  cu.  ft. 

C  =  5,704  ct.,  daily  cost. 

M  =  actual  working  time  of  shovel. 

g  =  8  minutes,  see  Fig.  4. 

d  =  Minutes  to  load  1  cu.  ft.  place  measure. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  above  does  not  include  superin- 
tendence or  overhead  charges  and  covers  only  the  cost  of  loading. 
It  should  be  particularly  noted  that  for  plotting  the  two  co- 
ordinates, certain  assumptions  are  necessary  because  there  are  a 
large  number  of  variables  in  the  theoretical  steam  shovel  formula. 


0  10          20  80          40          50          60          70  80          90         100 

TIME  TO  LOAD  1  CU.YD.,  PLACE  MEASURE  WITH  DIPPER  WORKING  FREELY,  IN  SECOND- 

Fig.    23.     Cost    Curves.      (From    Daily    Cost    "  C."     Itemized    in 

Text.) 


Thus,  the  three  diagrams  are  given  —  one  for  LA  =  1,500,  one 
when  LA  is  3,000  and  one  where  it  is  6,000.  Also  an  assumption 
of  $57.04  for  the  value  of  C  is  made.  Where  the  shovel  differs 
very  much  in  type  from  the  one  mentioned,  or  where  the  rates  of 
wages  are  very  different  from  those  assumed,  it  will  be  neces- 


412 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


sary  to  compensate  for  the  difference  between  the  new  value  of 
C,  and  the  one  used  here.  The  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  to 
multiply  the  figures  taken  from  the  diagram  by  the  ratio  between 
the  new  value  of  C  and  the  assumed  one.  Thus,  if  the  shovel  costs 
per  day  are  $65  instead  of  $57.04,  and  the  diagram  should  give 
a  cost  for  loading  of  12  ct.,  we  would  have  for  our  charge  12  ct. 
multiplied  by  $65  and  divided  by  $47.04  or  13.67  ct.  per  yd. 

The  quality  and  amount  of  superintendence  will  greatly  affect 
the  unit  costs  of  the  work ;  and  by  superintendence  is  meant,  not 
only  the  man  in  charge,  but  his  whole  directing  organization. 


WHERE  LA  =  6000  CU .FT.  EXCAVATION  TO  EACH  SHOVEL  MOVE 


0  10          20          SO  40  60          bO          70  80          90          100 

TIME  TO  LOAD  1  CU.YO.,  PLACE  MEASURE  WITH  DIPPER  WORKING  FREELY.  IN  SECONDS 

Fig.  24.     Cost  Curve.     (Value  Same  as  Figs.  22  and  23.) 

The  work  in  the  iron  ore  country  is  an  example  of  the  work 
which  may  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of  skilled  organization. 
Pure  observation  alone  without  actual  timing  will  not  show  a 
superintendent  whether  it  is  more  economical  for  him  to  use  9 
or  10  car  trains  to  haul  material  away  from  his  shovel.  He 
will  generally  favor  the  use  of  long  trains  if  his  engines  will 
haul  them.  Yet  money  has  been  saved  by  shortening  trains  even 
when  the  engines  could  easily  haul  the  longer  ones.  In  this 
case  the  key  to  the  situation  was  the  time  required  to  dump  and 
transport. 

Values   of   e,   n,   c,  f,   involved   in    ordinary   contracting   work   with   side 
dump  cars. 

e    —  Average  time   shovel  is  interrupted  to   change  trains. 

n   :=  Number  of  cars  per  train. 

c    —  Capacity  of  cars  in  cu.  ft.    (place  measure). 

/    =  Time  to  spot  one  car. 

c'  —  Capacity  of  cars  in  cu.  ft.    (water  measure). 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       413 


Values  of  n 


Values  of  c 


Min.  Avg.  Max.,  Min.  Avg.  Max. 

Brick  yard  clay    1  1-2  2  54  72  81 

R.  R.  borrow  pits   7  11  15  83.7  126  270 

Rock    cuts     7  9  12  54  75  97.2 

Crushed    stone    quarries  1  10  10  108  124  189 

Earth  and  glacial  drift.  10  10-11  13  70  108  141 

Iron    ore    (Minn.)    3  7  12  270  540  675 

Sand  and  gravel  pit  ...  1  7  15  67.5  598  891 


Zero 


151 

188 
162 
157 
540 


General  average  of  e,  n,  c,  f,  c' ,  as  follows 


n 

c 
c' 

c/c' 


No.  of  Obs. 
35 
35 
0 

35 
27 
27 


Minimum 
.25  min. 
.0    cars 


yd. 
yd. 


Average 

4.00  min. 

10.00  cars 

0 

4.00  yd. 
5.00  yd. 
0.8 


Maximum 
13.5  min. 
15.0  cars 

0 

10.00  yd. 
12.00  yd. 

0.95 


Repairs  of  Steam  Shovels,  Cars  and  Locomotives  on  the 
Panama  Canal.  The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  "Annual 
Report  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  "  printed  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Dec.  22,  1909: 

According  to  the  last  annual  report  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission,  the  following  were  the  principal  items  of  equipment 
used  in  excavating  and  transporting  earth  and  rock,  on  June  30, 
1909: 

TABLE  FOR  USE  WITH  COST  CURVES 

Steam  Shovels: 

1  (20-ton)   shovel,  l^-yd.  dipper  %       5,788 

10  (45-ton)    shovels,  1%-yd.  dipper,   at  $7,100   71,000 

42  (70-ton)   shovels,   2M>-yd.   dipper,    at  $9,381    494,002 

47  (95-ton)    shovels,  5-yd.  dipper,   at  $12,760   599,720 

100  total  steam  shovels,  at  $11,705 $1,170,510 

Locomotives : 

119  French  locomotives,   at  $4,250    $    505,750 

164  American  locomotives,  at  $11,600  1,902,400 

283  Total  locomotives,    at  8,509    $2,408,150 

Cars: 

621  French  dump  cars  at  $225  $    139.725 

1,324  American  dump  cars  at  $1,400  1,853,600 

1,765  wooden  flat  cars  at  $1,050   1,853,250 

500  steel  flat  cars  at  $861   430,500 

35  narrow  gauge  cars  at  $227  7,945 

4,245  Total  cars  at  $1,010 $4,285,020 

• : '  :    ;  i  f 
Unloaders,  etc. : 

30  Lidgerwood  unloaders  at  $5,000  $    150,000 

46  unloading  plows  at  $950  43,700 

24  bank  spreaders  at  $5,200   124,800 

10  track  shifters  at  $4.050   40,500 

16  pile  drivers  at  $3,700   59,200 

Total  unloaders,  etc $    418,200 

Grand  total    $8,281,880 


414 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  100  steam  shovels  averaged  a  78-ton  weight,  and  a  first 
cost  pf  $140  per  ton;  and  daily  repair  cost  of  about  $25. 

The  prices  paid  for  this  plant  include  the  cost  of  delivery  at 
Colon. 

The  cost  of  shop  repairs  made  by  the  mechanical  division  dur- 
ing the  year  on  the  different  units  of  equipment  enumerated  in  the 
above  table,  including  direct  and  overhead  charges,  was  as 
follows : 

Each  per 
annum 

283  locomotives    (93  repairs  on  each)    $1,226 

4,210  freight  cars    (29^  repairs  on  each)    150 

119  work  cars   (7  repairs  on  each)    338 

100  steam  shovels    (shop  repairs  only)    1.976 

The  total  shop  repairs  on  these  locomotives,  cars  and  steam 
shovels  amounted  to  $1,217,058  for  the  year,  not  including  field 
repairs  on  the  steam  shovels.  While  the  report  does  not  give 
field  repairs,  we  have  included  here  some  data  taken  from  the 
Canal  Record  and  published  in  our  issue  of  Oct.  20,  1909. 
The  shop  cost  does  not  include  the  cost  of  repairs  made  in  the 
field  or  that  of  repairs  made  to  steam  shovel  parts  taken  to  the 
shops  while  the  shovel  is  kept  in  service  by  substituting  other 
parts.  These  repairs  are  known  as  field  repairs  and  are  made  in 
the  field  shops  and  on  the  work,  often  while  the  shovel  is  waiting 
for  cars.  The  cost  of  steam  shovel  repairs  in  the  three  con- 
struction divisions  from  January,  1908,  to  June,  1909,  inclusive, 
a  period  of  18  months,  was  3.03  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  33,882,000 
cu.  yd. 


Item  Central 

Cubic    yards    27,752,750 

Field  cost    $596,059,02 

Shop   cost    $283,746.76 


Cost  per  cu.  yd. 

Field    

Shop    


Ct. 
2.14 
1.02 


Atlantic 
4,148,997 
$51,786.74 
$51,782.61 

Pacific 
1,980,069 
$19,917.58 
$22,246.75 

Ct. 
1.25 
1.25 

Ct. 
1.01 
1.12 

Total 

33,881,816 
$667,763.34 
$357.776.12 

Ct. 

1.97 
1.06 


Total 


3.16 


2.50 


2.13 


The  shovels  in  the  Central  Division  are  subjected  to  harder 
and  more  constant  usage  than  those  of  the  other  two  divisions. 
Of  the  101  steam  shovels  in  the  Canal  and  Panama  railroad  serv- 
ice 61  are  in  the  service  of  the  Central  Division,  most  of  them 
in  Culebra  Cut. 

The  repairs  on  locomotives  and  cars  include  field  repairs  as 
well  as  shop  repairs.  It  will  be  noted  that  locomotive  repairs 
amounted  to  14^%  of  the  first  cost  of  the  locomotives.  This 
is  about  the  percentage  it  costs  to  maintain  railway  locomotives 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       415 

in  America,  exclusive  of  entire  renewals  of  worn  out  equipment, 
but  the  report  does  not  give  the  weights  of  locomotives,  so  it 
car  not  be  determined  whether  the  price  of  the  French  locomo- 
tives is  a  second-hand  price  or  not.  As  the  locomotives  grow 
older,  the  cost  of  repairs  will  increase,  unless  the  efficiency  of 
the  men  engaged  in  repair  work  increases. 

The  total  cost  of  repairing  cars  was  about  15%  of  the  first 
cost. 

The  shop  cost  of  repairing  steam  shovels  was  17%  of  the  first 
cost.  The  average  shovel  has  been  put  into  the  shop  for  general 
repairs  once  in  24  months,  and  that  $3,800  was  spent  on  each 
shovel  during  such  period  of  general  repairs.  As  above  shown, 
the  field  repairs  averaged  twice  as  much  as  the  shop  repairs; 
hence  the  combined  annual  field  and  shop  repairs  totaled  50% 
of  the  first  cost  of  the  shovels. 

For  total  "  maintenance  and  repairs,"  "the  mechanical  depart- 
ment expended  the  following  sum  during  the  year : 

Materials    $    595,050 

Labor     1,245,448 


Total     $1,840,498 

This  is  $623,000  more  than  the  total  cost  spent  on  the  steam 
shovels,  locomotives  and  cars,  and  probably  covers  repairs  to  all 
other  parts  of  the  plant,  including  rock  drills,  etc. 

Expenditures  of  the  mechanical  department  for  work  done  for 
"other  departments"  was  $1,504,315,  but  this  is  not  itemized. 

The  monthly  payroll  of  the  mechanical  department  was  $159,- 
934,  for  2,125  employees.  The  following  rates  of  wages  were 
paid,  and  the  percentage  by  which  their  wages  exceed  those 
paid  in  the  U.  S.  navy  yards: 

Wage,  Per  cent. 

Blacksmith  —  8  hr.  increase 

59  general     $4.74  31 

5  machine     5.25  37 

3  brick  layers  or  masons    5.76  19 

138  boiler  makers    (general)    4.86  41 

180  carpenters    (house)     5.36  52 

34  molders    (loam)     5.47  51 

26  painters    (house)    5.06  55 

6  pattern   makers    :... .'...  6.18  52 

33  pipe  fitters    5.15  44 

33  plumbers    (house)    5,92  55 

2  tinsmiths    5.52  62 

7  coppersmiths    5.33  42 

5  engineers    (steam)     4.77  40 

Machinists  — 

269  general  4.91  37 

58  floor  hands  '. 5.10  43 

38  tool  hands  4.82  33 

33  wire  men  (electric)  4.93  46 

929  total- 


416  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

"  So  far  as  hourly  rates  of  pay  for  '  gold '  employees  are  con- 
cerned, the  first-class  pay  remains  almost  uniformly  65  ct.  an 
hour  ($5.20  for  8  hr.)." 

The  following  data  are  taken  from  the  Panama  Canal 
special  issue  (66  pages)  of  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  7, 
1914. 

Five  sizes  of  shovels  were  employed  as  follows: 

Dipper 
Name  —  capacity 

45-ton    Bucyrus    1%  cu.  yd. 

70-ton    Bucyrus    2%  cu.  yd. 

95-ton    Bucyrus    5      cu.  yd. 

No.  60  Marion   2V2  cu.  yd. 

No.  91  Marion 5      cu.  yd. 

The  number  of  each  type  used  each  year  varied;  the  number 
of  all  shovels  used  each  year  and  the  average  output  of  all 
shovels  are  given  in  Table  I. 

These  performance  records  and  all  others  which  will  be  stated 
are  based  on  an  8-hr,  working  day.  The  best  performances  per 
day,  month  and  year  of  steam  shovels  of  the  sizes  named  above 
for  the  five  years  are  given  in  Table  IT. 

Maintenance  of  Shovels.  Steam  shovels  were  maintained  by 
shop  and  field  repairs.  Priod  to  Oct.  1,  1909,  all  shop  repairs  of 
steam  shovels  were  made  at  the  Empire  shops  and  were  in  charge 
of  the  Mechanical  Division  and  all  field  repairs  were  made  by 
the  construction  division.  On  the  date  named  the  Empire  Shops 
were  removed  from  the  direction  of  the  Mechanical  Division  and 
transferred  to  the  Central  Division,  and  were  made  virtually 
steam  shovel  repair  shops  for  the  whole  canal. 

A  field  repair  system  was  begun  Nov.  5,  1907,  and  it  comprised 
a  force  of  boiler  workers,  pipefitters,  machinists  and  helpers 
who  made  all  repairs  at  night  after  the  shovels  were  shut  down. 
The  force  was  divided  into  three  gangs,  each  covering  a  certain 
section  of  the  excavation.  A  machine  shop  car,  equipped  with  a 
forge,  drill  and  shaper  and  carrying  necessary  small  tools,  and  a 
locomotive  crane  constituted  the  field  repair  plant.  The  field 
repairs  included  replacing  and  repairing  circles,  booms,  dippers 
and  dipper  sticks.  A-frames,  hoisting  drums,  main  and  pro- 
peller shafts,  swinging  drums,  intermediate  shafts,  water  tanks, 
feed  pumps  and  trucks  and  in  one  or  two  cases  even  renewal  of 
boilers.  In  fact  it  was  seldom  that  a  shovel  was  sent  to  the 
shops  for  repairs  short  of  complete  overhauling.  The  numbers 
of  shovels  repaired  per  night  by  the  field  repair  gangs  run  from 
14  to  20. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      417 


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418  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  cost  of  shop  and  field  repairs  per  steam  shovel  per  service 
day  from  June  1,  1910,  to  July  1,  1912,  was  as  follows: 

Six  months  to  July  1,  1910  $27  66 

July  1,  1910,  to  July  1,  1911  2221 

July  1,  1911,  to  July  1,  1912  22.95 

The  cost  of  excavating  the  soft  rock  of  the  Culebra  Cut  was  as 
follows  in  1911  and  1912: 

1911  1912 

Clearing     $0.0001 

Drilling     $0.0503  .0535 

Blasting    0547  .0622 

Loading    .0493  .0492 

Tracks     1014  .0885 

Transportation     0816  .0734 

Dumps 0488  .0423 

Pumps     0038  .0041 

Maintenance  of  equipment 0875  .0213 

Plant,    arbitrary .1000  .0394 

Division    expenses    0128  .0145 

Administration 0462  .0364 


Total     $0.6364  $0.5479 

Prices  of  Standard  Railroad  Shovels.  The  following  is  taken 
from  R.  T.  Dana's  "  Handbook  of  Construction  Plant."  About 
the  most  powerful  steam  shovel  built  for  ordinary  grading  weighs 
95  tons,  and  for  general  work  a  5-yd.  dipper  may  be  used,  but 
for  iron  ore  or  shale  an  extra  heavy  one  of  2i£  or  3^-yd.  capa- 
city is  better.  The  clear  lift  from  the  rail  to  the  bottom  of  the 
open  dipper  door  is  16  ft.  6  in.  and  the  maximum  width  of  cut 
8  ft.  above  the  rail  is  60  ft.  This  95-ton  shovel  has  a  record 
output  of  four  to  five  thousand  yards  per  day. 

A  steam  shovel  adapted  to  extra  hard  condidtions  is  the  80-ton ; 
the  bucket  used  is  generally  3  cu.  yd.  for  rock  work  or  4  yd.  for 
earth.  The  clear  lift  is  16  ft.  and  the  width  of  cut  60  ft. 

A  70-ton  shovel  is  the  one'  most  in  demand  'for  heavy  work 
under  average  conditions.  It  carries  a  2  to  3$jiyd.  dipper;  the 
clear  lift  is  16  ft.  6  in.;  width  of  cut,  60  ft. 

For  work  where  the  depth  or  amount  of  excavation  is  not 
great  enough  to  warrant  a  70-ton  shovel  a  60-ton  is  more  eco- 
nomical. A  2^-cu.  yd.  dipper  is  generally  used;  clear  lift,  15 
ft.;  width,  54  ft. 

A  45-ton  shovel  is  designed  for  use  on  fairly  heavy  work,  but 
where  lightness  and  ease  of  transportation  are  essential.  Capa- 
city of  dipper,  2  yd.;  clear  lift,  14  ft.;  width  of  cut,  50  ft.  A 
40-ton  shovel  is  designed  for  lighter  work  or  sewer  excavation. 

The  prewar  price  of  steam  shovels  was  as  follows: 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      419 

Weight  1914  Price 

120  tons    $14,500 

95  tons    12,700 

85  tons    11,250 

70  tons 9,250 

60  tons 8,500 

45  tons 7,000 

40  tons    6,500 

Shovels  fitted  with  electric  motors  cost  from  $1,000  to  $2,500 
more  than  steam-driven  shovels. 

[The  prices  in  June,  1919,  were  about  2.5  times  those  of  1914, 
both  for  steam  shovels  and  dinkeys.  Dump  cars  doubled  in  price 
during  the  war.] 

From  observations  made  on  50  steam  shovels  in  actual  operation 
during  a  considerable  number  of  weeks  the  average  number  of 
cubic  yards  per  day  excavated  by  all  shovels  in  all  materials  was 
934.  This  is  perhaps  less  than  may  be  expected  on  a  well- 
managed  job.  A  shovel  should  load  a  dipper  60%  full  every 


I 


Fig.  25.     95C  Bucyrus  Steam  Shovel. 


20  sec.  while  actually  working.  About  50%  of  the  time  the 
shovel  is  held  up  by  various  causes,  such  as  waiting  for  trains, 
moving  ahead,  waiting  for  blasts,  and  making  repairs.  With  a 
2^-yd.  dipper  a  shovel  should,  therefore,  excavate  1,350  cu.  yd. 
in  10  hr.  • 

The  maximum  width  of  cut  given  by  shovel  manufacturers  is 
far  greater  than  the  actual  average  as  recorded  in  observations 
made  by  the  author.  70  to  95-ton  shovels  make  an  average  cut 
of  28i£  ft.  wide.  With  a  30  or  40-ton  shovel  the  average  cut  is 
not  much  more  than  20  ft.  in  width. 


420  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

45,  60  and  70-ton  shovels  equipped  with  dipper  handles  45  to 
55  ft.  long  are  used  for  excavating  large  trenches.  A  70-ton 
shovel,  was  employed  in  excavating  a  sewer  trench  16  ft.  wide 
by  26  ft.  deep  in  Chicago  in  1909.  This  shovel  was  of  the  latest 
design,  equipped  with  a  54-ft.  dipper  handle  and  a  2-yd.  dipper, 
with  the  operating  levers  placed  far  forward  so  as  to  enable  the 
runner  to  see  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  The  shovel  had  been 
removed  from  its  trucks  and  mounted  on  a  footing,  24  ft.  wide 
by  38  ft.  long,  of  heavy  wood  beams  trussed  with  steel  rods. 
This  platform  rested  on  rollers,  which  in  turn  rested  on  running 
planks  laid  on  the  trench  bank.  To  move  the  shovel  a  cable 
was  attached  to  a  dead  man  and  wound  up  by  the  shovel  engine. 
The  average  length  of  forward  move  was  15  ft.  The  shovel 
moved  back  416  ft.  in  3y2  hr.  569  cu.  yd.  were  loaded  in  a  day 
into  4  and  6-yd.  narrow  gauge  cars  drawn  by  18-ton  dinkeys. 
The  crew  consisted  of  1  engineman,  1  craneman,  1  fireman,  and 
7  roller  men.  In  addition  6  trimmers,  6  bracers,  and  1  foreman 
were  employed  on  the  excavation. 

For  digging  trenches  in  ground  where  it  would  not  be  safe 
to  support  the  shovel  on  the  banks,  however  well  sheeted  the 
trench  might  be,  an  arrangement  which  allows  the  shovel  to 
dig  backward  is  sometimes  used.  This  consists  of  an  extension 
boom  at  the  end  of  and  in  line  with  the  main  boom,  but  slanting 
downward  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  to  the  perpendicular.  On  the 
lower  end  of  this  are  placed  the, crowding  engines,  reversed  from 
their  usual  position,  thus  pointing  the  dipper  mouth  towards  the 
shovel.  This  allows  the  shovel  to  remain  ahead  of  the  trench 
on  solid  ground.  A  46-ton  shovel  equipped  in  this  manner  cost 
$9,000  in  1909. 

Where  a  through  cut  is  being  made,  the  excavation  is  often 
too  narrow  to  permit  the  shovel  to  turn  around  and  excavate 
the  next  cut  in  an  opposite  direction,  but  necessitating  the  return 
of  the  machine  backward  to  the  starting  point  for  the  next  cut. 
Sometimes  this  return  is  3  or  4  miles  long  and  costs  considerable 
in  lost  time  as  well  as  money.  In  such  a  situation  the  shovel 
should  be  equipped  with  a  ball  socket,  which  allows  it  to  be 
jacked  up  and  revolved  on  the  forward  trucks  while  being  held 
in  equilibrium  by  the  weight  of  the  extended  bucket  and  dipper. 
This  equipment  costs  about  $500  extra. 

Steam  Shovel  Dippers.  Old  style  dippers  were  made  of  plates 
and  forgings.  Modern  dippers  have  special  steel  front  castings 
and  cast  steel  backs.  Solid  forged  steel  teeth  are  generally 
used,  although  teeth  of  manganese  and  other  special  steels  are 
sometimes  used.  In  trench  work  teeth  are  often  provided  at 
the  sides  of  the  dipper  as  well  as  in  front  in  order  to  cut  a 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      421 

straight  vertical  bank.  The  author  has  found  it  well  to  point 
the  outside  front  teeth  outward  in  some  soils.  In  most  work  the 
hoisting  line  is  fastened  to  the  dipper  bail,  but  in  trench  work 
the  bail  is  sometimes  omitted  and  the  hoisting  line  is  connected 
to  the  back  of  the  dipper.  For  soft  material  the  teeth  are  re- 
placed by  a  lip  or  cutting  edge. 

A  Manganese  Steel  Dipper.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July 
17,  1912,  gives  the  following: 

Three  new  steam  shovel  dippers  known  as  the  "  Missabe  "  were 
put  in  service  at  Panama.  Every  part  of  the  dipper,  including 
the  back,  is  of  cast  manganese  steel.  This  insures  durability 
and  a  minimum  cost  in  repairs,  owing  to  the  toughness  and 
wearing  quality  of  this  metal. 

The  dipper  body  is  composed  of  only  two  castings  —  the  front 
and  back  halves,  this  giving  great  rigidity  and  eliminating  the 
working  and  straining  of  the  parts  which,  in  the  dipper  built  up 
of  plates,  tends  to  cause  loosening  of  rivets.  The  bail  brackets 
are  set  at  an  angle  conforming  to  the  line  of  pull  on  the  bail, 
and  by  putting  them  against  projecting  shoulders  cast  on  the 
sides  of  the  front  casting  the  shearing  strain  is  relieved  from 
the  bail  bracket  rivets. 

Another  feature  is  the  placing  of  the  joint,  between  the  front 
and  back  casting,  behind  the  bail  bracket  so  that  the  digging 
strain  does  not  tend  to  pull  the  dipper  apart.  The  teeth  are 
riveted  on  as  usual,  but  are  held  unusually  rigid  by  means  of 
notches  in  the  lip  and  shelf  or  offset  on  the  outside  of  the  lip, 
upon  which  rests  that  portion  of  the  tooth  which  is  on  the  out- 
side of  the  lip. 

When  extra  protection  for  the  front  of  the  dipper  is  desired,  a 
renewable  bottom  band  as  well  as  runners  or  shoes  can  be  fur- 
nished when  desired,  or  they  may  be  cast  integrally  with  the 
dipper  front.  All  pin  holes  in  bails,  hinge  brackets  and  dipper 
stick  brackets  are  provided  with  renewable  bushings. 

This  dipper  is  built  in  all  sizes  for  the  various  makes  of  steam 
snovels  and  dipper  dredges,  and  is  claimed  by  the  manufacturers 
to  have  a  life  of  three  or  four  times  that  of  the  built-up  type. 
It  is  manufactured  by  the  Edgar  Allen  American  Manganese 
Steel  Co.,  Chicago,  111.  'ri 

Designs  of  Dipper  Trips.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Nov. 
29,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

When  the  shovels  arrived  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  they 
were  equipped  with  a  single  lever  latch  operated  by  a  1^-in. 
rope  in  the  hand  of  the  craneman,  and  attached  at  its  other 
end  to  the  "  trip  "  of  the  dipper.  Several  pulls  were  often  neces- 
sary to  open  the  latch,  and  almost  invariably  a  great  effort  was 


422 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


required.  The  string  by  which  this  "  trip  "  was  operated  passed 
through  a  sheave  on  the  dipper  stick  near  the  dipper  and  thence 
to  the  craneman's  hand. 

The  first  improvement  was  to  compound  this  original  "  trip," 
and  in  the  drawing  herewith,  Fig.  26,  the  compound  "  trip  "  is 
shown.  The  original  was  the  simple  level  with  the  fulcrum  at  o, 
the  weight  at  &  and  the  power  at  c.  In  the  compound  "trip," 
another  fulcrum  was  made  at  d  and  the  power  was  applied  at  e, 
where  the  line  was  attached.  By  this  device  a  movement  of  20 
in.  in  the  line  resulted  in  a  1-in.  movement  of  the  latch. 


Fig.   26.     Door  of  Dipper  of  95-Ton  Shovel  Showing  Compound 
Latch  Trip. 

Among  improvements  upon  the  compound  device,  one  that  was 
given  a  trial  in  1909  was  the  "  spring  trip  "  which  consisted  of 
the  lever  shown  by  Fig.  27  and  a  bar  passing  through  a  slot  in 
the  latch,  with  a  spring  attached  at  its  outer  end,  the  power  for 
unlatching  being  supplied  by  the  spring.  The  rope  by  which  the 
"  trip  "  is  operated  is  attached  at  6;  the  fulcrums  are  at  c  and  d; 
at  a  is  a  toggle  joint;  at  e  the  weight;  at  /  the  power  applied  by 
the  spring.  The  door  is  closed  by  its  own  weight,  when  in 
digging  position,  placing  a  tension  of  1,300  Ib.  upon  the  spring, 
and  drawing  the  toggle  joint  erect.  When  the  dipper  is  in  dump- 
ing position,  the  craneman  pulls  the  rope,  thereby  breaking  the 
toggle  joint  and  allowing  the  spring  to  exert  its  pull  upon  the 
latch,  which  flies  back,  permitting  the  dipper  to  empty.  The 
spring  required  was  of  ^-in.  wire,  31  coils,  2^.-in.  outside  diam- 
eter, and  21  in.  long  when  free.  This  device  worked  satisfac- 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       423 

torily,  but  the  toggle  joint  required  constant  renewing,  and  some 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  obtaining  suitable  spring,  so  that 
the  appliance  was  finally  abandoned. 

The  first  steam  power  trip  was  a  device  placed  upon  his  shovel 
by  Thomas  Custy,  a  steamshovel  engineer,  in  1908,  but  after  a 
few  months'  trial  this  was  discarded.  This  device  was  im- 
proved upon  by  A.  H.  Geddes,  also  a  steamshovel  engineer,  until 
it  became  practicable,  and  a  patent  has  been  granted  to  him.  It 
was  described  at  length  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  issue 
of  May  31,  1911.  In  this  device  a  steam  cylinder  is  located 
on  the  dipper  stick  near  the  dipper,  the  piston  is  connected  with 
the  dipper  latch  through  a  chain  and  a  series  of  levers,  and  when 


Fig.  27.     Portion  of  Steam  Shovel  Dipper  Door  Showing  Arrange- 
ment of  Spring  Latch. 

steam  is  admitted  to  the  cylinder  the  thrust  of  the  piston  operates 
the  levers  and  unlatches  the  door.  Steam  is  admitted  and  ex- 
hausted from  the  cylinder  through  a  three-way  valve  located 
on  the  boom  beside  the  craneman's  seat.  A  steam  pipe  extends 
from  the  valve  along  the  boom  opposite  the  dipper  stick  slot,  and 
at  the  end  of  this  pipe,  and  on  the  cylinder,  are  universal 
joints  which  are  connected  with  one  another  by  a  flexible  hose. 
After  a  thorough  trial  this  device  was  adopted,  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  a  committee  of  two  mechanical  experts  and  a  steam- 
shovel  engineer,  who  reported  that  the  capacity  of  a  shovel  was 
increased  100  cu.  yd.  a  day  by  its  use. 

The    latest    device,    that    shown    in    the    illustration,    was    in- 
vented by  F.  S.  Wichman  of  the  Mechanical  Division.     The  latch 


424  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

is  opened  by  a  pull  that  is  made  on  a  %-in.  wire  rope  by  the 
outward  thrust  of  the  piston  of  an  air-brake  cylinder.  The 
mechanism  is  fixed  upon  the  boom  of  the  shovel.  A  drum  is 
mounted  upon  the  face  of  the  thrusting  gear,  or  shipper  shaft, 
which  revolves  with  the  shaft,  thus  winding  or  unwinding  the 
tripper  rope,  according  as  the  dipper  shaft  moves  up  or  down. 
In  this  way  the  rope  is  kept  taut  at  all  times.  To  give  the 
lengthwise  pull  of  the  cable,  a  6-in.  diameter  steam  cylinder  is 
mounted  below  the  drum.  This  cylinder  has  a  push  piston,  the 
outer  end  of  which  is  bifurcated  to  receive  a  sheave,  over  which 


Fig.  28.     Steam  Shovel  Boom  Showing  Dipper  Stick,  Dipper  and 
Operating  Gear  with  Wichman   Tripping  Device. 

the  cable  passes  on  its  way  to  the  drum.  Steam  is  admitted  to 
the  cylinder,  when  it  is  desired  to  trip  the  dipper  door,  through 
a  three-way  cock,  operated  by  a  lever  at  the  craneman's  seat, 
When  the  steam  exhausts,  the  spring  in  the  cylinder  pulls  the 
piston  back  into  position,  and  the  tripping  operation  may  then 
be  repeated.  This  device  has  undergone  a  successful  test  on  two 
95-ton  steamshovels. 

The  dippers  trip  selected  as  the  best  by  the  above  described 
tests  has  been  put  on  the  market  by  the  Lines  Flyn  Co.,  of 
New  York  City. 

A  Bail  Clamp  for  Steam  Shovels  and  Cars.     The  following  ap- 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      425 


peared  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  1,  1914.  An  ad- 
justable rail  clamp  which  will  fit  any  rail  from  60  to  100  Ib. 
is  made  in  two  styles  for  33-in.  and  28-in.  wheels.  It  clamps  the 


Assembled  Clamp 


Lugs, Wedge  Etc. 


Bottom  View  of  Box 

Side  View  of  Box 

Fig.   29.     Adjustable   Rail   Clamp   for   Steam   Shovel   and   Cars. 


Fig.  30.     Bates  Rail  Clamp  for  Steam  Shovels. 

head  of  the  rail  and  so  can  be  attached  anywhere  regardless 
of  tie  spacing.  The  bottom  bar  of  the  box  holds  the  jaws  spread 
when  the  clamp  is  being  placed  on  or  lifted  from  the  rail;  a 


420  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

hammer  blow  loosens  or  tightens  the  wedge  (Fig.  20).  All 
parts  are  made  of  cast  steel.  The  price  of  the  clamp  is  .$!,">.  It 
is  made  by  the  M.  &  M.  Rail  Clamp  Co.,  Pittsburgh.  Pa. 

Another  steam  shovel  rail  clamp  works  like  a  pair  of  ice  tongs. 
It  grips  the  ball  of  the  rail  and  the  wedge  is  driven  across  the 
top  of  the  rail;  it  can  therefore  be  placed  anywhere  on  the 
rail,  even  directly  over  a  cross-tie,  as  in  Fig.  30.  There  are  only 
two  parts,  the  wedge  of  hardened  steel  and  the  tongs  which  are 
steel  castings  hinged  by  a  heavy  pin.  These  clamps  are  made 
in  three  sizes  (for  50-60-lb.,  70-80-lb.,  and  90-100-lb.  rails)  by 
the  Bucyrus  Co.,  South  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

A  Flexible  Rail  Joint.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  March 
18,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

The  construction  and  operation  of  the  Thull  joint  for   steam 


Fig.  31.     Side  Elevation  and  Horizontal   Section   of  Thull  Rail 

Joint. 


shovel  tracks  are  indicated  in  Fig.  31.  It  consists  of  a  male 
casting  A  and  a  female  casting  B.  These  castings  are  bolted  to 
the  rail  ends  and  are  hinged  by  a  bolt  C  as  shown  by  the  draw- 
ings. The  hinge  C  provides  for  joint  rotations  in  the  vertical 
plane;  lateral  flexibility  is  provided  by  the  beveling  of  the  socket 
and  other  parts  by  which  the  two  castings  engage.  A  track  spike 
dropped  into  each  of  the  notches  D  and  E  prevents  lateral  move- 
ment while  allowing  vertical  rotations.  The  other  structural 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       427 

details  are  plain  from  the  drawings.  This  joint  has  been 
patented. 

A  Device  for  Lifting  Jack  Blocks.  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Dec.  11,  1912,  gives  the  following: 

A  simple  device  for  lifting  jack  blocks  so  that  they  are  pulled 
ahead  by  the  steam  shovel  itself  as  it  is  advanced  for  a  new 
cut  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  32.  This  device  has  been  used  for 
some  time  at  Lockport,  111.,  where  the  Lincoln  Park  Commis- 
sion of  Chicago  has  a  shovel  and  plant  for  excavating  and  loading 
black  soil  for  park  surfacing,  and  it  is  the  invention  of  Mr. 
George  T.  Dows,  the  superintendent  in  charge  of  the  shovel  and 
plant.  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Dows  for  sketches  and  an 
explanation  of  the  device.  9 ,  ^jj 


Fig.  32.     Device  for  Lifting  and  Moving  Steam  Shovel  Jack  Blocks. 


Referring  to  the  sketches:  A  indicates  the  end  of  a  Vulcan 
shovel  jack  arm  with  jack  screw,  shoe  and  blocking  in  working 
position;  B  is  a  %  x  2-in.  steel  bar  4  ft.  long  called  a  fulcrum  bar 
and  C  is  a  %  x  2-in.  bar  6  ft.  long  called  the  lever  bar.  The 
fulcrum  bar  rests  across  the  top  of  the  pick  arm  when  it  is 
held  in  position  by  the  "Lg"  D  and  the  "latch"  E,  The 
"  latch  "  has  a  hook  at  its  top  and  an  eye  at  its  bottom.  In 
the  Vulcan  jack  arm,  for  which  the  device  was  designed,  the 
bolt  F  passes  through  the  eye  of  the  "latch";  in  other  makes 
of  jack  arms  which  do  not  have  bolts,  some  other  fastening 
must  be  devised.  The  lever  bar  is  hinged  to  the  fulcrum  bar 
as  indicated  by  the  sketch;  it  has  a  hook  at  one  end  and  an 
eye  or  hand  hole  at  the  opposite  end.  A  small  rope  hangs  from 
the  hook  end  and  is  attached  to  an  eye  bolt  set  through  the.  jack 
block.  The  first  sketch  shows  the  position  of  the  jack  and  block- 
ing when  the  shovel  is  working.  When  about  to  move  the  shovel 
a,head  the  jack  screw  is  loosened  and  the  blocking  G  is  slid  from 
under  the  shoe.  The  lever  bar  C  is  depressed  and  locked  to  the 


428  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

fulcrum  bar  by  means  of  the  hook  H.  This  raises  the  jack  block 
to  the  position  shown  by  the  second  sketch  and  in  this  position 
it  is  easily  dragged  ahead  by  the  shovel  as  it  moves  up  to  the 
new  cut.  A  series  of  operations  in  reverse  to  those  just  out- 
lined adjusts  the  blocking  and  jack  for  .the  new  working  posi- 
tion. 

Specifications  for  Steam  Shovel  Construction.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  May  1,  1909,  prints  an  abstract  of  a  report  by  the 
Committee  on  Roadway  of  the  American  Railway  Engineering 
and  Maintenance  of  Way  Association: 

One  of  the  tasks  allotted  to  this  committee  was  to  submit 
general  specifications  for  a  modern  steam  shovel  for  roadway 
construction  and  blanks  to  show  the  results  of  steam  shovel  work, 
including  quantity  of  material  moved  and  itemized  cost  of  re- 
moval. The  committee  sought  the  opinion  of  the  association's 
members  by  means  of  a  circular  letter  of  inquiry  and  bases 
its  recommendations  on  the  replies  received.  The  questions,  the 
answers  received  to  them  and  the  decision  of  the  committee  are 
summarized  in  the  following  paragraphs: 

Irrespective  of  the  use,  there  are  three  important  cardinal 
points  that  should  be  given  careful  attention  in  the  selection 
of  any  and  all  machines  of  this  class.  These  are  in  their  order: 
( 1 )  Care  in  the  selection  and  inspection  and  acceptance  of  all 
material  that  enters  into  every  part  of  the  machine.  (2)  Design 
for  strength.  (3)  Design  for  production. 

With  the  foregoing  fixed  firmly  in  mind,  we  submit  specifica- 
tions for  a  Standard  Shovel,  •  which  we  believe  will  meet  the 
largest  requirements  for  "  General  Roadway  Construction." 

Weight.  Shovels  varying  in  weight  from  25  to  90  tons  are 
recommended.  The  committee  recommends  70  tons. 

Capacity  of  Dipper.  Replies  received  vary  from  Ity  cu.  yd.  to 
5  cu.  yd.-  The  committee  recommends  2^  cu.  yd. 

Steam  Pressure.  From  ICO  Ib.  to  200  Ib.  is  recommended.  The 
committee  recommends  120  Ib. 

Clear  Height  Above  Rail  of  Shovel  Track  at  Which  Dipper 
Unloads.  This  height  is  recommended  at  different  points,  vary- 
ing from  8  ft.  to  18  ft.  The  committee  recommends  16  ft. 

Depth  Below  Rail  of  Shovel  Track  Dipper  Will  Dig.  The  re- 
plies vary  between  2  ft.  and  8  ft.  The  committee  recommends 
4  ft. 

Number  of  Movements  of  Dipper  Per  Minute  from  Time  of 
Entering  Bank  to  Entering  Bank.  From  one  to  six  movements 
are  mentioned.  The  committee  recommends  three. 

Cable  or  Chain  Hoist.  Seven  replies  favor  the  cable  and  27 
recommend  the  chain.  This  subject  has  been  given  very  careful 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      429 

consideration  and  on  account  of  the  economical  cost  of  renewals 
and  repairs  the  committee  recommends  cable  hoist. 

Friction  or  Cable  Swing,  Seven  vote  in  favor  of  friction  and 
thirty-one  recommend  cable.  The  committee  recommends  cable 
swing. 

How  Extensive  Housing  Should  be  Provided  for  Engineer,  Fire- 
man and  Cranesman.  The  replies  received  from  26  members 
recommend  permanent  housing,  while  10  favor  temporary  pro- 
tection. We  believe  that  this  matter  has  not  been  given  the 
attention  of  manufacturers  and  others  that  it  demands,  although 
the  engineer  and  fireman  are  usually  well  protected,  the  cranes- 
man  is  entirely  unprotected,  and  if  he  is  to  be  retained  as  a 
necessary  employee,  he  should  be  housed.  The  committee  recom- 
mends permanent  housing  for  all  employes. 

Capacity  of  Tank.  Tanks  varying  from  1,000  gallons  to  7,000 
gallons  are  recommended.  Believing  that  it  is  possible  to  pro- 
vide shovel  with  water  at  least  every  twelve  hours,  the  com- 
mittee recommends  2,000  gallons. 

Capacity  of  Coal  Bunker.  From  one  ton  to  six  tons  are  recom- 
mended. Ordinarily  a  day's  supply  should  be  provided,  and  the 
committee  recommends  four  tons. 

List  of  Repair  Parts  Necessary  to  Carry.  From  the  various 
replies,  the  committee  recommends  the  following:  1  hoisting  en- 
gine cable  or  chain,  1  thrusting  engine  cable  or  chain,  1  swinging 
engine  cable  or  chain,  1  set  dipper  teeth,  1  dipper  latch,  12  cold 
shuts,  6  cable  clamps,  1  U  bolt,  duplicate  of  each  sheave  on 
machine,  lot  assorted  bolts  and  nuts,  lot  assorted  pipes  and 
fittings,  lot  assorted  water  glasses. 

Give  List  of  Repair  Tools  Necessary  to  Cover.  1  blacksmith 
forge  with  anvil  and  complete  tools,  1  small  bench  vise,  3  pipe 
wrenches  (assorted  sizes),  3  monkey  wrenches  (assorted  sizes), 
6  Chilson  wrenches  (assorted  sizes),  1  ratchet  with  assorted 
twist  drills,  6  round  files  (assorted  sizes),  1  hack-saw  (with 
twelve  blades),  1  set  pipe  taps  and  dies,  1  set  bolt  taps  and 
dies,  6  cold  chisels  (assorted  sizes),  2  machinists'  hammers,  2 
sledges,  2  switch  chains,  2  re-railing  frogs,  2  ball-bearing  jacks, 
1  siphon  (complete),  1  axe,  1  hand  saw,  1  set  triple  blocks  with 
rope,  2  lining  bars,  1  pinch  bar,  6  shovels,  6  picks,  1  coal  scoop, 
1  flue  cleaner,  1  fire  hoe,  1  clinker  hook,  1  slash  bar,  2  hand  lan- 
terns, 2  torches,  assortment  of  packing,  assorted  oil,  in  cans. 

What  Spread  of  Jack  Arms.  Replies  received  show  a  great 
difference  of  opinion  varying  from  14  ft.  to  28  ft.  Having  in 
mind  that  it  is  often  necessary  to  provide  for  narrow  cutting, 
the  committee  believes  that  an  extra  short-arm  should  be  pro- 
vided for  each  shovel.  The  committee  recommends  18  ft. 


430  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Recommended  Practice  in  Shovel  Operation.  The  following 
recommendations  were  made  by  the  Committee  on  Roadway  of 
the  American  Railway  Engineering  and  Maintenance  of  Way 
Association  at  the  annual  convention  of  1917,  and  are  intended 
to  supplement  previous  recommendations  embodied  in  the  1915 
edition  of  the  Manual  of  the  association. 

Size  of  Shovel.  For  light  grading,  up  to  25,000  cu.  yd.  per 
mile,  where  a  shovel  can  be  used  economically,  a  light  revolving 
shovel  is  to  be  desired.  For  25,000  to  40,000  cu.  yd.  per  mile, 
a  shovel  of  50  tons  is  a  good  size.  For  40,000  to  00,000  cu.  yd. 
per  mile,  a  shovel  of  60  to  80  tons  is  well  suited.  For  anything 
over  60,000  cu.  yd.  per  mile,  the  shovel  may  run  up  to  well 
over  100  tons  economically  if  its  transportation  is  not  too 
expensive,  and  if  the  ground  is  fit  to  carry  the  weight  on  sub- 
grade  during  excavation. 

The  greatest  cause  of  delay  in  steam-shovel  work  is  in  the 
removal  of  the  excavated  material.  Too  great  care  and  attention 
cannot  be  given  to  securing  proper  and  ample  equipment  in  the 
matter  of  cars  and  locomotives,  and  in  the  proper  systematiza- 
tion  of  service,  track,  transportation  and  disposal.  The  eco- 
nomic success  of  a  steam  shovel  depends,  above  everything  else, 
on  having  an  empty  car  always  ready  to  replace  a  loaded  one 
under  the  dipper.  Too  great  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  this  point. 
Careful  management,  through  organization  and  unceasing  super- 
intendence and  foresight  only,  however,  can  accomplish  satisfac- 
tory results  even  with  a  thoroughly-equipped  plant. 

As  the  plant  charge  against  steam-shovel  work  is  always  an 
important  item,  especially  where  the  haul  is  long,  requiring  a 
large  equipment  of  cars,  and  locomotives,  continuous  operation 
is  desirable.  For  this  reason,  either  three  8-hr,  shifts  or  two 
10-hr,  shifts  are  recommended.  Where  the  service  is  not  too 
trying  on  the  machinery,  three  8-hr,  shifts  are  more  economical, 
if  they  do  not  upset  other  parts  of  the  organization.  When, 
however,  the  work  is  severe,  two  10-hr,  shifts  are  preferable,  as 
this  arrangement  gives  two  hours  between  each  shift  for  re- 
pairs and  overhaul  in  the  plant.  For  night  work,  where  elec- 
tricity is  not  available,  a  small  turbo-generator  set,  similar  to 
that  used  on  a  locomotive,  can  be  set  up  on  the  shovel  for  lighting 
the  immediate  works. 

An  old  locomotive  tender  is  a  very  valuable  adjunct  to  a  steam 
shovel,  especially  where  delays  may  be  caused  from  irregularity 
in  coal  and  water  supply. 

The  greatest  cause  of  stoppage  in  the  shovel  proper  is  due  to 
care^ssness  or  incompetence  in  the  operator.  He  should  see  that 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      431 

his  engine-room  and  all  moving  parts  are  kept  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  accessible.  He  should  train  his  pit  gang  to  watch  the  under- 
gearing  and  track.  He  must  see  that  his  boiler  is  washed  out 
as  often  as  necessary,  depending  on  the  water  used,  and  that 
his  flues,  heads  and  sheets  are  tight  arid  in  repair.  He  must 
continually  inspect  all  parts  liable  to  wear  or  extraordinary 
strain  and  make  renewals  before  the  accident  occurs.  He  must 
have  a  light  and  accurate  hand  on  the  propelling  lever  and  must 
judge  his  load  on  the  hoisting  chain  or  cable,  especially  in  an 
over-powered  shovel.  Heavy  breakage  in  hoisting  chains  in  such 
a  case  is  almost  alwrays  due  to  an  unskilled  or  careless  operator. 
The  mechanical  delays  on  a  good  shovel  operated  by  a  good 
runner  are  almost  negligible. 

Repairs.  A  good  works  superintendent  or  master  mechanic 
can  develop  good  shovel  runners  if  he  has  time  and  patience. 
This,  of  course,  is  often  difficult  on  railway  work,  especially  in 
the  Maintenance  of  Way  operations.  With  average  runners,  the 
commonest  repairs  are  as  follows: 

Hoisting  cables. 

Hoisting  chains. 

Swinging  cable. 

Teeth  and  tooth  bases. 

Friction  bands  and  blocks. 

"  U  "  bolts  or  double  bolts  and  yoke. 

Pinions    (especially  shipper  shaft). 

Dipper  latch  and  hinges. 

Dipper  stick    (in  hard  digging). 

Sheaves  and  pins    (especially  at  end  of  boom  and  padlock  block.) 

Shipper  shaft. 

Crankshaft  on  boom  engine. 

Eccentric  straps. 

Bearings. 

Arm  jacks. 

Rack  bolt",. 

Clevis  strap  between  dipper  and  bail. 

Ordinary  engine  repairs. 

Ordinary  boiler  repairs. 

Ordinary  pipe  fittings. 

In  the  above  list  of  most  common  repairs  much  of  the  trouble 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  lack  of  proper  inspection  and  judgment 
in  removing  worn  parts  before  they  actually  break,  also  to  care- 
less handling  of  the  shovel  when  unusual  strains  arise  in  heavy 
digging.  Where  a  good  runner  is  secured  tht  repairs  will  be 
very  small.  Where  the  work  is  near  a  base  of  supplies,  the 
stock  parts  carried  may  be  very  small.  There  are  also  many 
repairs  that  may  be  made  by  the  job  blacksmith  without  special 
stock. 

Repair  parts  to  be  stocked  for  emergencies  when  shovel  is 
built  as  recommended,  are  as  follows: 


432  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

6  cold  shuts  for  hoisting  chain. 
3  cold  shuts  for  propelling  chain. 

1  swinging  cable, 
cable  sheave  and  pin. 
chain  sheave  and  pin. 
set  teeth. 

tooth  base. 

clevis  strap  connecting  bail  and  dipper. 

2  bolts  for  yoke,   or  2  "  U  "  bolts. 
1  set  friction  blocks. 

1  pair  each  size,   bronze  bushings. 

babbitt,  if  used  anywhere. 
1  set  piston  rings. 
6  water  glasses. 

Miscellaneous  assortment  of  packing. 

Miscellaneous  assortment  of  bolts. 

Miscellaneous  assortment  of  pipe  and  fittings. 

Tools.  The  following  list  of  tools  is  generally  recommended. 
The  assortment  is  very  complete  and  may  be  reduced  at  dis- 
cretion, depending  on  the  proximity  of  other  ready  means  of 
supply  and  repairs : 

100-lb.  anvil. 
1  axe,  chopping,  4^-in. 
1  bar,  buggy,   3-ft. 
1  bar,   claw. 
6  bars,  lining. 
1  bar,  slice,  fire,  5-ft. 

1  set  blacksmith  tools. 

2  blocks,   snatch,  6-in. 

Set  of  bolt  taps  and  dies,  with  holders. 

1  brush,   chain,   long  handle. 

2  buckets,  G.  I.,  2-gal. 

1  cable,  %-in.,  60  ft.  long. 

1  can,  oil  supply,  1-gal.   (kerosene). 

3  carriers,  timber. 

6  chisels   (two  flat,  two  round,  two  cape). 

2  containers,   oil,   5-gal. 

1  cooler,  water,  8  gal. 

2  cups,   drinking,  enamel. 
1  cutter,  pipe. 

1  cutter,  gage  glass. 

Set  of  twist  drills. 
1  flue  cleaner. 

Forge,  blacksmith,  portable  (with  coal). 
1  gage,  track. 
1  pair  frogs,  rerailing. 

Set  of  taps  and  dies,  with  holders. 

1  hacksaw,   adjustable,   8-in.  to  12-in. 

2  hammers,   B.  P.,  1%  to  2  Ib. 

6  hammers,  sledge,   double-face,   8-lb. 
1  hammer,  sledge,  double-face,  16-lb. 

1  hoe,  fire,  5-ft. 

60  ft.  hose,  canvas,  1%-in. 

2  jacks,  ball-bearing   (size  dependent  on  shovel). 

1  lantern,  hand. 

2  oilers,  long  spout. 

3  padlocks. 

3  picks,   clay. 

1  pot,  tallow. 

1  rake,  fire,  5-ft. 

1  ratchet,  drill. 

1  saw,  crosscut   (two-man),  5-ft. 

1  saw,  hand,  crosscut,  26-in.  , 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      433 

1  screwdriver,  12-in. 

6  shovels,  round  point,  short  handle,  No.  2. 

shovel,  scoop,  No.  3. 

vise,  combination,  pipe  and  bench. 

wrenches,  monkey,  6-in.,  8-in.,  12-in.  and  18-in. 

wrenches,    Stillson,    6-in.,   18-in.,   24-in.  and  36-in. 

set  wrenches,   single-end,   %-in.  to  2%-in. 

Locomotives.  The  type  and  size  of  locomotives  used  on  steam- 
shovel  work  must  depend  on  the  character  of  the  work,  weight 
of  trains,  the  length  of  haul  and  the  local  conditions.  On 
maintenance  work,  ordinary  road  engines  are  usually  well  suited, 
especially  if  an  ample  tail  track  is  provided  in  the  pit  that  too 
much- shunting  is  not  required.  On  construction,  where  the  track 
is  apt  to  be  bad  and  curves  abrupt,  the  4-  or  6-wheeled  saddle-tank 
type  is  preferable,  at  least  near  the  shovel.  If  the  haul  is  long 
and  the  track  is  fair,  heavier  locomotives  should  be  used  in 
transportation. 

In  general,  on  construction  where  the  tracks  are  inclined  to  be 
rough  and  curves  sharp,  the  shorter  the  wheel  base  on  a  locomo- 
tive the  better,  within  limits.  Where  road  engines,  or  even 
heavy  switch  engines,  are  used,  there  is  always  danger  of  de- 
railments and  frame  breakage.  Where  "  dinkeys  "  are  used,  it 
is  well  to  pay  special  attention  to  springs,  brakes  and  the  loca- 
tion of  the  center  of  gravity  with  reference  to  the  wheel  base. 
Some  makes  are  so  balanced  that  under  heavy  loads  and  on 
steep  grades,  two  wheels  are  sometimes  lifted  clear  off  the  track, 
with  the  natural  resulting  delays,  if  not  damage. 

Track.  The  shovel  track  should  be  made  up  of  6-ft.  sections, 
with  strap  connections.  Bridles  of  ^-in.  by  2-in.  iron  should  be 
used,  with  wedge  grips.  A  notched  tie  should  be  used  as  a  check, 
behind  the  front  trucks,  supported  by  steel  saddle  clamps  at- 
tached to  the  rail  with  wedged  grips.  Similar  clamps  should 
be  placed  before  the  front  wheel  without  tie  check.  Nothing  less 
than  GO-lb.  rail  should  .be  used  under  a  shovel,  and  heavier 
rail  should  be  used  under  the  larger  models.  No  spikes  are 
used. 

On  the  muck  track  in  tunnels  standard-length  rails  are  used, 
spiked  to  the  ties.  Where  no  tail  track  is  possible  and  the 
excavation  is  at  a  breast,  drive  rails  are  very  useful.  These  con- 
sist of  half-length  rails  laid  on  their  sides,  with  the  ball  of  the 
rail  -against  the  inside  of  the  web  of  the  last  rail  spiked  down. 
As  the  breast  is  cleared  away,  these  short  rails  are  driven  ahead 
and  the  cars  are  run  out  on  the  balls  of  the  capsi/ed  rails. 
When  a  half-length  is  thus  driven  out,  it  is  turned  right  side 
up  and  spiked  lightly  in  position  and  the  other  half-length 
driven  out  in  a  similar  manner. 


434  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Preventing  Freezing  of  Dump  Car  Bottoms.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Apr.  17,  1918,  gives  the  following; 

A  hot  salt  solution  is  employed  on  the  Mesabi  Range  for  pre- 
venting the  freezing  of  the  bottoms  of  the  dump  cars  used  in 
connection  with  the  steam  shovel  stripping.  A  rectangular 
wooden  box  of  2,000  gal.  to  2,500  gal.  capacity  is  used  for  a 
salt  tank.  The  salt  is  added  to  the  water  until  a  solution  is 
obtained,  the  common  method  being  to  add  salt  until  the  solution 
will  float  a  potato.  Steam  to  keep  the  solution  at  a  boiling 
point  is  obtained  from  a  near-by  power  or  pumping  plant  or 
from  a  small  vertical  boiler  especially  installed  for  this  purpose. 
The  cars  are  sprinkled  with  the  hot  solution  by  means -of  a 
hose. 

Management  of  Steam  Shovel  Work.  The  following  is  taken 
from  the  "  Handbook  of  Steam  Shovel  Work  "  published  by  the 
Bucyrus  Company.  This  volume  contains  many  examples  of 
shovel  work  together  with  cost  data  as  reported  to  the  Bucyrus 
Company  by  the  Construction  Service  Co.  Some  of  these  exam- 
ples are  quoted  by  numbers  so  that  they  may  be  compared  with 
the  diagrams. 

Lost  Time.  Steam  shovel  operation  is  rarely  a  continuous 
performance,  so  far  as  concerns  the  shovel  itself.  There  are  al- 
ways delays,  some  of  which  are  due  to  breakages  on  the  shovel 
itself  and  some  to  interruptions  of  one  of  the  collateral  proc- 
esses, breaking  or  transportation.  The  most  costly  of  these  has 
been  where  the  shovel  was  loading  blasted  rock,  and  because  »of 
imperfect  breaking  the  shovel  had  to  stop  from  time  to  time  to 
allow  drilling  and  blasting  under  the  dipper.  In  one  case  the 
interruptions  from  this  cause  amounted  to  nearly  50%,  which 
in  an  8-hr,  day  allowed  the  shovel  only  four  hours  for  actual 
work.  Under  such  conditions  the  transportation  facilities  must 
be  adequate  to  keep  the  shovel  working  full  time,  so  that  delays 
to  the  shovel  increase  the  cost  of  transportation  correspondingly. 

Accidents  to  the  transportation  department,  due  to  bad  con- 
dition of  the  equipment,  rolling  stock,  or  track,  cost  just  as 
much  as  delays  of  the  same  duration  caused  by  shovel  break- 
downs. Reserve  equipment  will  often  save  money  in  such  a 
situation,  but  the  best  safeguard  is  to  give  to  one  man  the 
facilities  and  responsibility  for  seeing  that  all  equipment  be 
kept  in  first  class  repair.  It  is  customary  for  shovel  crews  to 
make  their  repairs  to  the  shovel  out  of  working  hours  and  on 
Sundays  whenever  possible.  On  heavy  rock  work,  where  many 
repairs  are  needed,  the  crews  often  have  to  work  nearly  every 
Sunday  for  an  entire  season,  and  the  consequent  lack  of  rest  and 
recreation  is  likely  to  tell  on  the  men's  working  efficiency. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       435 

Stopping  to  "  chain  out "  boulders  on  heavy  rock  work  in 
shale  or  the  schist  of  Manhattan  Island  is  likely  to  account  for  a 
lost  time  bill  of  20%  or  more,  and  presents  a  most  aggravating 
and  discouraging  obstacle  to  good  work.  In  such  cases  several 
extra  chains  should  be  provided,  and  two  or  three  men  con- 
stantly employed  in  putting  them  on  the  boulders  as  fast  as 
possible  while  the  shovel  is  working.  Even  if  these  men  are 
often  idle  for  several  minutes  at  a  time,  the  result,  in  shovel 
output,  of  their  services  is  worth  more  than  their  pay.  After 
estimating  how  many  cents  each  dipper  swing  is  worth  in  pay 
yardage,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  calculate  how  much  should 
be  spent  in  keeping  the  dipper  working.  Mud-capping  the  bould- 
ers, to  save  "  chaining  out,"  is  desirable  if  it  can  be  done  with- 
out too  much  delay.  Usually  it  will  be  found  cheaper  in  the  end 
to  keep  a  man  or  two  drilling  block  holes,  especially  if  the 
facilities  permit  the  use  of  a  small  power  drill.  When  thus 
drilled  the  boulders  can  be  cracked  with  small  charges  and  with 
almost  no  interruption  to  the  shovel  work.  With  the  small  drill 
(like  a  riveting  gun)  the  holes  may  be  put  in  on  the  side  of 
the  boulder  away  from  the  shovel,  if  that  side  can  be  reached, 
drilling  about  6  to  10  in.  deep,  tamping  with  bh  e  clay  forced  in 
with  the  thumbs  and  fired  with  a  fuse.  Very  small  charges  of 
a  rather  high  powder  (50  or  60%)  should  be  used. 

A  list  of  the  various  causes  of  delay  should  be  kept  by  the 
shovel  runner,  and  reported  daily,  with  the  duration  of  each,  so 
that  the  relative  importance  of  the  different  causes  may  be 
known,  and  a  standard  remedy  adopted.  Whenever  such  a 
remedy  is  needed,  the  shovel  runner  can  call  for  it  by  a  whistle 
signal.  The  following  is  a  convenient  code  for  these  signals,  a 
long  toot  being  indicated  by  a  dash,  a  short  one  by  a  dot: 

Pit  crew  get  ready  to  move  shovel. 

Get  ready  to  mud  cap. 

Get  ready  to  block  hole. 

We  need  coal. 

We  need  water. 

WTaiting  for  cars   (useful  to  help  in  spotting  cars  when 
dinkey  man  cannot  see  hand  signals). 

Stop. 
All  ready  to  blast.. 

Fire. 
Cars  off  the  track. 

Back  up. 

Shovel  has  broken  down, 

•= — — ^      Superintendent's  call. 


436  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

A  code  of  these  signals  in  the  shovel  cab,  and  one  in  the 
hands  of  each  foreman,  will  be  sure  to  save  money  by  the 
elimination  of  the  preventable  delays. 

Kind  of  Labor  Running  a  shovel  is  a  highly  trained  and  a 
highly  paid  specialty,  and  as  a  general  thing  shovel  runners  are 
intelligent  and  conscientious,  but  a  good  deal  depends  on  the 
way  in  which  a  runner  and  his  craneman  work  together.  If 
they  should  be  of  incompatible  dispositions  it  is  often  better  to 
move  one  of  them  to  some  other  shovel  than  to  have  them  work 
badly  together.  They  must  have  considerable  confidence  in  each 
other  in  order  for  the  attainment  of  the  highest  efficiency. 

We  cannot  too  strongly  emphasize  the  importance  of  selecting 
the  most  skillful  shovel  runners  and  cranemen.  The  loss  of 
money  caused  by  indifferent  ability  in  these  positions  may  easily 
be  several  times  as  much  as  the  wages  of  the  men  themselves. 

We  have  elsewhere  shown  the  economic  effect  of  efficiency  in 
moving  the  shovel.  For  this  reason  the  pit  crew  should  be  made 
up  of  picked  men,  one  of  them  getting  a  little  more  pay  than 
the  others  perhaps  and  having  authority  over  them.  Thorough 
organization  here  may  be  worth  half  of  the  wages  of  the  pit 
crew.  Of  great  importance  in  many  classes  of  work  is  the  dump 
gang,  which  usually  receives  but  scant  attention.  In  sandy  ma- 
terial there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  dumping  the  cars  with  great 
regularity  and  returning  them  to  the  shovel  on  time,  but  with 
clay  mixed  with  boulders  a  good  dump  foreman  and  a  lively 
gang  are  necessary  for  good  work.  The  men  must  realize  that 
they  are  part  of  a  large  machine  and  that  their  own  delays  will 
impede  their  fellow  workmen.  For  this  reason  it  is  often  well 
to  alternate  the  foreman  and  some  of  the  men  between  the  differ- 
ent positions.  A  foreman  on  the  dump  will  better  realize  what 
is  expected  of  him  after  he  has  had  experience  in  the  pit  and 
on  the  track  laying.  Some  of  the  more  intelligent  men  will  also 
be  benefited  in  like  manner,  while  others  of  less  intelligence 
will  not. 

Estimating.  For  purposes  of  estimating,  in  order  not  to  forget 
anything  and  to  facilitate  a  logical  arrangement  of  the  various 
costs  that  occur  on  the  work,  it  is  important  to  have  some 
standard  classification  of  expenses.  The  ordinary  costs  are  in- 
cluded in  the  following  list,  which  is  used  by  the  Construction 
Service  Company  as  a  standard  g..ide,  and  which  will  be  found 
useful  as  a  guide  to  properly  subdivide  the  cost  keeping  in  the 
field,  and  as  an  aid  to  the  bookkeeper.  By  using  the  symbols 
opposite  each  name  they  can  be  readily  and  easily  referred  to. 
We  have  found  that  the  mnemonic  method  is  much  easier  to 
remember  and  more  satisfactory  in  operation  than  a  numerical 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       437 

system.     It   has  been   in  use  for  some  time  and  it   is  proving 
very  satisfactory. 

STANDARD  CLASSIFICATION  OF  EXPENSES 
Classification  I.    Main  Classification  of  Expenses.  . 

X  Miscellaneous  ^Overhead. 

F  Field  LnirpH- 

U  Sub-contract  | 

Classification  II.    Distribution  of  Classification  I. 
L  Labor   directly  productive. 

Lh          Hourly  labor. 
Lw         Weekly  labor. 
Lm        Monthly  labor. 
Li          Incidental  labor. 
F  Labor  superintending. 

M  Material. 

Supplies. 
X  Miscellaneous. 

Classification  III.    Distribution  of  Classification  II. 
R  Repairs 

-Maintenance. 


S  Storage 

H  Hire  or  rent 

T  Transportation 

O  Organization   or   preparatory 

X  Miscellaneous. 

Charity  or  accidents 

B  Bonus  or  discounts  i  Tt 

Legal  and  medical  ^Incidental. 

P  Publicity  or  advertising 

A  Accident  insurance 

t'  Fire  insurance 

Q  Theft  insurance 

G  Bond  to  guarantee  contract 

Classification  IV.    Application  of  Classifications  II  and  III. 
E  Equipment  or  plant. 

T  Tools. 

B  Buildings. 

C  Cash  capital. 

X  Miscellaneous. 

Classification  V.    Field  Processes. 
B  Breaking    (loosening). 

C  Construction. 

D  Dumping. 

G  Grubbing. 

L  Loading. 

M  Mixing. 

Protection. 
R  Ramming  and  rolling. 

Spreading. 

T  Transportation. 

X  Miscellaneous. 

Classif.cation  VI.    Type  of  work. 
C  Concrete  masonry. 

Earth. 
L  Liquids. 

Brick   and  mortar. 
R  Rock. 

W  Woodwork. 


438 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


We  also  give  in  this  chapter  some  charts  made  up  from  our 
observations,  which  will  be  useful  in  helping  to  estimate  the 
costs  on  steam  shovel  work.  Rates  of  wages  must  be  ascertained 
for  the  particular  locality  in  which  the  work  is  to  be  done,  and 
with  reference  to  the  condition  of  the  labor  market.  It  may  be 


GRAPHICAL  DIAGRAM 


SHOWING  COST  IN  CENTS    PER  CU.  YD^ 
OF  MATERIAL  HANDLED,  PLACE  MEASURE  - 

DIRECT  SHOVEL  LABOR  ALONE  BEING  CONSIDERED 


STANDARD  BASIS 


RUNNER  PER  DAY  $5.00 

CRANE  MAN          "      •'  $3.60 

FIREMAN  «      t>  $2,40 

PITMAN  ii      tt  $1.50 

MISC.  (DIRECT) «.'      "  $1.60 


REPORT  NUMBERS 


Tig.  33.     Diagram  Showing  Cost. 
TABLE    OF   RATES    OF    WAGES.    DIRECT    LABOR 


Occupation 
Runner     .  . 
Craneman 
Fireman 
Coalman     . 
Pitman 

Bucyrus  Shovels 
No.  Obs.     Minimum                   Average 
41        $75.00  per  month        $135.00  per  month 
41         55  00  per  month           96.00  per  month 
38         50  00  per  month           62.00  per  month 
8           1.40  per  day                  1.47  per  day 
.'.     39          1.40  per  day                 1.90  per  day 

Maximum 
$175.00  per  month 
125.00  per  month 
87.00  per  month 
1.50  per  day 
3.50  per  day 

noted  that  certain  report  numbers  are  quoted  in  these  charts,  the 
corresponding  reports  not  being  found  elsewhere  in  this  volume. 
In  such  cases  the  information  is  on  file,  but  is  not  published  in 
detail  owing  to  objection  on  the  part  of  the  company  or  indi- 
vidual operating  the  shovels. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       439 


REPORT    NUMBERS 


Fig.  34.     Diagram  of  Time  in  Seconds  for  Complete  Upper  Swing. 


440 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Steam  Shovel  Work  in  Sand  and  Gravef.  Most  of  this  work 
is  likely  to  be  in  a  borrow  pit,  where  a  large  area  is  to  be 
excavated,  and  where  the  installation  is  of  a  semi-permanent 
nature.  Many  of  the  banks  are  very  high,  requiring  few  moves 
of  the  shovel,  and  in  some  cases,  especially  where  there  is  some 
cementing  material  mixed  with  the  sand  or  gravel,  or  when  the 


70 


DIAGRAMS  SHOWING  IDLE  TIME  OF  SHOVELS 

DUE  TO  WAITING  FOR  CARS  IN  PER 

CENT  TOTAL  WORKING  TIME 


flT  TimtfliTffi  11 iHllim  1111 1111111 


tWORK  IN  SLAG. 

•  ROCK  CUT  FOR  CANAL  WIDENING. 


REPORT  NUMDER3 


Fig.  35.     Diagram  Showing  Idle  Time  of  Shovels. 


cementing  is  done  by  ice  in  the  spring  or  fall  of  the  year,  heavy 
and  dangerous  land  slides  are  possible. 

From  an  operating  standpoint  sand  is  an  ideal  material  to 
handle,  except  when  very  fine  and  in  heavy  winds,  in  which  cases 
a  high  pressure  stream  of  water  from  a  hose  with  spray  attach- 
ment, if  water  be  plentiful,  will  greatly  help  to  keep  the  sand 
out  of  the  eyes  of  the  men.  Sand  in  a  freshly  dug  bank  is 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTIUC  SHOVELS      441 


REPORT  NUMBERS 


Material  Min.  Average          Max.  No.  Obs. 

Sand- and  gravel   18.2  40.5  67.6  5 

Earth  and  drift  26.5  46.0  67.8  5 

Clay     26.0  45.16  63.4  10 

Iron    ore     28.4  47.59  69.3  10 

Rock     20.4  46.3  73.3  25 

Fig.  36.     Diagram  Showing  Actual  Shovel  Working  Time  in   % 

of  Total  Time. 


quite  often  naturally  moist.  In  railroad  work  a  good  deal  of 
this  material  is  loaded  on  flat  cars  with  or  without  side-boards, 
and  it  is  often  difficult  to  make  close  estimates  of  the  amounts 
handled.  We  have  found  it  an  excellent  method  to  weigh  the 
amount  of  material  that  will  fill  a  half  cubic  yard  box,  at 


442 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


average  dryiiess,  and  then  weigh  several  trains  of  cars  of  the 
material,  which  can  easily  and  conveniently  be  done.  From 
records  obtained  in  1898,  average  gravel  used  for  railway  ballast, 
fair  quality,  moderately  clean,  weighed  3,248  Ib.  per  cu.  yd., 
rather  dry,  and  the  average  flat  car  without  side-boards  con- 
tained 9.4  cu.  yd.  The  length  in  a  train  of  such  average  cars 
was  36  ft.  center  to  center  of  couplers,  so  that  when  dumped 
from  the  train  the  ballast  averaged  0.26  cu.  yd.  per  ft.  of  track. 
This  was  sufficient  to  raise  one  track  5  in. 

Free  running  dry  sand  will  not  stand  up  so  high  in  the  bucket 
or  on  the  cars  as  when  it  is  quite  wet  or  contains  some  little 
cementing  material.  Therefore,  the  best  performance  can  be 
looked  for  where  there  is  a  little  cement  or  water  evenly  dis- 
tributed in  the  bank. 

Report  No.  1.  Shovel  No.  612,  inspected  September  11,  1909, 
Dune  Park,  Ind. 

The  material  was  all  of  uniform  size  and  exceptionally  clean, 
sharp,  white  and  rather  small  grained.  The  bank  against  which 
the  shovel  worked  was  fully  60  to  70  ft.  high  and  sloped  at 
about  one  on  two. 

The  material  was  loaded  upon  gondola  cars  supplied  and  spotted 
by  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  Railway. 

The  shovel  was  of  the  usual  70-ton  type  with  all  steel  dipper 
handle  and  boom,  the  latter  being  of  the  truss  type  braced  on  the 
sides.  A  2^-yd.  dipper  was  used.  This,  instead  of  teeth,  had 
a  long  steel  lip  or  "  cutter  blade,"  so  that  when  filled  its  capa- 
city was  increased  to  about  3^.  yd.  Water  was  taken  from  the 


KNICKERBOCKER  ICE  COMPANY. 

STKAM  SHOVEL  REPORT. 


•EMUINF. 

C»M 

U.A 

IMS. 

T.«» 

DELAYS 

•.£. 

A... 

1VKU 

Dtr 

KTED 

K 

.CO. 

! 

"'"• 

REMARKS 



* 

— 



— 

TOTALS 

-' 

Fig.  37.     Report  Form  for  Steam  Shovel  Work. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       443 

ground   by  means   of  a  pipe  sunk  therein  and   a  pump   on   the 
shovel,  which  was  digging  to  water  level  only. 

Cost  keeping.  The  time  sheet  was  made  in  duplicate  and  was 
sent  to  the  main  office,  where  the  payroll  was  made  up  and  the 
total  amount  charged  to  the  job.  The  steam  shovel  report  also 
went  to  the  main  office  every  day.  This  was  made  out  by  the 
steam  shovel  engineer,  but  was  copied  by  the  clerk  to  obtain  a 
clean  sheet.  A  facsimile  of  such  a  report  blank  is  given  in 
Fig.  37. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Weight  70  tons,  shipping  weight  without  coal  and  water 

Capacity  of  dipper 3.27  cu.  yd.,  including  lip 

Depth  of  dipper   (water  measure)   51  in. 

Depth  of  dipper  including  lip   8iy2  in. 

Cubic  yards  excavated   (place  measure)   in  8  hr 3,300 

Cubic  yards  per  car    (place  measure) average  21.2  yd. 

Per  cent. 

Actual    working 67.6 

Spotting  cars    0.7 

Waiting  for  cars 22.6 

Moving   shovel    6.8 

Miscellaneous  delays,  including  8  minutes  clearing  track      2.3 

Total  time  under  observation,  481  min. 100.0 

DIRECT  LABOR  DISTRIBUTION 

Per  day 

1  runner    $  5.00 

1   craneman    3.60 

1    fireman    2.40 

3   pitmen    4.50 

3    spreaders    4.50 

Watchman 1.50 

Timekeeper     2.00 

Shop   engineer    2.00 

1   machinist    3.00 

1  car  repairer    2.00 

Total  cost  of  labor  per  day   $30.50 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.,  ct 0.93 

Report  IVo.  2.  Shovel  No.  1118,  inspected  July  16,  1909,  at 
Kent,  Ohio. 

This  work  was  part  of  that  undertaken  in  the  relocation  of 
the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie  R.  R.  at  Kent,  Ohio,  and  was  done 
by  John  B.  Carter  under  contract.  A  prize  of  $5  was  offered  to 
the  dinkey  runner  who  made  the  best  time  spotting  cars  during 
the  afternoon's  work. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Material  is  fine  gravel  with  occasional  strata  of  sand.  Ideal 
material  to  handle.  Weather  fair  after  heavy  rain  during 
night. 

Type  of  shovel  Standard  gauge  70  C 

Size   of  bucket    2%  yd. 


444  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Length  of  shift  10  hr. 

Coal  used  3%  tons  per  24  hr. 

Water  used  300  gallons  per  hr. 

Narrow  gauge  track  3  ft.,  55-lb.  rails  for  cars. 

Kind  and  size  of  cars  used  K.  &  J.,  4  yd. 

Kind  and  size  of  dinkey Vulcan,  16-ton 

Length  of  haul   Max.  3,500  ft.,   min.  2,300  ft. 

Number  of  trains   3 

Per  cent. 

Actual    working    58.9 

Waiting  for  cars    7.4 

Moving   shovel    13.2 

Miscellaneous    delays    (20.5) 

Coaling     1.2 

Repairing   track    1.1 

Repairing   track    .9 

Pulling  track  on  dumps    17.1 

Minor    repairs    .2 

Total  time  under  observation   100.0 

Average  number  of  cars  loaded  per  day  (average  of  85  days) 
=  516   @    4%  yd. 

Average  number  of  cubic  yards  loaded  per  day  (average  of 
85  days)  =  2,193. 

Standard 
basis 

1  runner    $5.00 

1  craneman 3.6u 

1   fireman    2.40 

3  dinkeymen    7.80 

3  brakemen    4.50 

4  pitmen    6.00 

9  dumpmen    13.50 

1   dump   foreman    .2.00 

1  pipeman  1-50 

1   smith    2.50 

1  smith  helper  1.50 

1    watchman    1-50 

Cost  of  labor  per  day  $51.80 

Number 
of  Ob- 
Time  Study  Reductions  serva-   Minimum       Mean      Maximum 

tions  Min.  Sec.    Min.  Sec.  Min.  Sec. 

Time  for  moving  up,  shovel  idle 19         1       20         2  54         5       45 

Time  between  moves,  shovel  working..    20         7       35       12  23       14 

Time  between  trains    21        ..        55         1  29         2       05 

Time  per  train  loading   36         6       07         6  52         8       10 

Time   per   dipper    21        . .        16        . .  17 

Number  of  dippers  to  move   20       24        ..        ..  42.3 

Number  of  dippers  per  train  36        24        ..        ..  24.2-       ..        26 

Number  of  dippers  per  car 432        2.02 

The  total  loading  time  of  the  contest  was  215  min.  57  sec., 
and  in  this  time  770  complete  dipper  swings  were  made,  and  384 
cars  at  4  cu.  yd.  each  were  loaded. 

Shovel  No.  1118  was  moved  back  on  standard  rails  30  ft.  in 
length,  only  6  rails  being  used,  and  the  method  employed  was 
as  follows: 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       445 

When  the  shovel  had  finished  its  cut,  a  track  90  ft.  long  was 
laid  behind  it  joining  the  regular  shovel  track  made  up  of  short 
sections.  The  shovel  was  then  backed  to  the  end  of  this  track, 
and  as  soon  as  it  had  passed  off  the  first  rail-length  the  rails 
were  picked  up  by  four  men  and  thrown  over  the  loading  track. 
On  this  track  stood  a  dinkey  with  a  6  by  8-in.  piece  fastened 
to  its  front  end,  and  long  enough  to  extend  about  6  ft.  from 
the  side  of  the  dinkey  on  the  shovel  side  of  the  track.  At  the 
end  of  this  was  a  piece  of  %-in.  cable,  wrapped  securely  around 
the  timber,  and  with  a  loose  end  about  10  ft.  long.  At  the  loose 
end  of  the  cable  was  a  hook  made  of  material  small  enough  to  be 
inserted  in  the  bolt  holes  in  the  rail. 

When  a  rail  was  moved  over  toward  the  loading  truck  this 
hook  was  fastened  to  the  rail  and  the  dinkey  then  dragged 
the  rail  to  the  rear  of  the  shovel.  While  the  four  men  were 
moving  the  rails  and  the  dinkey  was  dragging  them,  three  other 
men  were  gathering  up  the  ties  and  putting  them  in  piles  of 
three  or  four  each,  fastening  them  with  chains.  The  ties  were 
dragged  by  mule  team  to  a  place  in  rear  of  the  shovel  where 
they  were  spaced  by  two  men  and  made  ready  to  receive  the 
rails.  As  soon  as  sufficient  ties  for  a  rail  length  of  track  were 
laid,  the  rails  that  had  just  been  brought  back  by  the  dinkey 
were  placed  upon  them  and  fastened  to  the  rails  on  which  the 
shovel  stood,  and  were  connected  and  spaced  by  four  regular 
track  bridles.  The  shovel  then  moved  back  one  rail  length  and  so 
left  a  rail  length  in  front  of  its  position  uncovered,  this  being 
then  torn  up  and  moved  back  —  the  rails  by  the  dinkey  and  the 
ties  by  the  mules. 

The  force  engaged  included  the 

Shovel  engineer  1  Foreman 

Craneman  1  Mule  team  and  driver 

Fireman  8  Men  moving  rails 

Dinkey  engineer  5  Men  moving  ties 

Dinkey   brakeman  4  Pitmen  bolting  track,  etc. 

at  a  total  labor  cost  of  $46.60  per  day. 

It  took  1  hr.  10  min.,  to  move  the  shovel  back  300  ft.  in  this 
manner  or  .1167  of  a  day. 

0.1 167  x  $46.60  =  $5.44  to  move  300  ft.,  or   1.81  ct.  per  ft. 

Preparatory  cost  was  $1,500;  includes  moving  shovel  2,500  ft. 
from  railroad  tracks  on  practically  same  grade  as  bottom  of 
pit. 

Distance  of  move  in  pit  laterally  for  each  bank  averages  30 
ft.  for  eleven  moves. 


446  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ACTUAL  RATIOS 
Water  consumption,  pounds       60,000 


Coal    consumption,  pounds         7,500 


=  8.00. 


Report  A7o.  3.  Shovel  No.  611,.  Inspected  Sept.  14,  1909,  at 
Gary,  Ind. 

The  shovel  itself  had  no  features  that  would  distinguish  it  from 
any  of  the  others  of  the  70-ton  class,  but  the  method  of  blocking 
up  the  rear  trucks  was  different  from  the  usual  practice.  These 
were  raised  20  in.  while  the  front  ones  were  elevated  only  the 
usual  6  in.  The  reason  given  for  this  by  the  runner  was  that 
the  boom  "  swung  better."  When  swung  loaded  over  the  cars  it 
could  be  stopped  more  quickly  and  would  swing  back  in  less 
time  than  when  blocked  evenly.  The  boom  was  of  the  truss  type 
with  lattice  -  side  bracing,  and  both  it  and  the  dipper  handle 
were  made  entirely  of  steel.  Water  was  taken  from  the  loco- 
motive. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Capacity  of  dipper  3  cu.  yd. 

Area  of  section  of  face   755  sq  .ft. 

Height  of  face 24  ft.  to  zero 

Cubic  yards  per  car  21.1  place  measure  (average) 

Per  cent. 

Actual  working   35.4 

Spotting   cars 0.3 

Waiting   for  cars 48.8 

Moving   shovel    5.1 

Miscellaneous    delays    1.3 

Idle-engineer  looking  after  fire   3.8 

Pitmen   loosening   bank    0.2 

Waiting  for  cars  to  pull  out  0.4 

Fixing  valve  on  crane  engine    1.1 

Taking  water    1.8 

Taking  coal   1.8 

Total  time  under  observation,  547  .min 100.0 

THE  SHOVEL  CREW  PAY  ON  STANDARD  BASIS 

Runner     $5.00 

Cranemen 3.60 

Firemen     2.40 

4   pitmen 6.00 

6  trackmen   9.00 


Labor  cost  per  day  for  excavating  $26.00 

Cubic  yards  loaded  on   day   of  observation  1,602 

$26.00 

Cost    of    loading    per    cubic    yard    (direct    labor    only), 

1,602 
=  1.62  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

Steam  Shovel  Work  in  Earth  and   Glacial   Drift.     The   pecu- 
liarity of  this  material  for  steam  shovel  work  is  that  it  varies 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       447 

much  more  in  consistency  than  sand  and  gravel,  may  be  difficult 
to  break  up,  and  often  contains  boulders  of  considerable  size. 
It  is  the  usual  practice  to  attack  it  with  teeth  instead  of  a  steel 
lip  on  the  bucket.  When  wet,  the  material  is  likely  to  stick  to 
the  bucket,  and  particularly  to  the  bottoms  of  dump  cars,  making 
it  difficult  to  remove  in  dumping,  and  being  likely  to  dry  or  freeze 
into  a  hard  cake.  For  this  reason  it  is  important  to  clean  and 
scrape  car  bottoms  at  night. 

Because  of  the  prevalence  of  boulders,  which  cause  irregular 
loading  of  the  bucket  and  of  the  cars,  this  material  will  not  be 
likely  to  average  quite  as  many  yards,  place  measure,  per  car 
of  the  same  size  as  will  sand  or  "  good  "  gravel. 


Fig.  38.  1%-yd.  Bucket  with  18-in.  Lip  Added,  Increasing 
Capacity  to  About  2  Yd.  Used  on  45-Ton  Shovel  near  South 
Bend,  Ind. 

When  the  large  boulders  occur,  necessitating  the  use  of  chains 
and  hooks,  or  even  mud  capping  with  dynamite  to  reduce  their 
size,  the  work  is  necessarily  much  delayed  and  the  cost  becomes 
excessive. 

Sometimes  a  good  sized  boulder  may  roH  down  the  slope  and 
injure  one  of  the  pitmen,  who  are  therefore  more  cautious  than 
when  working  in  sand,  and  consequently  slower. 

In  estimating  upon  this  material  the  ground  should  be  gone 
over  with  care  by  the  man  who  is  to  make  the  estimates,  and 
a  computation  made  of  the  number  of  boulders  above  the  limiting 
size  that  are  likely  to  be  encountered.  A  shovel  with  large  bucket 


448  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

is  advisable  for  this  work,  since  the  delays  from  boulders  are 
thus  minimized. 

Report  No.  p.  Shovel  No.  893,  Inspected  July  14  and  15,  1909, 
at  Long  Island  City,  N.  Y. 

This  shovel  had  standard  gauge  railroad  car  wheels,  weighed 
seventy  tons  and  was  about  three  years  old.  It  .had  been  over- 
hauled several  times  and  was  in  good  condition. 

It  will  be  noticed  under  the  "  Labor  Distribution  "  table  that 
there  were  two  more  pitmen  than  is  usual.  The  duties  of  the  en- 
gineer consisted  in  superintending  everything  about  the  shovel 
in  a  general  way  and,  in  co-operation  with  the  craneman,  running 
the  shovel.  His  word  was  law  in  anything  connected  with  the 
shovel.  The  craneman  operated  the  dipper  engine  and  dumped 
the  dipper.  He  also  directly  supervised  the  operation  of  moving 
forward,  but  on  this  shovel  did  none  of  the  actual  work.  The 
pitman  receiving  $1.75  was  a  general  handy  man  and  was  fore- 
man of  the  pitmen,  although  he  did  the  same  work  as  they. 

While  the  shovel  was  operating,  the  pitmen  were  engaged  in 
taking^up  the  rails  and  ties  behind  it  and  carrying  them  to  a 
convenient  place  ahead,  so  that  they  could  be  readily  laid.  The 
ties  were  thrown  in  front  of  the  forward  trucks,  and  as  soon 
as  the  dipper  dug  high  and  far  enough  away,  the  pitmen  laid  the 
stringers  and  then  rolled  the  ties  into  place  so  that  as  soon  as 
the  shovel  was  ready  to  move,  all  that  remained  to  be  done  was 
to  place  and  clamp  them  to  the  rails,  and  set  the  jacks.  Under 
the  head  of  "  Time  Study  "  will  be  found  the  percentage  of  the 
total  time  consumed  in  moving  forward. 

As  has  been  explained,  moving  the  shovel  forward  is  an  inter- 
mittent process.  So  far  as  is  possible,  however,  the  move  back 
to  enter  a  new  cut  is  made  continuous.  This  necessitates  an 
unbroken  track  behind  the  shovel.  In  this  particular  case  it 
took  all  morning  and  part  of  the  afternoon  to  thus  clear  the 
way  and  lay  the  ties  and  rails.  The  time  required  for  such  a 
process  is  of  course  dependent  on  the  distance  the  shovel  must  be 
moved  back  and  also  upon  the  number  of  curves  encountered. 
Great  care  should  always  be  exercised  in  having  the  bridle  rods 
in  proper  adjustment,  especially  on  the  curves,  for  otherwise  the 
shovel  will  be  likely  to  leave  the  track,  causing  annoying  delays. 
Here,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  "  Time  Study,"  the  actual  moving 
back  occupied  106  min.,  and  48i/£  min.  were  necessary  to  get 
things  into  running  order  after  the  backward  journey. 

Coal  for  the  shovel  was  brought  in  by  the  dinkeys,  dumped 
near  by,  and  carried  from  the  dump  by  a  laborer.  For  this 
purpose  an  ordinary  nail  keg  was  used,  and  by  having  the  man 
keep  count  of  the  number  of  kegs,  the  consumption  to  within  a 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       449 

tenth  of  a  ton  was  obtained.  On  the  first  day  this  amounted  to 
2.2  tons  and  on  the  second  to  2.7  tons. 

In  order  to  be  able  from  time  to  time  to  tell  whether  any  part 
of  the  work  was  costing  more  than  it  should,  the  engineer  in 
charge  had  kept  very  close  cost  accounts,  and  he  very  kindly 
explained  his  methods. 

The  timekeeper  on  this  work  had  two  books,  using  them  al- 
ternately. He  did  not  write  in  the  names  or  the  numbers  of  the 
men  before  leaving  the  office,  but  as  he  found  the  men  on  the 
work  he  jotted  their  numbers  or  names  one  below  the  other  just 
as  he  came  to  them,  starting  with  a  new  page  every  day.  The 
following  day  this  book  was  left  in  the  office  and  the  clerical 
force  compared  the  timekeeper's  record  with  the  foreman's  re- 
ports. If  there  was  any  discrepancy  it  was  called  to  the  time- 
keeper's attention  and  he  looked  into  the  matter. 

From  these  records  the  office  force  made  up  a  daily  statement 
showing  the  labor  employed,  the  rate  of  wages,  the  amounts, 
and  the  nature  of  the  work.  Material  used  was  kept  account  of 
by  the  amounts  delivered  to  each  machine  or  foreman,  as  shown 
by  the  storekeeper's  daily  report. 

From  these  reports  the  engineer  himself  made  up  the  distribu- 
tion. This,  however,  did  not  follow  any  definite  scheme  such  as 
the  schedule  employed  by  the  Construction  Service  Company,  but 
consisted  in  crediting  to  each  item,  such  as  grading,  surfacing, 
mixing  concrete,  shovel  No.  1,  etc.,  its  quota  of  labor  and  ma- 
terials used,  and  from  these  data  the  unit  costs  were  computed 
by  the  engineer,  so  that  no  one  else  has  access*  to  them.  Super- 
intendence, insurance,  interest,  and  other  items  that  could  not 
be  charged  directly  to  any  one  operation  were  distributed  accord- 
ing to  the  percentage  of  the  total  labor  cost  involved.  Superin- 
tendence had  been  found  to  be  about  6  to  6^%  of  the  labor  cost. 
The  cost  and  amount  of  coal,  oil,  and  cotton  waste  supplied 
to  any  machine  over  a  definite  period  was  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  working  days  and  by  the  number  of  yards  excavated  or 
hauled  to  find  the  unit  quantities  and  costs.  Depreciation  was 
not  considered  until  the  end  of  the  job.  With  the  exception  of 
the  foreman's  reports  and  the  daily  statement  of  the  time- 
keeper, no  printed  forms  were  used  for  this  work. 

The  general  plan  of  the  track  layout,  shown  in  Fig.  39  is  the 
ideal  arrangement  for  feeding  cars  to  a  shovel  as,  with  wide 
awake  signalmen  and  dinkey  engineers  and  plenty  of  cars,  there 
should  be  no  more  reason  for  losing  time  in  spotting  trains  than 
in  spotting  cars,  for  as  soon  as  a  train  is  loaded  and  pulls  out 
another  follows  right  into  its  place,  and  by  loading  the  end  car 
first  no  time  need  be  lost.  With  the  exception  of  not  always 


450  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

having  enough  trains  on  hand,  this  is  what  would  happen  on  this 
work,  and  when  the  trains  did  follow  one  another  very  little 
time  was  lost.  This  arrangement  is  particularly  suitable  when 
the  number  of  moves  of  the  shovel  is  a  minimum  for  then  the  idle 
time  of  the  dinkeys  would  be  a  minimum  also. 


J* 
Fig.   39.     Track  Arrangement  Shovel   893.     Report  No.   6. 

The  total  u  run  around  "  was  7,300  ft.,  6,600  ft.  and  6,300  ft., 
depending  upon  the  dump,  as  indicated  in  the  sketch  (Fig.  39). 
The  dinkeys  weighed  18  tons  each  and  the  cars  were  the  usual 
4.17-yd.  side  dump  cars.  These  cars  hold  about  3.6  cu.  yd.  when 
heaped  full.  No  method  of  breaking  was  provided  or  needed. 

Per  cent. 

Actual    working    43.4 

Spotting   cars    0.0 

Waiting  for  cars    20.4 

Moving   shovel    17.9 

Idle    time  —  rain    , 1.2 

Repairing    boom    2.8 

Clearing  track  after  blast   6.1 

Miscellaneous  time  —  clearing  bank   2.3 

Blasting     0.4 

Moving  boulders   3.0 

Boulder  on  track _. 1.5 

Loosening   bank    * 0.7 

Jacking   up    0-3 

Total  time  under  observation,  600  min 100.0 

1,705  cu.  yd.  per  day  during  1908. 

Standard  Basis  —  Second  Day 

Runner     • I    5.00 

Craneman    3.60 

Fireman 2.40 

1   pitman    1-75 

8  pitmen    12.00 


COSTS  WITH  STtiAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      451 

Standard  Basis  —  Continued 

1  coalman 1.50 

3  locomotive  engineers    7.80 

3  locomotive  brakemen    4.50 

1   switchman    1.50 

4  laborers,   blasting 6.00 

1   foreman,    blasting 2.00 

35  laborers,   3  dumps   52.50 

3  foremen,  3  dumps   6.00 

1    superintendent    6.00 

Total  cost  of  labor  per  day   $112.55 

Cost  of  labor  per  cubic  yard,  cents   7.89 

From  the  record  which  follows: 
Average  cubic  yards  excavated  per 

day   during   1908 1,705 

Average  cost  loading  labor  per  day       $24.75 


Number  cubic  yards  per  day   


1,705 


=  1.45  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


Month 

*Janiiary 
*February 
March  . . . 

April     

May      

June     

July      

August    . . . 
September 
October     . . 
November 
*December 


Total  days 
worked 
26 
23 
21 
25 
25 
25 
26 
1 
0 
25 
25 
24 


Actual  No. 

days 

Number  of 

worked  less 

stormy  days 

all  delays 

1 

21.10 

1 

18.17 

3 

18.73 

1 

20.65 

1 

21.58 

0 

23.28 

0 

22.38 

0 

0 

18.64 

0 

13.92 

0 

17.35 

Total     246  7  195.80 

9-hr,  days  during  January,  February  and  December. 


Steam  Shovel  Work  in  Clay.  Clay  is  more  susceptible  to  mois- 
ture than  any  of  the  other  materials  considered  in  this  volume. 
It  will  stand  with  a  nearly  vertical  face  before  excavation  and 
can  be  dug  very  readily  when  fairly  dry.  When  rather  wet  it 
is  sticky  and  offers  great  resistance  to  the  lifting  motion  of  the 
bucket.  With  a  powerful  engine  this  is  of  no  great  disadvantage, 
since  the  resistance  is  smooth  and  does  not  rack  the  boom  and 
shipper  shaft.  In  the  pit,  however,  the  discomfort  attendant 
upon  working  in  this  wet  material  is  very  considerable.  To  han- 
dle it  wet  with  hand  shovels  is  laborious,  as  it  sticks  to  the  bowl 
of  the  shovel  and  tries  to  take  the  shovel  and  the  shoveler  with 
it  when  cast.  A  hole  or  two  punched  in  the  bowl  will  often 
afford  much  relief  to  the  men.  This  material  containing  prac- 
tically no  voids,  is  very  heavy,  and,  owing  to  its  stiffness,  a  large 
amount  in  comparison  with  sand  or  gravel  can  be  loaded  upon  a 
car.  Ton  for  ton,  it  is  economical  to  transport  for  this  reason. 


452  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

In  wet  weather  it  is  apt  to  cling  like  flypaper  to  the  car  and 
delay  the  damping  operation.  When  handled  with  a  toothed 
dipper  it  is  liable  to  get  between  the  teeth  in  chunks  and  cling  to 
them  when  dumping  into  the  car,  so  that  only  a  portion  of  the 
dipper  load  is  released  for  each  swing.  This  is  very  irritating  to 
the  men  and  expensive  to  the  management. 

Report  Ao.  11.  Shovel  No.  Ill 9,  Inspected  July  15,  1000,  at 
Kent,  Ohio. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Material.  Clay  mixed  with  san.l  with  occasional  sand  pockets. 
When  dry  could  be  handled  easily  but  when  wet  it  was  very 
gummy  and  stuck  in  dipper  badly.  Some  quicksand. 

Type  of  shovel    70  C  Bucyrus  « 

Size  of  bucket    2y2   yd. 

Length   of   sh.ft    10  hr. 

Coal   used    3  tons  in  10  hr. 

Water    used    3,500  gallons  in  10  hr. 

Boiltr  is  cleaned  once  a  month. 
Narrow  gauge  3  track,  53-lb.  rail. 

Kind  and  siie  of  cars  used   K.   &  J.,   4-yd. 

Kind  and  size  of  dinkey   Vulcan,  16-ton 

Length  of  haul    Max.  2,700  ft.,  min.  2.000  ft, 

Number  of  trains    2  —  12  cars 

Cars  figure  414  yd.  each  according  to  this  record  and  monthly 
estimate  for  first  three  months. 

This  shovel  cut  into  right  of  way  for  several  days  and  was 
then  turned  into  borrow  pit.  The  preparatory  cost  of  cutting  into 
right  of  way  was  $400  and  to  cut  into  borrow  pit  $1,200  more. 
Shovel  was  delayed  from  May  19th  to  May  26th,  on  account  of 
right  of  way  difficulties.  Total  preparatory  costs  and  cost  of 
delay  were  said  to  be  $3,000. 

Per  cent. 

Actual    working    63.4 

Spotting    cars     

Waiting  for  cars   19.1 

Moving  shovel 13.6 

Miscellaneous    delays    3.9 

Total  time  under  observation,  362  min 100.0 

From  the  records  which  follow: 
Number  of  carloads  excavated  per  day   (average  of  36  days) 

380  @  4V4  yd. 

Cubic  yards  loaded  per  day   (average  of  36  days)   380  x  4.25  x 
90*  —  1,450  cu.  yd. 

Place  measure 

*  0.90  —  ratio  of 

Water  measure 

Standard  Basis 

Runner     $5.00 

Craneman     3.60 

Fireman     2.40 

4  pitmen 6.00 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       453 

Dump   foreman    2.00 

7   dumpmen    10.50 

2   brakemen    3.00 

2    dinkeymcn    5.20 

1   pipeman    1.50 

1  watchman   1.50 


Total  cost  of  direct  labor  per  day  $40.70 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.   (ct.)   2.81 

Report  No.  12.  Shovel  No.  843,  Inspected  July  10,  1909,  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

This  shovel  was  working  during  July  on  a  deep  cut  on  the  L.  S. 
&  M.  S.  cut-off  south  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  the  line  runs 
through  Brooklyn. 

The  finished  cut  was  to  be  for  a  four-track  line  and  the  bench 
on  which  the  shovel  was  working  at  the  time  was  within  3  ft. 
of  finished  sub-grade.  On  the  south  .side-of  the  cut  the  excava- 
tion was  to  grade  and  one  cut  more  was  needed  on  the  middle 
bench  to  finish  the  work.  The  remaining  3  ft.  to  the  sub-grade, 
on  the  north  side  was  to  be  taken  out  by  hand. 

The  shovel  was  to  go  through  the  cut  once  more  on  the  cen- 
ter line,  or  a  little  to  the  left  of  it,  so  as  to  take  the  7-ft.  heading 
to  grade,  and  as  much  of  the  3-ft.  cut  on  the  north  side  as 
possible. 


Fig.  40.     Typical  Cross  Section. 

Material.  The  material  was  dry  clay  and  disintegrated  shale. 
When  the  dipper  was  run  into  the  bank  the  material  broke  up 
into  fine  flake  spalls  almost  like  small  shells,  and  as  it  was  per- 
fectly dry  it  could  be  handled  with  the  utmost  ease.  When  the 
shovel  was  near  the  bank  after  moving  up,  the  dipper  could  pene- 
trate to  half  its  depth  by  inertia  alone  before  the  crowding  en- 
gine was  started,  thus  insuring  a  full  dipper  at  every  swing  even 
though  it  might  be  brought  but  half  way  up  by  the  hoisting  en- 
gine. The  dipper  was  dumped  easily  and  was  completely  emptied 
at  each  dumping.  When  an  attempt  was  made  to  heap  a  car,  ma- 
terial was  almost  sure  to  be  lost,  as  it  was  so  light  and  flaky 
and  so  lacked  cohesion  that  it  would  run  over  the  side.  For  the 
same  reason  the  dipper  had  to  be  spotted  very  carefully  before 
it  was  dumped. 

In  spite  of  whatever  care  the  shovel  runner  exercised  in  dump- 
ing his  dipper  and  the  brakeman  in  spotting  his  cars,  the  track 
had  to  be  cleaned  after  each  train  pulled  out.  This,  of  course, 


454          HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

was  done  by  the  pitmen,  and  often,  when  moving  up  occurred 
between  trains,  they  were  able  to  get  the  track  clear  and  look 
after  their  regular  duties  as  well. 

When  moving  up  the  shovel,  a  2-in.  pipe  was  used  to  swing 
the  jack  blocks  clear  of  the  ground  instead  of  the  ordinary  wooden 
pole.  This  pipe  was  held  in  a  bracket  attached  to  the  jack  arm 
and  had  a  collar  about  4  in.  from  its  end,  which  kept  the  chain 
that  suspended  the  jack  block  from  slipping  along  the  pipe.  This 
pipe  was  held  by  the  bracket  and  was  always  in  place,  there  be- 
ing little  danger  of  its  breaking  or  splitting,  as  is  often  the  case 
with  wooden  poles. 

The  average  haul  was  about  three  miles  over  very  rough  track. 
Three  standard  railroad  locomotives  were  used.  The  cars  were 
the  most  modern  type  of  Western  "  air  dumps  "  of  12-yd.  capacity. 
They  were  built  in  two  sizes,  there  being  40  cars  with  bodies  18 
ft.  9  in.  long  and  five  cars  with  bodies  26  ft.  in  length.  All  were 
double  truck,  two-side  dumps  with  wooden  bodies.  Trains  were 
composed  of  15  cars  each.  Ten  men  worked  on  the  dump.  The 
material  was  unloaded  on  one  side  over  a  bank  about  40  ft.  high. 
When  the  track  was  not  near  the  edge  of  the  bank  a  spreader 
was  used.  This  consisted  of  a  steel  scraper  plate  with  one  end 
hinged  on  the  trucks  of  a  flat  car  and  the  outer  end  supported 
by  a  line  from  a  block  on  the  floor  of  the  car.  The  spread  and 
depth  of  cut  could  be  regulated  by  one  man  on  the  car,  but  often 
the  operator  of  the  spreader  was  helped  by  the  brakeman  of  the 
train.  The  regular  dump  train  engine  was  used  in  operating  the 
spreader. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Shovel    1 70-ton   Bucyrus 

Size  of  bucket    2%  yd. 

Length   of  shift    10  hr. 

Coal  used  2y2  to  2%  tons  per  day 

Water  used   6,000  gallons  per  day 

Standard  gauge  track;  55-lb.  rails. 

Kind  and  size  of  dinkey  Standard  locomotive 

Length  of  haul   3  miles 

Number  of  trains   3  of  15  cars  each 

Note.—  The  bank  was  dry  and  the  pit  seemed  to  need  no  draining. 
Material  was  easy  to  handle,  and  a  much  larger  dipper  could  have  been 
used.  Four-yd.  cars  had  been  employed  previous  to  the  12-yd.  cars  and  it 
was  found  that  two  swings  of  a  2%-yd.  dipper  filled  these  cars  completely; 
seven  swings  of  a  2%-yd.  dipper  filled  the  12-yd.  cars  completely.  Pit  crew 
was  composed  of  rather  green  men.  The  runner  said  he  could  move  up 
(6  ft.)  in  1  01  1%  min.  in  such  a  pit  with  a  good  crew. 

Per  cent. 

Actual  working   57.5 

Spotting  cars   

Changing  trains    9.1 

Moving  shovel    28.3 

Shovel   taking  water    2.2 

Miscellaneous    delays    2.9 

Total  time  under  observation,  396  min 100.0 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       455 

Standard 

Cost  of  Direct  Labor  (Loading)  Per  Day  basis 

Eunner     $5.00 

Craneman     3.60 

Fireman 2.40 

6   pitmen    9.00 

1  coal  passer 1.50 

$21.50 

Number  of  carloads  excavated  on  day  of  observation  90 

Cubic  yards  loaded  on  day  of  observation,  90  x  12  x  0.83  —  900 
Based   on   the   performance   observed   the  cu.  yd.   loaded  per 
10-hr,   day  —  900  x  600   min.  —  1,360   cu.  yd. 


396%  min. 

Cost  of  labor  per  day 21.50 

= —  1.58  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Number  of  cu.  yd.  per  day  .         1,360 

Report  A7o.  13.  Shovel  No.  666,  Inspected  July  17,  1909,  at 
Kent,  Ohio. 

This  work  was  part  of  that  done  for  correction  of  line  on  the 
W.  &  L.  E.  R.  R.,  near  Kent,  Ohio. 

Before  cutting  in,  this  shovel,  a  70-ton  Bucyrus,  was  moved 
1,600  ft.  The  shovel  crew,  16  men,  foreman  and  1  team  were  en- 
gaged in  this  work  for  8  hr.,  at  a  total  cost  of  $34.00,  or  2.12  ct. 
per  ft.  moved. 

Per  cent. 
"•  •       *i!  *    '>'>j4<u.ii;    -a',  IV'H  -i (i  f    '..    .  ^    f-r, 

Actual  working   37.6 

Waiting  for  cars    21.9 

Moving  shovel 25.7 

Pulling  track    13.6 

Miscellaneous    delays    1.2 

Total  time  under  observation,  381  min 100.0 

Standard 
Cost  of  Direct  Labor   (Loading)   Per  Day  •   basis 

Runner    working    $  5.00 

Craneman     3.60 

Fireman     2.40 

6  pitmen 9.00 

$20.00 

Number  of  cars  loaded  on  day  of  observation,  189  X  4  yd. 

Cubic  yards  loaded  on  day  of  observation 189  x  4  —  756. 

Based  on  performance  observed,  the  cu.  yd.  loaded  per  10-hr. 
600  min. 

day  —  756  X =  1,190. 

381  ft.  22  in. 

Cost  of  labor  per  day $20.00 

— =  1.68  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Number  of  cu.  yd.  per  day  .        1,190 

Report  ATo.  16.  Shovel  No.  980,  Inspected  Aug.  28,  1909,  at 
Chicago,  111. 

This  shovel  of  the  70-ton  class  was  owned  by  the  American 
Brick  Company,  and  was  at  one  of  their  yards,  about  15  miles 


456  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

outside  of  Chicago,  employed  in  digging  clay.  The  boom  and 
dipper  handle  were  of  steel  and  the  boom  was  truss  shaped. 

Three-yard  narrow  gauge  cars  were  used,  which  could  be 
dumped  on  one  side  only. 

The  arrangement  shown  on  the  sketch  and  photographs  worked 
satisfactorily,  since  with  four  cars  the  granulator  was  well  sup- 
plied with  material.  The  time  for  a  round  trip  was  obtained 
several  days  after  the  observations  were  made  on  the  shovel. 


%//%V*^^UHW,^ 
Fig.   41.     Arrangement  of  Tracks  and  Incline  Plane   at 
Brick  Plant. 

The  shovel  was  then  located  at  the  foot  of  the  incline,  so  that 
no  horses  were  necessary  and  only  one  car  was  used.  One  man 
at  the  bottom  of  the  plane  hooked  the  cable  to  the  cars.  He  also 
assisted  in  moving  forward. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Capacity  of  dipper  2%  yd. 

Number  of  cars  loaded   166 

Cubic   yards   excavated    498 

Coal    used    - 1.3  tons 

Number  of  times  moved  forward   2 

Area  of  section  of  face   830  sq.  ft. 

Height  of  face  10  ft.  to  26%  ft.,  average  18  ft. 

Per  cent. 

Actual    working    32.8 

Waiting  for  cars   : 58.4 

Moving   shovel    1.7 

Idle 

Tightening  bolts  on  bull  wheel  engine  0.2 

Firing 0.2 

Oiling     1.1 

Car  off  track    4.6 

Repairing  track    0.7 

Miscellaneous  delays 

Moving  boulder   • 0.1 

Clearing  track   0.2 

Total  time  under  observation,  471  min 100.0 

Standard 
basis 

Runner $  5.00 

Craneman     3.60 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      457 


2  pitmen     

1  hooker-on     

2  drivers    

2  horses 

Hoisting  engineer 
1  dumpman    


Standard 
basis 
3.00 
1.50 
3.00 
3.00 
2.40 
1.50 


Total  cost  of  labor  per  day   $23.00 

Cost  per  day  per  cubic  yard   4.62 


Dipper  performance  Min.  Av. 

Digging     ] 5.5  10.7 

Swinging  loaded  I  Time  in 3.0  6.6 

Swinging   empty  (seconds 4.0  5.5 

Falling     j 2.0  2.9 

Time  to  fill  and  load  one  dipper-  — 

ful    7 14.5  25.7 


Max. 
17 
14 


No. 
Obs. 

30 

28 

25 

20 


Seconds     . . 


Time  for  a  complete  swing 

Minimum         Average  Maximum         No.  Ohs. 

19  26.2  31.5  19 


Report  No.  11.  Shovel  No.  424,  Inspected  Sept.  2,  1009,  at 
Riverdale,  111. 

This  machine,  a  65-ton  shovel,  was  new  when  the  brick  com- 
pany bought  it  and  had  been  used  by  them  ever  since  (about 
eight  years)  to  dig  out  clay.  A  chain  was  used  for  hoisting,  but 
the  swinging  was  done  with  a  steel  cable.  The  cutting  edge  of 
the  dipper  was  a  solid  plate  extending  18  in.  beyond  the  lip  and 
riveted  to  the  latter,  being  rounded  off  and  drawn  out  to  a  sharp 
edge  in  front.  The  face  against  which  the  shovel  worked  was 
very  high  (26  ft.)  and  it  frequently  caved  in,  sometimes  falling 
upon  the  dipper,  causing  considerable  strain  on  the  dipper  handle 
and  crane  engine. 

The  clay  in  the  pit  was  very  heavy,  but  was  not  blasted  before 
digging. 

The  engineer  did  his  own  firing  and  the  craneman  superin- 
tended the  moving  forward.  One  of  the  two  pitmen  saw  that  the 
track  was  not  obstructed,  threw  the  switch  for  the  cars,  the  other 
looked  after  the  jacks  and  the  pit. 

The  cars  were  all  provided  with  2-hp.  motors,  to  which  cur- 
rent at  125  volts  was  supplied  through  a  (hird  rail  in  the 
middle  of  the  tracks.  The  capacity  of  the  cars  was  3.12  cu.  yd., 
but  they  were  heaped  full.  They  dumped  on  one  side  only.  The 
top  of  each  car  was  five  feet  above  the  track.  They  did  not  move 
very  fast,  but  their  motion  was  constant  and  the  service  was  sat- 
isfactory. The  steepest  grade  was  5%  against  the  empties,  but 
even  here  the  speed  was  noticeably  reduced,  so  that  it  is  not 
likely  that  cars  of  such  low  horse-power  would  be  of  use  to  a 


458  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

contractor  under  the  usual  conditions.  Seven  horse-power  cars 
were  tried  on  this  track,  but  were  found  to  be  too  fast  and  easily 
became  derailed.  The  cars  were  run  by  one  man,  who  controlled 
switches  located  at  about  the  center  of  the  system,  which  was 
divided  into  seven  circuits,  each  controlled  by  a  single-pole  knife 
switch,  so  that  the  operator  could  control  each  individual  car  at 
any  time  and  at  any  place  along  the  line.  At  the  end  of  each 
branch,  or  where  a  car  was  switched  back  on  another  track,  the 
reverse  switch  was  thrown  by  an  automatic  contrivance,  which 
was  simply  a  small  steel  frame  with  a  bent  bar  that  knocked 
the  reverse  lever  up  as  the  car  passed  by.  At  the  end  of  the 
line,  where  the  cars  were  loaded,  one  of  the  pitmen  knocked 
down  the  lever  when  the  car  was  ready  to  start,  and  the  switch- 
man, seeing  this  done  from  his  shed,  closed  the  swritch  for  that 
circuit.  When  the  cars  ran  out  to  the  shovel  the  switchman  had 
to  open  the  circuit  when  they  neared  the  end;  then,  just  as  they 
struck  the  bumper,  which  was  part  of  an  old  hoisting  chain 
wrapped  around  one  rail,  the  pitman  placed  a  block  under  the 
wheels.  The  third  rail  runs  to  the  foot,  of  the  incline,  where  a 
wire  cable  is  attached,  and  the  cars  were  drawn  up  by  an  elec- 
trically operated  hoisting  engine. 

All  the  switches  worked  automatically  by  springs,  there  being 
no  one  to  attend  to  the  cars  after  they  passed  the  switchman  and 
until  they  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  incline,  where  a  man  at- 
tached the  cable. 

There  are  two  granulators  in  the  mill,  but  only  one  was  in  use 
so  that  the  shovel  was  often  delayed  waiting  for  the  cars  to  be 
dumped  and  returned.  When  both  machines  were  run,  however, 
there  was  more  work  for  the  shovel,  and  a  fireman  was  furnished. 

Ground  up  brick  powder  was  used  on  the  rails  in  place  of  sand 
to  keep  the  shovel  wheels  from  slipping  when  moving  up. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Weight    65   tons 

Capacity  of  dipper   21/£  cu.  yd. 

Height  of  dinkey  tracks  above  shovel  tracks    25  ft. 

Number  of  cars  loaded   158 

Cubic  yards  excavated  (place  measure)    ....474 

Number  of  times  moved  forward   3 

Per  cent. 

Actual    working    33.8 

Waiting  for   cars    59.5 

Moving  shovel    ?«f 

Idle 

Engineer    firing    * 0.9 

Axle  box  knocked  out  of  car  2.3 

Tightening    jacks    °.l 

Miscellaneous  delays 

Clearing  track    1-1 

Total  time  under  observation,  475  min 100.0 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       459 


'f.    /HiUtt    «if«"lO  .-. 

Runner     ..................................................  $5.00 

Craneman     ...............................................  3.60 

2  pitmen     .................................................  3.00 

1  controller-man    ...........................  ...............  2.60 

1  cableman    ....................................  ...........  1.50 

1  hoistman    ...............................................  1.50 

1  cardumper    .............................................  1.50 

1  watchman     .................................  ............  1.50 


Total  cost  of  labor  per  day  $20.20 

Cost   per   cubic  yard    4.27 

Yearly  Repair  Cost 
Year  Cost 

1903      $    273.20 

1904      70.88 

1905      138.20 

1906      375.12 

1907      47.55 

1908      116.43 

1909      266.86 

Total  for  6%  years    $1,288.24 

To    this    must   be    added,    for    boiler    repairs, 
including   labor    200.00 

Maximum  =  $375 

Average      =    198 

Minimum    rr      48    Not  including  boiler 

Report  ATo.  10.  Shovel  No.  517  at  Buhl,  Minn.,  is  of  interest 
in  that  it  reports  that  the  jack  hloeks  for  this  shovel  were  slightly 
different  from  the  ordinary  ones.  Mr.  Butler  said  that  they  had 
been  trying  different  kinds  and  had  found  that  pyramiding  several 
thin  ones  was  better  than  the  use  of  large  heavy  blocks.  The 
ground  block  in  this  case  was  4  ft.  by  6  ft.,  composed  of  3  layers  of 
2-in.  by  10-in.  stuff.  The  top  and  bottom  members  run  the  6  ft. 
length  of  the  block.  The  next  block  was  3  in.  by  3  in.  by  4  in. 
thicker,  the  next  2  ft.  6  in.  by  2  ft.  6  in.  by  4  in.  and  the  top 
block  2  ft.  by  2  ft.  by  4  in.  The  jack  plate  rested  on  this  with  a 
base  about  1  ft.  square.  The  plate  was  free  from  both  block  and 
jack. 

Extra  large  and  strong  teeth  are  necessary  in  this  mine  because 
of  the  nature  of  'the  digging.  Teeth  weighing  460  Ib.  each  are 
used  and  these  are  often  bent  and  broken.  One  tooth  was  ob- 
served which  had  been  bent  over  and  down  until  it  lay  against 
the  lip  of  the  dipper. 

Steam  Shovel  Work  in  Iron  Ore.  Very  unusual  efficiency  is 
shown  by  the  investigation  of  the  work  done  in  the  iron  ore 
regions  of  Michigan  and  Minnesota.  There  seem  to  be  the  fol- 
lowing reasons  for  this:  1.  The  work  is  largely  in  the  nature  of 
a  permanent  installation,  and  consequently  years  of  study  on  one 
job  have  developed  an  efficiency  that  a  contractor  is  not  .likely  to 
attain  on  one  comparatively  short  piece  of  work  with  uniform 


460  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

» 

conditions,  or  on  many  jobs  with  varying  conditions;  2.  The  ma- 
terial is  generally  quite  uniform,  and  presents  month  after  month 
and  year  after  year  fewer  new  and  strange  conditions  than  does 
the  average  run  of  rock  work,  therefore  the  problem  is  simpler; 
3.  It  appears  that  the  companies  operating  in  this  region  for  some 
reason  are  in  the  habit  of  studying  their  unit  costs  more  syste- 
matically than  the  average  contractor's  organization.  Study  of 
these  costs  invariably  leads  to  more  economical  work,  wherever 
we  have  observed  them. 

The  notable  feature  in  ore  handling  is  its  great  density,  involv- 
ing a  much  greater  amount  of  power  to  raise  a  cubic  yard,  than  in 
the  case  of  the  earths. 

The  shovel  ordinarily  employed  weighs  from  05  to  90  tons, 
though  larger  ones  are  used,  and  will  handle  from  two  to  five 
tons  of  ore  at  each  swing  of  its  dipper. 

Many  of  the  companies  use  standard  gauge  equipment  entirely 
and  this  simplifies  their  work  immensely;  for  instance,  if  neces- 
sary, the  loading  track  can  be  broken  behind  the  shovel  and  the 
shovel  moved  back  on  that  track  at  any  time.  Generally,  how- 
ever, a  standard  gauge  track  is  laid  keeping  within  40  or  60  ft. 
of  it  and  when  the  shovel  has  finished  a  cut  it  backs  up  on  this 
track,  which  at  once  becomes  the  loading  track  for  the  next 
shovel  cut. 

In  the  stripping,  as  done  in  the  Sellers'  Approach,  the  teeth 
on  the  dipper  have  to  be  renewed  at  least  once  a  week  and  this  is 
generally  done  every  Sunday.  It  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to 
replace  a  single  tooth  or  perhaps  two  of  them  during  the  week, 
but  each  shovel  is  supposed  to  use  4  teeth  per  'week  and  this 
average  holds  as  a  general  rule.  In  ore  the  teeth  are  supposed  to 
last  a  month.  They  are  never  broken  and  seldom  bent  and  al! 
wear  down  evenly.  They  wear  from  the  outside  or  the  bottom, 
as  one  craneman  expressed  it,  and  so  keep  themselves  sharpened. 
They  are  allowed  to  wear  down  within  about  6  in.  of  the  lip 
and  the  short  blunt  teeth  thus  obtained  seem  to  make  no  difference 
in  the  digging. 

The  cars  used  for  earth  are  of  the  7-yd.  side-dump  type. 
For  ore  the  one  most  commonly  used  is  the  100,000-lb.  pressed 
steel  hopper  car. 

For  stripping,  the  shovel  crew  is  the  usual  organization  with 
4  or  6  pitmen,  varying  with  the  nature  of  the  work.  The  number 
is  generally  4,  with  2  extra  men  to  clear  track.  These  two  men 
are  called  "  rock  men "  and  are  used  in  the  pit  only  in  case  of 
emergency.  When  loading  ore  the  pit  crew  is  always  4  and  the 
rock  men  may  number  as  many  as  8.  The  rock  gang  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  ore  being  loaded.  If  the  ore  breaks 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       461 

out  in  large  pieces  it  has  to  be  sledged,  and  if  taconite  occur  this 
must  be  removed.  On  No.  1083  there  were  6  rock  men  in  the  pit 
and  two  in  the  cars  throwing  out  rock  and  suspicious-looking  ore, 
All  pieces  of  rock  or  taconite  too  large  to  lift  by  hand  and  too 
hard  to  break  are  thrown  by  the  shovel  as  far  back  as  possible 
and  left.  The  pieces  that  the  men  can  handle  are  thrown  down 
near  the  loading  track  at  the  foot  of  the  bank  to  be  loaded  later. 

CLEYELAND-CLIFFS  IRON  COMPANY. 

C       STEAM  SHOVEL  REPORT. 

No.  7 

k          J90_ 


CAUSE  OF  DELAY 


Engineer. 

!  PROMPTLY  evrry  morning. 


Fig.  42.     Report  Form  for  Shovel  Work. 

This  loading  k  done  as  follows:  Several  dump  cars  are  left  at 
each  shovel.  When  a  train  arrives  to  be  loaded  these  cars  are 
coupled  to  the  front  end  of  it  and  pushed  along  with  the  train. 
When  loaded,  the  train  spots  the  dump  cars  at  the  shovel  and 
pulls  out,  leaving  them  there.  The  shovel  then  picks  up  what 
it  can  of  the  pile  of  rock  by  the  loading  track  and  what  it  can- 
not get  hold  of  readily  is  thrown  into  the  dipper  by  hand. 
This  is  then  dumped  into  the  cars.  When  the  next  ore  train  ar- 
rives it  simply  pushes  the  dump  cars  out  of  the  way,  loads  and 
again  spots  the  cars  and  pulls  out.  When  rock  is  loaded  into  the 


462  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

cars  with  the  ore  there  is  sometimes  a  slight  delay  when  the  two 
workmen  on  the  cars  jump  down  to  pick  it  out.  If  there  is  much 
of  it,  or  if  it  has  to  be  sledged,  the  loading  must  be  stopped 
while  the  men  finish  their  work  and  get  out  of  the  way.  In 
such  cases  the  full  dipper  is  held  just  clear  of  the  car,  while  the 
men  move  aside,  immediately  after  which  the  swing  is  completed. 
This  delay  does  not  amount  to  much  for  each  swing,  since  it  is 
only  a  few  seconds  long,  but  if  much  rock  should  be  loaded  with 
the  ore  the  delay  might  amount  to  several  dippers  full  per  day. 

Work  is  seldom  stopped  by  rain  and  it  may  be  said  that  during 
the  shipping  season  the  loading  of  ore  is  never  interrupted  be^ 
cause  of  the  weather. 

Report  ATo.  24.  Shovel  1127,  Inspected  Sept.  10  and  11,  1909,  at 
Iron  wood,  Mich. 

Material  This  shovel,  a  70C,  was  engaged  in  hematite  iron 
ore  stock  pile  work.  The  function  of  the  so-called  ''  stock  pile  " 
is  to  keep  the  mine  running  at  its  full  capacity  the  year  round. 

General  Condition's.  During  the  navigation  season  the  mined 
ore  is  brought  up  in  skips  from  below,  and  dumped  into  the. two 
pockets  and  thence  into  the  ore  cars.  The  loaded  cars  are 
then  hauled  to  the  docks  and  dumped  into  the  pockets  there. 
From  here  it  runs  by  gravity  into  the  ore  vessels. 

When  navigation  closes  and  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  ship  ore, 
work  is  begun  on  the  stock  pile.  The  principle  of  construction  is 
much  like  that  of  an  immense  fill  on  railroad  work.  The  ore  is 
mined  and  brought  up  in  skips  and  dumped  into  the  pockets  as 
usual.  From  here  it  is  dropped  into  cars,  wh'ch  are  run  out 
upon  the  trestle  work  and  dumped.  Usually  planking  is  laid  on 
the  ground  to  receive  the  ore.  Stock  piles,  of  course,  vary  in  size 
according  to  the  output  of  the  mine.  This  one  was  exceptionally 
large,  being  some  900  ft.  in  length  and  almost  30  ft.  high.  An 
important  feature  of  a  large  stock  pile  is  that  it  permits  the  use 
of  a  long  train  and  materially  reduces  the  lost  time  due  to  switch- 
ing. The  ore  thus  stored  in  winter  is  loaded  into  cars  during  the 
navigation  season  by  steam  shovels. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Type  shovel  Bucyrus  70-ton 

Size  of  bucket 2^  yd.,  4.27  tons  average 

Length  of  shift  10  hr. 

Coal  used   About  2%  tons  in  10  hr. 

Oil  used  Black,  0.55  gallons;   cylinder,  0.89 

gallon;  engine,   0.66  gallon,  in  10  hr. 

Water  used   4,500  gallons  in  10  hr. 

Boiler  cleaned  once  in  four  weeks,  on  Sunday. 

Kind  of  track   45-lb.,  standard  gauge 

American   Car   and   Foundry   Co.   steel  ore   cars,   capacity  40 

tons,  but  carrying  47  tons  each. 

Kind  and  size  of  dinkey:     Fairly  heavy  switch  engine  is  used.. 
One  engine  for  spotting. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      463 


DEDUCTIONS  FROM  OFFICE  RECORD  OF  SHOVEL 

No.  days  worked   ........................................  23 

Total   tons   output    .............................  .  .........  69,560 

Tons  per  day   ..................................  *  .........  3,024 

No.  tons  per  dipper   .....................................  4.27 

No.  dippers  per  car  .....................................  11 

Average  No.  of  cars  of  47  tons  loaded  per  day   .......  63.4 

Average  of  23   days  Per  cent. 

Actual    working    ............  ,  .............................      53.1 

Changing  trains    ..........................................      15.4 

Moving   shovel    ............................................      11.5 

Miscellaneous    delays    .....................................      20.0 

Total  time  under  observation,  600  min  ...............     100.0 

Standard 

Cost  of  Direct  Labor   (Loading)   p.er  Day  basis 

Engineer     ................................................     $  5.00 

Craneman     .....  ......................  .....  ...............        3.60 

Fireman     .................................................        2.40 

6  pitmen    .................................................        9.00 

$20.00 
Tons  excavated  per  day    (average   23  days),  3,024.    Two  tons 

per  yard,  1,512  cu.  yd.  per  day. 
Cost  of  labor  per  day,  $20.00. 

$20.00 

Cost  of  labor  per  day,  per  cu.  yd.  (load  only)  -  —  1.32  ct. 
"per  cu.  yd.  1,512 

NEWPORT  MINING  COMPANY. 

STEAM  SHOVEL  REPORT. 


DELAYS 


Condition  of  Stockpile 


Fig.  43.     Keport  Form  for  Shovel  Work. 


464  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Report.  No.  34.  Shovel  No.  1097,  Inspected  July  26  and  28, 
I'JOi),  near  Johnsonburg,  N.  J.  The  shovel  was  working  in  shale 
and  limestone  on  Section  No.  5  of  the  D.  L.  &  \Y.  cut-off. 

OBSERVATIONS  —  GENERAL 

Weight    70   tons 

Capacity  of  dipper   2%  cu.  yd. 

Capacity  of  cars,  water  measure. 4.00  cu.  yd. 

Number  of  cars  in  train   9  and  10 

Length  of  haul    7,500   ft. 

Length  of  runaround.  1st  day,  3.37  miles;  2nd  day,  3.35  miles 

Weight  of  dinkeys   18  tons 

Style  of  car,  side  dump  on  one  side  only. 

Gauge  of  dinkey  tracks  Narrow 

Number  of  trains    7 

Average  time  for  round  trip   45  min. 

Maximum  grades  for  loads 4.07o 

Complete  trains  for  grades  ?     Yes. 

Time  traveling  to   dump    18.8  min. 

Time  traveling  from  dump  to  shovel  17.7  min. 

Time  to  dump  cars   4.9  min. 

OBSERVATIONS  —  FIRST  DAY 

Number  of  cars  loaded   296 

Cubic  yards,  place  measure  1,065  yd. 

Total  distance  moved  forward  during  day  79^  ft.. 

Average  time  for  one  move   6.5  min. 

Average  distance  moved  forward  each  time    61/&  ft. 

Minutes  per  working  day  less  time  for  accidental  delays  ...518 

Area  of  section  of  face  210  sq.  ft. 

Average  height  of  face  4V^  ft. 

Coal  used  2.3  tons 


Per  cent. 

Actual  working  53.4 

Spotting    cars     0.3 

Waiting  for  cars    22.0 

Moving   shovel    15.3 

Miscellaneous    delays    (9.0) 

Clearing  away    8.4 

Breaking   bank    0.2 

Placing  car  on   track    0.4 

Total  time  under  observation,  518  min 100.0 

Standard 
Cost  of  Direct  Labor  (Loading)  per  Day  basis 

Runner     $5.00 

Craneman     3.60 

Fireman      2.40 

8  pitmen 12.00 

$23.00 

Cubic  yards  loaded  on  first  day  of  observation  1,065 

Based  on  the  above  performance  the  cu.  yd.  loaded  per  day 

600 
of  10  hr.  =  1,065  X  —  =  1,235 

518 
Cost  of  direct  labor  per  day        $23.00 

= =  1.86  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Number  of  cu.  yd.  per  day          1,235 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      465 

Standard 

Cost  of  Moving  Back  basis 

Runner  for  1.59  days   @  $5  $    795 

Craneman  for  1.59  days  @  $3.60  5.72 

Fireman  for  1.59  days   @   $2.40   382 

14  laborers  for  17%  hr.   @   $0.15  36.75 

2  drivers  for  17%  hr.   @   $0.15   5.25 

2  horses  for  1.59  days   @  $1.50 4.77 

4  pipe  fitters  for  1.59  days    @   $2   12.72 

Coal,  2  tons   @   $3.50  700 

Oil  and  waste    1.00 

Shifting  track 

10  laborers  for  17%  days   @   $0.15  26.25 

1  foreman  for  1.59  days   @   $2  3.18 

Tearing  down   trestle 

6  laborers  for  5V2  hr.  %  $0.15  4.95 

2  horses  for  %  day  (a)  $1.50  150 

Coal,  2  tons,    @    $3.50   7.00 

Oil  and  waste  1.00 

Total  cost  to  move  back  $128.86 

Total  distance   moved    820  ft. 

Total  time  actually  moving   1  day 

Total  time  idle   1.59 

Number  of  men  employed  60* 

Cost  per  ft.   moved   15.71  ct. 

Cost  per   ft.   per  man    262  ct. 

*  Includes    pulling    down    trestle,    shifting    track,    and    one 
horse  equal  t<3  four  men. 

CARS  LOADED  DURING  SIX  MONTHS 

Total  for  month      Daily  average 

February,   1909   4,388  183 

March     5,248  202 

April    5,096  204 

May      6,241  250 

June     5,622  216 

July,  1  to  24  inc 3,275  155 

HAULING  RECORDS  —  DINKEY  TRAINS 

Minimum  rate  in  ft.  per  min 178.4 

Average         "     "    "      "         "      317% 

Maximum       "      "    "      "         " 440.1 

Minimum  time  for  trip    45  min. 

Average        "       "       "       61.7  min. 

Maximum     '         "       "       95  min. 

Report  No.  35.  Shovel' No.  795,  Inspected  Aug.  10,  1909,  near 
Columbia,  N.  J. 

The  cars  were  built  by  the  Western  Wheel  Scraper  Company. 
Some  of  them  dumped  on  both  sides  and  some  on  one  side  only. 
They  measured  110x83x19  in.  and  were  5  ft.  6  in.  above  their 
tracks.  When  loaded  with  stone  they  averaged  about  2^  yd. 
Three  18-ton  Vulcan  dinkeys  were  used  at  each  shovel,  with  an 
extra  one  which  during  inspection  held  trains  back  in  descending 
a  steep  grade  ending  in  a  sharp  curve.  In  order  to  dump  from 


4C(5  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  trestle  it  was  necessary  for  the  dinkey  to  run  around  the 
train,  as  they  always  pulled,  instead  of  pushing,  the  cars  when 
running  loaded.  This  took  from  two  to  three  minutes.  Then, 
after  dumping,  it  was  necessary  for  the  dinkey  to  switch  back 
again,  but  as  this  was  a  flying  switch  very  little  time  was  lost. 
Under  the  observed  conditions  it  was  necessary  for  the  dinkey 
to  uncouple  while  the  car  next  to  it  was  loaded.  The  -reason  for 
such  an  arrangement  appears  to  be  in  the  fact  that  the  cars  ride 
better  when  being  hauled  than  when  pushed,  and  in  this  connec- 
tion it  should  be  remarked  that  the  number  of  derailed  cars  was 
very  small.  The  dinkeys  maintained  a  steady  pace  that  was  not 
as  fast  as  on  some  other  jobs,  but  which  made  better  time  in  the 
end  because  the  chances  for  a  car  to  jump  were  diminished. 

RATE  OF  MOVING  TRAINS 

Distance    ................................................  12,600  ft. 

Running   time    ...........................................  15  m?n- 

...........................  840  ft.  per.  mm. 


elays..   ......  .  .....................................  mn. 

Total  time  for  round  trip   .............................  by  fz  mm- 

Cost  to  Move  Shovel   (65-ton)   from  Siding  Standard 

to  Work  basis 

Runner,  40  hr.   @   $0.50   ................................  I  20-00 

Craneman,  40  hr.    @   $0.36   .............................  14.40 

Fireman,   40  hr.    @    $0.24    .............................. 

Watchman,  40  hr.   @  $0.15  ...............  -  ............. 

Fireman,  40  hr.   @   $('.20   ...............................  8.00 

Laborers,   745  hr     @    $0.15    .............................  UUg 

Team-ties.  40  hr.  @  $0.30  ......  ..  ....................  12.00 

Team  —  coal,   20  hr.    @    $0.30   ..........................  6.00 

Coal  and  oil   ......................................  ••••••  4-5° 

$192.25 

RATE  OF  MOVING  TRAINS 


...........snp 

Delays     ...................................................  J4  m  n. 

Total  time  for  round  trip   ............................... 

Hints  on  Steam  Shovel  Work.  The  following  are  taken  from 
the  many  suggestions  on  Steam  Shovel  work  given  in  the  Hand- 
book on\hat  subject  which  is  published  by  the  Bucyrus  Co. 

Handling  Trench  Sheeting  Under  a  Shovel.  Report  No.  9  re- 
lates to  a  70-ton  shovel  used  in  digging  a  sewer  trench. 

It  was  new  and  of  the  latest  design.  Its  distinguishing  features 
were  the  location  of  the  operating  levers,  those  being  placed  about 
5  ft.  outside  the  shovel  housing;  the  long  dipper  handle;  and 
the  support  upon  which  the  shovel  rested.  The  operating  levers 
were  placed  outside  of  the  shovel  house  so  that  the  operator  might 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       467 

have  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  The 
dipper  handle  was  54  ft.  long  so  that  it  could  reach  into  the 
deep  trench  which  was  26  x  16  ft.  Both  it  and  the  boom  were  of 
wood  and  were  steel  plated. 

The  shovel  crew  consisted  of  engineer,  craneman,  fireman  and 
seven  rollermen.  There  were  also  employed  six  trimmers,  six 
bracers  and  one  foreman  following  the  digging. 

To  move  the  shovel  backward  or  forward,  a  cable,  hauled  on  by 
the  main  engines,  was  led  out  to  a  "  dead  man."  By  actual  tim- 
ing the  shovel  was  moved  back  416  ft.  in  3}£  hr. 

Two  days  were  spent  in  observing  this  shovel.  On  the  first  day 
the  top  soil  to  a  depth  of  10  ft.  was  removed  and  on  the  second 
day  the  remaining  depth  of  26  ft.  was  taken  out.  As  the  shovel 
excavated  the  trimmers  followed  it,  trimming  down  the  sides  for 


i':l  ':-','.. 

.STEEL  I  BEAMS 

\ 

3 
I 

-/     r 

Sf 

EETING 

1   -  H 

V 

I 

JACK  SCREW 

SPACED  20'  ± 

Fig.  44.     Method  of  Bracing  Trench.  ;<{.*} 

the  bracers  who  followed  with  the  sheeting.  Two  I-beams  about 
50  ft.  long  are  placed  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  so  that  when  the 
next  bench  is  taken  out  and  it  is  necessary  to  draw  the  braces  the 
I-beams  hold  the  sheeting  and  the  shovel  works  between  the  jack 
screws.  When  the  shovel  moves  forward  the  jack  screws  are 
slightly  loosened  and  the  I-beams  are  attached  to  the  shovel  and 
hauled  forward  with  it,  the  wooden  bracing  being  placed  behind 
the  I-beams.  This  being  a  new  shovel  there  had  been  no  repairs. 

Handling  Shovel  Track  on  Stock  Pile  Work.  The  stock  piles 
are  built  to  considerable  height  and  are  apt  to  cave  in  and  cause 
trouble  when  undercut  by  the  shovel. 

In  view  of  this  fact  the  method  of  keeping  a  continuous  track 
behind  the  shovel  was  used  on  shovel  1074,  report  ^No.  27,  so  that 
it  could  move  back  at  a  moment's  notice.  This  was  done  by  hav- 
ing enough  extra  6-ft.  sections  of  rail  which  could  be  left  behind 
in  place  until  the  shovel  had  moved  forward  far  enough  for  a  reg- 
ular full  length  rail  section  to  be  put  in  by  the  track  gang. 
When  the  shovel  became  buried,  the  first  thing  to  do  was  to  clear 
the  jacks,  the  next  to  move  back,  and  the  last  to  shovel  up  the 
fallen  material  and  then  move  ahead  until  another  slide  occurred. 


468  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

For  shovel  1083,  report  no.  28.  Both  the  shovel  and  loading 
track  were  standard  gauge,  laid  with  standard  ties  and  50  or 
60-lb.  rails.  The  shovel  was  moved  forward  on  6-ft.  sections 
with  the  usual  plate  connections  and  bridles,  but  as  soon  as  it 
had  moved  about  fifty  feet,  a  standard  track,  which  was  laid  in 
the  rear  of  the  shovel,  was  extended  for  a  rail  length  and  was  so 
carried  along  directly  behind  the  shovel.  When  the  shovel  was 
ready  to  move  back  this  track  was  connected  with  the  shovel  track 
and  the  shovel  had  a  continuous  standard  track  to  move  on. 
This  track  then  became  the  loading  track  for  the  next  cut,  and 
that  previously  used  as  a  loading  track  was  torn  up. 

In  one  case  in  order  to  cut  in  more  rapidly  than  is  possible 
with  the  ordinary  5-ft.  rail  sections,  small  1-ft.  sections  were  used 
between  the  5-ft.  rail  sections  to  make  the  shovel  track  more 
flexible. 

Taking  Down  Boom  and  Dipper.  Shovel  No.  700  was  being 
dismantled  preparatory  to  taking  boom  and  dipper  into  the  shop. 
The  process  is  as  follows:  An  empty  flat  car  is  placed  on  the 
track  directly  ahead  of  the  shovel.  The  dipper  is  then  thrust 
out  as  far  as  possible  by  the  crane  engine  and  allowed  to  rest  on 
the  far  end  of  the  flat  car  and  on  the  left  hand  side.  The  hoisting 
chain  is  then  slackened  and  the  bight  pulled  down  between  the 
two  sides  of  the  dipper  handle.  A  stout  rod  is  then  thrust  in  be- 
tween this  bight  and  the  underside  of  the  dipper  handle  near 
its  upper  end.  After  disengaging  dipper  handle  from  the  rack 
pinions,  it  is  slowly  lowered  to  the  flat  car  by  paying  out  the 
hoisting  chain.  The  hoisting  chain  is  then  released  from  the 
padlock  and  wound  up  on  the  drum.  The  end  of  the  hoisting 
chain  is  then  pulled  out  and  passed  over  a  pulley  suspended  from 
the  A  frame;  thence  up  the  boom  and  around  a  sheave  at  its  top 
and  thence  back  to  the  top  of  the  A  frame  to  one  leg  of  which 
it  is  securely  fastened.  The  boom  is  then  raised  slightly  by  the 
hoisting  engines  until  the  strain  is  removed  from  the  tie  rods 
which  connect  the  upper  end  of  the  boom  and  the  top  of  the  A 
frame.  These  tie  rods  are  now  uncoupled  from  the  top  of  the 
A  frame  and  gradually  eased  down  onto  the  car.  The  method 
used  for  thus  lowering  the  tie  rods  is  as  follows:  A  stick  of 
round  timber  some  4  in.  in  diameter  and  4  ft.  long,  to  which  a 
pulley  is  lashed,  is  jammed  into  the  head  of  the  A  frame. 
Through  this  block  a  rope  passes  from  below  and  is  secured 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  tie  rods,  one  at  a  time.  A  workman  holds 
the  lower  end  of  the  rope,  and  so  the  tie  rods  are  let  down 
gently. 

The  boom  itself  is  now  supported  only  by  the  hoisting  chain 
and  this  is  now  slacked  away  until  boom  rests  on  the  right  hand 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      469 

side  of  the  flat  car.  The  hoisting  chain  is  then  disengaged  and 
wound  up  on  the  drum.  The  shovel  then  backs  up  a  little,  thereby 
removing  the  lower  end  of  the  boom  from  its  socket.  A  timber 
is  then  placed  between  the  front  of  the  shovel  proper  and  the 
end  of  the  boom  and  the  shovel  moved  forward  until  the  boom 
is  pushed  over  the  flat  car  far  enough  to  be  clear  of  the  end. 
The  only  thing  remaining  to  be  done  is  to  take  down  the  block 
suspended  from  the  top  of  the  A  frame  and  place  it  on  the  car 
with  the  boom  and  dipper. 

At  one  job  examined,  report  No.  30,  the  contractor  had  three 
machines  of  exactly  the  same  type  which  enabled  him  to  keep 
a  large  number  of  spare  parts  on  hand.  These  machines  had 
jacks  that  could  be  swung  toward  the  shovel  so  that  in  passing 


Fig.   45.     View   Showing  Device   for   Turning  Cars. 

narrow  places  it  was  only  necessary  to  loosen  the  brace  and  swing 
the  jacks  to  one  side.  This  feature  proved  to  be  a  great  help. 

The  method  employed  here  was  similar  to  that  at  Shovel  No. 
893  (see  report  No.  6)  and  consisted  in  laying  standard  length 
rails  for  a  considerable  distance  preparatory  to  moving.  When 
the  inspectors  arrived  the  rails  had  all  been  laid  and  had  been 
run  into  the  dinkey  tracks,  which  had  been  widened  to  a  standard 
gauge  for  a  distance  of  about  500  ft.  This  was  done  by  simply 
taking  the  outside  spikes  out  of  one  rail  and  shifting  it  over, 
leaving  in  the  inside  spikes  to  be  used  when  the  track  should 
be  shifted  back  again  to  narrow  gauge. 

At  another  shovel  visited,  report  No.  31,  a  registering  clock  was 
used  to  keep  the  time  of  arrival  and  departure  of  the  men. 
From  these  cards  the  payroll  was  made  up,  and  to  save  time  the 
extensions  were  made  weekly  on  the  cards,,  themselves.  The  time- 
keeper went  over  the  job  during  the  day  to  check  up  the  men. 


470 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Another  shovel  was  fitted  with  a  small  air  compressor  and  tank. 
The  compressor  was  located  in  the  rear  left-hand  corner  of. the 
shovel  and  took  up  a  space  aboj.t  6  ft.  high  by  1  ft.  in  diam- 
eter. 

Moving  Shovels.  The  method  employed  for  moving  shovels 
1096  and  1097  was  somewhat  different  from  others  that  had  been 
observed.  Two  horses  and  sixteen  men  were  used,  eight  lengths 
of  30-ft.  60-lb.  rail  and  about  one  hundred  ties,  besides  bridles, 
spikes,  etc.  The  shovel  was  moved  back  two  rail  lengths  at  a 
time,  the  forward  rails  and  ties  being  taken  up  and  hauled  by 
the  horses  to  the  rear,  where  the  laborers  lifted  them  into  place. 

HYDE-MCFARLIN-BURKE  COMPANY 


Fig.  46.     Form  for  Reporting  Steam  Shovel  Work. 


Two  men  stayed  in  front  to  unbolt  as  soon  as  the  shovels  moved 
back,  two  others  took  up  the  ties  as  the  horses  hauled  away 
the  rails.  One  man  was  required  to  follow  the  chain  used  for 
hauling  the  ties  to  see  that  it  did  not  get  caught  in  an  obstruc- 
tion, it  being  apparently  too  heavy  to  throw  over  a  horse's  back. 
Four  men  were  kept  in  the  rear  to  lay  the  ties  as  they  came 
in,  and  the  remaining  men  went  where  instructed.  Eight  men 
were  required  to  lift  each  rail  into  place.  The  bridles  were  car- 
ried forward  by  the  men,  or  else  laid  among  the  ties  that  the 
horse  drew.  There  were  enough  extra  ties  to  support  the  first 
rails  that  were  brought,  and  these  were  laid  while  the  shovel  was 
moving,  so  that  there  was  no  delay  when  the  rails  were  taken  up. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      471 

Standard 

.Cost  of  Moving  Back  basis 

Runner  for  1.25  days   @   $5   $  6.25 

Crauemaii  for  1.25  days   Co)   $3.60  4.50 

Fireman  for  1.25  days   @   $2.40   3.00       . 

14  laborers  for  13%  hr.    @   $0.15   28.^5 

2  drivers  for  13V2  hr.   @   $0.15  4.05 

2  horses  for  1.23  days  @  $1.50  3.69 

4  pipe  fitters  for  1.25  days   @   $2  10.00 

Coal,   2  tons,    @   $3.50    7.00 

rr.uf><i  Oil  and  waste   I-00 

Shifting  track : 

5  laborers  for  13V2  hr.  @  $0.15   10.12 

9  laborers  for  11  hr.    @   $0.15   14.85 

1  foreman  for  1.25  days  @  $2  2.50 

Total  cost  to  move  back $95.31 

Total  distance  moved    l-°63  ft- 

Total   time   required    1- 2B  <*ays 

Total  number  of  employed   on* 

Cost  per  ft.  moved   2fi    »' 

Cost  per  ft.  per  man   °-196  ct- 

*  Includes  shifting  track;  one  horse  taken  as  equivalent  of 
four  men. 

Throwing  Track.  At  shovel  1106,  report  No.  43,  the  throwing 
of  the  loading  track  was  very  difficult  because  of  the  roughness 
of  the  material  which  was  left  in  the  shovel  pit  and  because 
of  the  large  number  of  boulders  which  the  shovel  could  not 
handle.  Much  delay  was  caused  on  account  of  having  to  break 
up  boulders  to  permit  of  lifting  full  sections  of  track  over  them, 
and  considerable  time  was  lost  for  both  track  gang  and  shovel 


Fig.  47.     Arrangement  of  Plates  for  Holding  Rail. 

crew  by  blasting.  The  blast  itself  took  no  longer  than  usual,  but 
because  of  the  uneven  character  of  the  material  the  charge  could 
not  always  be  properly  regulated,  with  the  result  that  very  often 
considerable  damage  was  done  to  the  track  and  to  the  shovel  by 
flying  material.  The  track  foreman  said  that  with  a  crew  of 
twenty  men  it  would  take  2  hours'  continuous  work  to  throw 
800  ft.  of  track.  Most  of  the  track  had  been  thrown  before  the 
shovel  moved  back.  When  the  shovel  did  move  back  over  this 
part  the  rails  were  placed  over  the  track  which  had  been  thrown. 
Moving  back  was  also  interrupted,  due  to  blasts.  The  foreman 
said  that  with  an  average  force  of  twenty-two  men  the  shovel 
could  be  moved  back  the  800  ft.  in  4  hours'  continuous  work. 
Regular  size  of  tie  (>  in.  x  8  in.  were  used  under  this  shovel  but 


472 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


to  each  6-ft.  length  of  rail  there  was  one  8  x  10-in.  tie.  On  this 
tie  plates  were  fastened,  at  the  proper  distance  from  each  end, 
each  with  two  angles  attached. 

Upon  moving  up  each  time  the  6-ft.  rail  section  could  be  readily 
slipped  into  the  groove,  as  shown  in  sketch,  and  pins  slipped  into 
holes  to  secure  it. 

Directions  for  Moving  Shovel.  In  order  to  systematize  the 
various  operations  in  moving  a  steam  shovel  and  thus  reduce 
the  cost  to  a  minimum,  the  order  in  which  these  movements  should 
be  made  is  given. 


Fig.  48.     Diagram  of  Shovel  and  Track. 

(1)  Just  before  moving,   the  last  dipperful  will  be  taken  from  B.    As  this 
dipper  is  being  filled,  runner  gives  one  whistle  signal  to  the  pit  gang   (six 
men  in  pit).    Two  men  go  to  JA  and  two  to  JB,  and  one  man  goes  out  to 
F  on  the  rail  clamp  and  one  to  H  on  the  rail  clamp. 

(2)  As  soon  as  the  dipper  has  swung  to  the  left  of  the  center  (M)  JB  is 
loose,   and  one  of  the  men  there  runs  up  the  screw. 

(3)  One  man  at  JA  puts  his  pole  over  the  jack  and  gets  ready  to  raise 
his  jack  block.    Meanwhile  the  dipper  has  dumped  at  A. 

(4)  Other  man  at  JB  now  raises  his  jack  block  and  is  ready  to  move. 

(5)  Dipper  swings  to  the  right  far  enough  past  M  to  take  the  weight  off 
of  JA,  which  is  immediately  screwed  up  and  the  block  raised. 

(6)  While    runner    is    throwing    in    his    moving   clutch,    one    man    at    F    is 
knocking  loose  rail  clamp,    and  one  man  from  JA   and   one  from  JB   pick 
up  the  chock  and  carry  it  forward  to  its  new  position. 

(7)  Runner   now   moves   shovel   ahead;    H   knocks   the   clamp   loose.    F   is 
meanwhile  putting  his  clamp  on  in  the  new  position. 

(8)  As  soon  as   the  shovel  strikes  the  front  chock,  H  puts  his  clamp  on. 
The  bucket  is  in  the  center  position  for  this  movement. 

(9)  The   jackmen    JA    and    JB    immediately   screw   down   their   jacks,    and 
the  first  man  to  get  his  jack  down  gives  signal  to  runner,   who  takes  first 
bucketful  on  his  side.    This  enables  man  on  either  side  to  get  his  jack  well 
screwed  down  before  bucket  crosses  center  line  again,  working  away  at  full 
speed. 

Shovel  now  works  away  even  if  a  little  out  of  level.  It  can  be  leveled  up 
by  runner  telling  JA  or  JB  to  loosen  a  little,  the  opposite  man  screwing 
down  on  the  next  half  swing. 

Cost  of  Moving  Steam  Shovels.  In  Engineering  News,  May 
21,  1903,  the  author  published  data  on  the  cost  of  constructing 


X 

COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      473 

part  of  the  P.,  C.  &  W.  R.  R.  in  a  mountainous  portion  of  Ohio. 
The  cost  of  moving  large  and  small  steam  shovels  was  as  fol- 
lows: 

A  65-ton  Bucyrus  shovel  was  moved  a  distance  of  1^  miles. 
One  mile  was  over  a  rough  road  and  one-half  mile  across  a  field 
having  a  slope  of  15°.  The  work  occupied  8  days,  and  cost 
as  follows: 

Steam  shovel  crew   $160 

Foreman  at  $3.50   28 

8  men  at  $1.50  96 

1  team  at  $4  32 

Total  at  $210  per  mile  $316 

This  same  shovel  was  also  moved  6  miles  in  30  days,  and  again 
14  mile  down  one  hill,  across  a  valley  to  another  hill  in  23  days, 
at  a  cost  of  about  $40  per  day. 

A  35 -ton  Vulcan  traction  shovel  was  moved  over  18  miles  of 
rough  road,  the  last  mile  being  up  a  steep  hill  and  over  field. 
The  time  occupied  was  18  days,  and  the  cost  about  $35  per  day 
and  $35  per  mile. 

According  to  Mr.  C.  T.  Montague,  in  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Apr.  23,  1913,  a  70-ton  Bucyrus  steam  shovel  was  moved 
24.2  miles  in  8  days  over  country  roads  and  fields  during  March 
when  the  average  temperature  was  10°  F.  The  regular  wheels 
of  the  machine  were  removed  and  replaced  with  trucks  of  the 
ordinary  house-moving  type,  consisting  of  three  units  of  four 
wheels,  each  mounted  on  false  bolsters.  The  shovel  was  drawn 
by  a  32-hp.  steam  tractor  and  a  25-hp.  tractor,  with  a  5-ton 
motor  truck  to  help  out  on  the  starts. 

Many  deep  ravines  and  sharp  turns  were  encountered  but  no 
difficulty  was  experienced  except  from  the  scarcity  of  water. 
Only  4  laborers  were  employed.  The  cost  of  moving  was  $48  per 
mile. 

Victor  Windett  in  Proceedings  of  the  Western  Society  of  Engi- 
neers, Jan.  7,  1911,  gives  the  following:  The  cost  of  moving  a 
shovel  under  its  own  steam  on  rails  from  a  railroad-siding  to  the 
site  of  the  work  in  Chicago,  for  a  haul  of  something  over  a  mile, 
was  at  the  rate  of  6.5  ct.  per  lin.  ft. 

In  New  Orleans  a  25-ton  shovel  was  moved  13,000  ft.  at  the  rate 
of  260  ft.  per  hr.  The  work  required  5  days'  time,  as  follows: 

Removing  and  resetting  crane $100 

Labor,  teams,  coal  and  water  175 

Cutting  electric  wires  and  general  expense  75 

Total    $350 

Cost  per  lin.  ft.  to  move  2.8  ct. 


474  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

A  team  was  used  to  drag  ahead  the  pieces  of  track  over  which 
the  shovel  had  moved. 

Cost  of  Moving  a  Shovel  by  Motor  Trucking.  Everett  N. 
Bryan  in  Engineering  Record,  June  17,  1916,  gives  the  following 
record  of  cost  of  moving  a  60-ton  Marion  shovel  32  miles,  from 
La  Grange  to  Modesto,  Calif.  The  entire  time  was  61  days,  using 
a  small  crew  of  men.  This  time  could  have  been  cut  in  half  with 
a  larger  crew.  Before  moving,  the  shovel  stood  in  a  pit  50  ft. 
deep.  A  road  750  ft.  long  had  to  be  graded  out  of  the  pit,  200  ft. 
of  which  was  up  an  18%  grade.  The  shovel  pulled  up  this  grade 
with  its  own  power  using  a  wire  rope  tackle.  Then  it  was  dis- 
mantled and  hauled  in  nine  loads  by  a  5-ton  motor  truck  using 
a  trailer. 

The  heaviest  of  load  was  10.5  tons,  consisting  of  the  main 
frame  with  decking  attached,  10  x  35  ft. 

The  cost  was  as  follows: 

•if.     r'iiifti       -         •;.>.-,)     J:MV«--'«l       -KV,     ];>•()<{-     lit.;  ;-,ii-'«    -p,...ij." 

Dismantling  shovel ... $     71.10 

Reassembling  shovel 194.45 

Lumber  and  tool  rental   50.00 

"       "     haulage     46.40 

Breakages    20.00 

Grading  750  ft.  of  road  56.62 

Loading   assistance    34.94 

Unloading  assistance    11.40 

Total     $    484.91 

Moving  shovel  750  ft.  out  of  pit  218.18 


Total     $    703.09 

//K:;  •  /or1',  -/'i      .?'U*.tefi«i   y^In'i 

Moving  shovel  300  ft.  across  bridge   37.76 

Hauling  shovel  32  miles   441.76 


Grand   total $1,182.61 

The  items  of  loading  and  unloading  assistance  relate  to  wages 
paid  to  others  than  the  motor  truck  driver  and  his,  helper  while 
loading  and  unloading. 

The  item  of  moving  across  a  bridge  relates  to  hauling  some  of 
the  heavy  parts  on  wagons  by  cable  across  a  light  bridge. 

Cost  of  Railway  Work.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  30, 
1006,  gives  the  following: 

In  1895  considerable  steam  shovel  work  was  done  by  the  Ann 
Arbor  R.  R.  in  the  betterment  of  its  grade  and  line. 

The  railroad  was  a  single  track  line  upon  which  it  was  neces- 
sary to  keep  both  freight  and  passenger  trains  moving  without 
delay,  and  some  of  the  work  was  made  more  expensive  by  the  fact 
that  from  18  to  28  trains  per  day  had  to  be  contended  with. 
A  portion  of  the  work  was  ballasting,  the  haul  from  the  gravel 
pits  ranging  from  10  to  50  miles.  On  grade  reductions,  the  haul 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      475 

ranged  from  one  to  four  miles.  The  steam  shovels  used  were 
track  shovels,  with  11/4  cu.  yd.  dipper.  Shovels  Nos.  1  and  2  were 
the  Bucyrus  steam  shovels,  and  were  new;  shovels  Nos.  3  and  4 
were  Marion  steam  shovels.  The  cost  figures  cover  the  cost  of  the 
loading,  transporting,  unloading  of  material  and  placing  it  under 
the  track,  but  make  no  allowance  for  rental  of  plant,  locomotive 
or  cars,  or  per  cent,  for  deterioration  of  plant. 

The  rates  of  labor  the  season  of  1895  were  about  as  follows: 
Laborers,  $1.15  per  day;  track  foremen,  $65  per  month;  work 
train  conductor,  $0.25  per  hr. ;  brakemen,  $0.17%  per  hr.;  shovel 
enginemen,  $100  per  month  and  %  ct.  per  yd.  bonus  on  all  material 
moved  above  a  750  yd.  per  day  average. 

In  sand  the  cost  ranged  from  7  to  17  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  the  average 
being  about  10  ct.  In  clay  the  range  was  10  to  18  ct.,  the  aver- 
age being  14  ct. 

Cost  of  Railway  Grading.  In  Engineering  News,  Dec.  31,  1903, 
D.  J.  Hauer  gives  some  data  on  steam  shovel  work,  a  portion  of 
which  we  have  abstracted. 

The  work  was  during  November,  1901,  and  was  the  best  done  in 
11/2  years  by  three  shovels  in  North  C'arolina.  These  shovels 
were  employed  in  regrading  a  railroad  track  ( see  Fig.  49 ) ,  the 
cut  being  1,200  ft.  long.  The  earth  to  the  right  of  the  old  track 
was  first  excavated  to  the  grade  of  that  track,  the  shovel  loading 


Fig.  49.     Cross-Section  of  Railway  Cutting. 


into  cars  on  the  old  track.  The  solid  rock  made  progress  slow, 
29,800  cu.  yd.  of  earth  and  1,200  cu.  yd.  of  rock  being  excavated 
between  Sept.  5  and  Oct.  31,  working  day  shifts  only,  except 
during  the  last  week  when  two  night  shifts  were  worked.  During 
November,  day  and  night  shifts  of  12  hr.  each  were  worked,  the 
shovel  excavating  at  the  left  of  the  main  track  and  using  the  old 
track  as  a  loading  track. 

The  material  could  be  classed  as  average  earth,  being  red  clay 


476  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

and  mica.  The  bank  was  shot  with  powder.  The  width  of 
shovel  cut  from  center  of  loading  track  at  the  widest  point  was 
51  ft.;  the  minimum  width  was  35  ft.  The  height  of  the  breast 
was  40  ft. 

The  shovel  used  was  a  65-ton  Bucyrus,  equipped  with  a  2}£-yd. 
dipper.  A  dynamo  furnished  current  for  electric  light  for  night 
work  at  times.  The  boiler  also  furnished  steam  for  a  3%-in. 
rock  drill  and  a  4-in.  steam  siphon  and  1^-in.  jet  for  pumping. 
Gasoline  lamps  were  used  on  the  dumps.  The  shovel  had  a 
clear  lift  of  17  ft.,  cut  27  ft.  from  its  center  and  dumped  24  ft. 

Two  trains  of  15  cars  each,  drawn  by  16-in.  cylinder  locomotives 
served  the  shovel.  The  cars  used  were  Kilbourne  &  Jacobs,  6-yd., 
two-way,  dump  cars;  six  cars  in  each  train  being  equipped  witli 
brakes.  The  cars  were  of  6  cu.  yd.  water  measure  capacity,  the 
actual  contents  as  measured  in  place  being  5  cu.  yd. 

The  dumping  gangs  consisted  of  1  foreman  and  20  men  on  one 
dump  1  mile  distant,  and  1  foreman  and  12  laborers  on  a  tem- 
porary trestle  dump  2.5  miles  distant  in  the  other  direction.  The 
former  dump  was  used  only  during  the  day  time  and  the  latter 
day  and  night.  A  temporary  trestle  was  constructed  with  bents 
at  14-ft.  centers.  The  mud  blocks,  sills,  posts  and  caps  were  of 
round  timber,  the  braces  of  3  x  8-in.  sawed  pine,  and  the  stringers 
of  10xl2-in.  sawed  pine.  The  stringers  were  used  again.  This 
trestle  cost  2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of  embankment. 

Some  delay  was  caused  by  the  necessity  of  clearing  the  loading 
track  for  20  to  30  regular  trains  per  day.  Mr.  Hauer  estimated 
that  fully  40%  more  work  could  have  been  done  had  the  track 
been  clear  at  all  times. 

The  cost  of  the  plant  used  was  about  $27,000.  The  total  yard- 
age moved  during  the  month  was  56,120  cu.  yd.;  the  daily  average 
was  2,160,  or  1,080  cu.  yd.  per  shift.  The  cost  of  the  work  during 
November  was  $7,070  or  12.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  exclusive  of  interest 
and  depreciation.  The  cost  of  moving  31,000  cu.  yd.  during 
September  and  October  was  $7,000,  or  22.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  rails,  ties,  switches,  and  track  fastenings  were  furnished 
to  the  contractor  by  the  railroad  company,  the  parts  lost  and  con- 
sumed being  paid  for  at  market  prices. 

The  cost  per  month  was  as  follows : 

1  engineer  in  charge   $    150 

1  bookkeeper    65 

2  clerks     85 

2  telegraph  operators   board    30 

1  watchman     35 

2  cooks  and  2  helpers   165 

1  superintendent     140 

1  night  superintendent   90 

Total  general   $   760 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      477 

2  shovel   enginemen $   280 

2  cranemen    180 

2  shovel  firemen  at  $2.25  per  day  59 

4  pitmen  at  $1.25    130 

6  pitmen   at   $1    166 

4  blasters   at  $4.25    , Ill 

120  kegs  of  black  powder  at  $1.25 150 

Dynamite,   exploders,   etc 65 

Total  loading  force  $1,131 

4  locomotive  enginemen    $    360 

4  firemen     160 

4  conductors 300 

8  flagmen  at  208 

1  switchman  at  $1  26 

1  car  oiler  at  $1   26 

Total  handling  forces   $1,080 

1  inspector    •. .  $     40 

1  day  dump  foreman  at  $3  78 

20  day  dump  laborers  at  $1   520 

1  day  and  night  dump  foreman  at  $3   130 

24  day  and  night  dump  laborers  at  $1  624 

Total  dumping  forces    $1,392 


Total  track  force  $    338 

1  foreman  at  $2   $  "  52 

10  laborers  at  $1  260 

1  blacksmith  at  $3   78 

1  blacksmith  helper  at  $1.25   32 

3  bays   at  75  ct 59 

Total  miscellaneous  force  $   481 


Oil,  gear  shield,  waste,  packing  $    110 

Torpedoes,   fuses,   etc 13 

262  tons  coal  at  $3.25  851 

Repairs  to  shovel,  engines,  and  cars  285 

Trestle  (36,000  cu.  yd.  at  1%  ct.)    630 

Grand  total,  56,120  cu.  yd.  at  12.6  ct , $7,071 

"        '  i)'f     i'*J:  1O<T     lfc*    *"*  i   *rn     f-V^"Xf    -Qfir    *•  fc^T 

Cost  of  Filling  a  Trestle.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May 
9,  1906,  gives  the  following: 

Henry  H.  Carter  gives  costs  of  steam  shovel  work,  begun 
March  13,  1884,  near  Boston.  The  material  excavated  was  fine 
gravel  and  sand  which  was  used  to  fill  in  a  trestle  1,700  ft.  long 
across  a  lake.  The  cost  of  the  trestle  is  not  included  in  the 
following  record,  but  the  cost  of  laying  track  to  the  trestle  and 
of  laying  a  double  track  on  the  ties  already  on  the"  trestle  is 
included. 

All  told  there  were  6,700  ft.  of  single  track,  laid  with  35-lb. 
rails.  The  gravel  pit  was  located  3,700  ft.  from  the  middle  of 
the  trestle,  making  the  haul  average  %  mile. 


478  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  gravel  was  measured  in  the  pit  before  loading,  and  the 
total  amount  moved  was  59,010  cu.  yd.  It  was  found  that  1 
cu.  yd.,  measured  in  the  cut,  or  pit,  made  1.16  cu.  yd.  measured 
in  the  cars. 

The  contractor's  plant  consisted  of  a  steam  shovel,  two  loco- 
motives, 14  dump  cars,  each  holding  2%  cu.  yd.  car  measure,  and 
16  dump  cars  holding  1.85  cu.  yd.  each.  For  a  time  a  small 
shovel  was  used,  and  its  average  output  was  300  cu.  yd.  a  day, 
including  the  days  consumed  in  setting  up  and  shifting  plant. 
However,  most  of  the  work  was  done  with  a  large  shovel  which 
averaged  582  cu.  yd.  per  day,  including  setting  up  and  shifting 
time. 

Ct.  per 
Loading  ($4,521,  or  7.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.)  cu.  yd. 

Foreman,  100  days   @   $4   0.7 

Engineman,  Ii2  days   @  $4  0.8 

Craneman,  122  days  @  $3.50  0.7 

Fireman,   123  days   @    $1.75   0.3 

Laborers,  574  days  @  $1.50   1.5 

Rent  of  small  shovel,  51  days  @  $9  0.8 

Rent  of  large  shovel,  75  days  @  $13  :.      1.6 

Repairs  on  small  shovel   0.2 

75  tons  of  coal  for  shovels   @  $6  0.8 

Oil  and  waste  for  shovels   0.2 

Hauling   ($3,639,   or  6.2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.) 

Foreman,  10  days  at  $4  0.1 

Engine  drivers,  229  days  @  $2.50 1.0 

Firemen.  216  days  @  $1.75  0.6 

Brakeman,  105  days  @  $1.50  0.3 

Icecutter,  15  days   @  $1.50  0.0 

Rent  of  2  locomotives  and  trains,  235  days   @  $7 2.8 

120  tons  of  coal  @  $6  1.2 

Oil  and  waste   0.2 

Trackwork  ($1,492,  or  2.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd., 

Foreman,  10  days   @   $4  0.1 

Foreman,  95  days   @   $2   0.3 

Blacksmith,  125  days   @   $2  0.4 

Laborers,   638  days    @   $1.50   1.6 

Loss   of  tools    0.1 

Dumping  ($799,  or  1.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd1.) 

Foreman,  32  days   @   $2   0.1 

Laborers,   490  days   @   $1.50   1.2 

Miscellaneous  ($3,420,  or  5.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.) 

Superintendent,  60  days   @   $6 0.6 

Foreman,  12  days   @  $4 0.1 

Engineman,  10  days  @   $4  0.1 

Craneman,  10  days  at  $4  0.1 

Blacksmith,  128  days  @  $2.50  0.5 

Laborers,  105  days  @  $1.50  0.2 

5  tons  of  coal  @  $6  0.0 

Blacksmith  shop  0.2 

Transportation  of  plant  2.6 

Loss  of  tools  and  interest  on  value 0.3 

Loss  on  rails,  ties,  etc ..  •  •  0.8 

Blacksmith    supplies    Jiiu»w,u..-»  0.3 

Grand  total   ..  .    23.4 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      479 

Summarizing,    we    have:  Ct.  per 

cu.  yd. 

Labor,    loading 4.0 

Rental  of  shovels,  and  repairs  2.6 

Coal,  %  ton  per  day  per  shovel  :..  0.8 

Oil  and  waste  for  shovels  0.2 

Labor,    hauling    2.0 

Rental  of  locomotives  and  train   2.8 

Coal,   (V2  ton  per  day  per  locomotive)   . ...  1.2 

Oil  and  waste  for  locomotives   0.2 

Labor,  tracklaying,  1^4  miles 2.5 

Labor,   dumping    1.3 

Labor,  installing  shovels,  etc 0.5 

Blacksmithing     0.5 

Blacksmith    shop    0.2 

Blacksmith  supplies    0.3 

Transportation  of  plant 2.6 

Depreciation  of  small  tools,  rails  and  ties  1.1 

General    superintendence    0.6 

Total    23.4 

Cost  on  Railway  Construction.  S.  T.  Neely,  Assistant  Engi- 
neer, Southern  Ry.,  in  Engineerng  News,  Aug.  9,  1906,  gives  the 
cost  of  grade  reduction  work  as  follows: 

Cost  of  Equipment: 

165-ton  shovel $10,000 

3  engines   at  $2,200    6,600 

20-12-yd.    dump    cars    14,000 

1  Jordan  spreader   2, 400 

Extra  parts    1,000 

Tools   (jacks,   shovels,   bars,  etc.)    1,000 

Total  ,^^^?.f^.^.\.\'.'l:TJ^.M.J $35,000  * 

Annual  Charges : 

Interest  at  6'/r    $  2,100 

Renewals  in  5  years 7,000 

Total   per   year    $9,100 

Total  per  day   $       25 

Daily  Operating  Cost  per  Working  Day: 

2  foremen  at  $3.75   $    7  50 

2  timekeepers  at  $2.35 4.70 

1  shovelman  at  $5   5.00 

1  craneman  at  $2.50 2.50 

1  fireman   at  $2.25    2.25 

1  watchman   at  $2.25    2.25 

6  pitmen  at  $2   12.00 

30  dump  track  raises  at  $1.75  52.50 

13  track  men  at  $1.75  22.75 

3  locomotive  men  at  $3.50   10.50 

3  firemen  at  $^    .« 6.00 

3  brakemen    at    $2.50    7.50 

1  conductor    at   $4    4.00 

3  flagmen  at  $2   6.00 

1  car  repairer  at  $2   2.00 

1  blacksmith   at  $3.50    3.50 

1  blacksmith  helper  at  $2   2.00 

1  superintendent  at  $5 5.00 

1  telegraph  operator  at  $2    2.00 

Total  daily  pay  roll $159.95 


480  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Interest  and  renewal   $  25.00 

2  tons  coal  for  3  engines  at  $2  12.00 

2  tons  coal  for  shovel  at  $2  4.00 

Waste  and  oil  at  75  ct.  per  machine  3.00 

10,000  gal.  water  at  50  ct.  per  1,000  gal 5.00 

Total  fuel   and  water    $49.00 

Total  per  working  day   $209.00 

Non-Working  Day  Expense: 

2  foremen  at  $3.75   $  7.50 

2  timekeepers  at  $2.35    4.70 

1  shovel  engineer   at  $5    5.00 

1  craneman  at  $2.50   2.50 

1  fireman   at  $2.25    2.25 

1  watchman  at  $2.25   2.25 

3  locomotive  engineers   at  $3.50   10.50 

3  firemen  at  $2    6.00 

1  conductor  at  $4  4.00 

1  superintendent  at  $5    5.00 

1  telegraph  operator  at  $2   2.00 

Labor  of  ditching,  etc.,  20  hr.  at  0.175  3.50 

$56.20 

Interest  and  renewals    25.00 

Fuel  and  oil  for  1  engine   5.00 

Total  non- working  day  expense   $86.20 

Cost  per  month: 

20  working  days    $4,180 

10  non-working  days    862 

Total   per   month    $5,042 

The  average  haul  was  12,000  ft.  Two  trains  of  ten  12-yd. 
cars \were  hauled  by  two  locomotives,  the  third  locomotive  being 
employed  in  pulling  the  spreader,  getting  water  for  the  shovel, 
switching,  etc. 

Loading  consumed  35  min.  for  10  cars  loaded  by  6  or  7  dipper- 
fuls  each,  and  dumping  and  latching  occupied  5  min.,  giving  a 
running  time  to  the  dump  and  return  of  15  min.  Due  to  de- 
lays only  140  cars  or  1,540  cu.  yd.  were  loaded  per  day,  giving 
a  monthly  output  of  30,800  cu.  yd.  A  car  held  11  cu.  yd.  place 
measure. 

The  total  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Excavation    3.6  ct. 

Hauling    6.7  ct. 

Dumping  and  raising  track   4.7  ct. 

Spreading      1.4  ct. 

Total     16.4  ct. 

Steam  Shovel  Work  on  Grade  Reduction.  Cost  data  on  steam 
shovel  work  in  grade  reduction  are  given  by  John  C.  Sesser  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  2,  1907.  The  work  was  done 
during  the  season  of  1906,  by  company  forces  and  equipment. 
The  two  pieces  of  work  for  which  costs  are  given  were  the  Big 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      481 

Shoal  Cut  Off  and  the  Little  Shoal  Cut  Off,  both  located  on  the 
Beardstown  to  Centralia  Division  of  the  C.,  B.  &  Q.  Ry. 

The  Big  Shoal  Cut  Off  was  a  change  of  alinement  and  grades 
between  Sorento  and  Reno,  111.  On  this  cut  off  there  were 
318,711  cu.  yd.  of  earth  to  be  moved,  of  which  251,711  cu.  yd. 
were  steam  shovel  work. 

On  this  work  two  temporary  trestles  were  built,  having  a  total 
length  of  2,961  ft.  and  an  average  height  of  40  ft.  The  material 
for  the  embankment  was  hauled  from  the  north,  an  average  dis- 
tance of  1^  miles.  The  average  depth  of  cut  was  15  ft.  The 
material  handled  was  wet  clay.  On  account  of  numerous  springs 
encountered,  both  material  and  steam-shovel  pit  were  very  wet, 
which  delayed  this  work  to  some  extent.  At  times  the  clay  would 
leave  the  dipper  in  chunks  as  large  as  the  dipper  itself.  This 
made  the  dumping  of  cars  from  the  high  trestle  rather  dangerous 
and  necessitated  the  locking  of  the  cars  to  the  trestle  before  they 
were  dumped. 

The  work  being  entirely  separated  from  the  main  line,  bunk 
houses  were  built  for  the  men  employed.  Board  was  furnished 
the  men  for  $3.75  per  week  by  the  boarding  contractor*. 

Water  was  supplied  to  the  shovel  by  a  2-in.  pipe  line,  laid  on 
the  ground  outside  of  the  digging  line.  At  every  hundred  feet 
this  pipe  line  had  a  "  T  "  with  a  tap,  and  by  means  of  a  long  rub- 
ber hose  water  could  be  supplied  the  shovel  at  all  times,  thus 
avoiding  the  usual  delay  of  siphoning  water  wlijch,  in  double- 
shift  work,  is  an  item  worth  consideration.  This  pipe  line  was 
also  extended  to  the  cook  and  bunk  houses,  thus  supplying  water 
for  cooking  and  washing  purposes. 

The  temporary  trestle  built  was  designed  to  carry  a  loaded 
train  of  5-yd.  dump  cars  before  being  filled,  and  the  engine  in 
service  only  after  the  trestle  had  been  filled.  Each  bent  con- 
sisted of  two  piles,  bracing  and  cap.  Second-hand  material  was. 
used  throughout,  with  the  exception  of  the  bracing.  Two  8  x 
16-in.  stringers  were  used  per  span,  which  were  built  13  ft.  The 
stringers  were  recovered,  the  balance  of  the  material  buried  in  the 
embankment. 

The  equipment  used  on  the  Big  Shoal  Cut  Off  work  consisted 
of  the  following:  One  65-ton  Bucyrus  stealn  shovel;  2  switch 
engines  (Class  K) ,  weight  on  drivers,  30  tons;  43  5-yd.  dump 
cars,  and  1  Jordan  spreader.  All  of  the  equipment  except  the 
Jordan  spreader  was  second-hand.  The  second-hand  value  of  this 
equipment  was  as  follows: 

Value 

Shovel     $5,000 

Engines     4,400 

Dump    cars    5,052 

Spreader    1,800 


482  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  Little  .Shoal  Cut  Off  work  was  a  change  of  alinement  and 
grades  between  Ayers  and  Durley,  111.,  the  work  necessitating 
the  handling  of  188,240  cu.  yd.  of  material.  The  material  handled 
was  about  40%  hard  pan,  it  being  about  as  hard  a  material  as  the 
shovel  could  dig  without  resorting  to  blasting.  The  pit  was  wet. 
The  material  was  hauled  an  average  distance  of  ^  mile  and  was 
dumped  from  a  temporary  trestle  constructed  for  that  purpose. 
This  trestle  had  a  total  length  of  2,142  ft.  and  an  average  height 
of  35  ft.  On  this  work  both  shovel  and  engines  were  handled 
over  6%  grades  and  16°  curves  very  easily. 

The  equipment  used  in  the  Little  Shoal  Cut  Off  work  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

One  second-hand  65-ton  Bucyrus  steam  shovel,  2  second-hand 
switch  engines  (Class  E),  weight  on  drivers,  30  tons;  36  second- 
hand 5-yd.  dump  cars;  1  new  Jordan  spreader.  The  second-hand 
value  of  this  equipment  was  as  follows: 

Value 

Shovel     $5, 000 

Engines 4,400 

Dump    cars 4,230 

Spreader 1,800 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  cost  per  yard  in  place  was  the 
same  on  both  jobs.  While  the  equipment  and  organization  were, 
in  a  way,  about  the  same  at  both  places,  the  material  handled 
and  the  general  layout  of  the  work  were  very  different.  The 
organization  of  the  working  forces  were  the  same  in  both  cases, 
the  following  being  the  forces  engaged  on  the  Big  Shoal  work: 

Day  Shift :  Per  month 

1  general    foreman    ../... $118.50 

1  steam  shovel  engineman    125.00 

1  steam  shovel  craneman    

1  steam  shovel  fireman 55.00 

6  steam  shovel  pitmen,   19  ct.  per  hr. 

1  conductor    .......':_. 

2  brakemen     • • 69.00 

2  enginemen    $4  per  day. 

2  firemen,  $2.40  per  day. 

1  track   foreman iJ.W 

1  assistant  foreman,   10  ct.  per  hr. 
10  laborers  dumping  cars,   16  ct.  per  hr. 
38  laborers  on  track,  at  16  ct.  per  hr. 

1  watchman    • «.00 

1  timekeeper    • *»'2! 

1  pumper     • 

Night  Shirt: 

1  steam  shovel  engineman ^''-JJ 

1  steam  shovel  craneman    ..;,.y...f 

1  steam   shovel    fireman    • 

6  steam  shovel  pitmen,   20  ct.  per  hour. 

1  conductor 

2  brakemen 

2  enginemen,  $4  per  day. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      483 


2  firemen,  $2.40  per  day. 
1  assistant   track    foreman    , 
8  laborers,   $1.75  per  day. 
1  watchman,  $1.75  per  day. 
1  lightman,   $1.75  per  day. 


/fib 


,.., 


Cost 

General    foreman     

per  Day: 
Labor 
........    $    2  28 

Supplies 

Total 

$     2  28 

Steam   shovel    service 

22  09 

$  5  50 

27  59 

Engine   service    

22  08 

9  00 

31  08 

Car  repairing    . 

4  40 

4  40 

Dumping   cars    

19  00 

1900 

2  88 

2  88 

Assistant  track  foreman 

2  11 

2  11 

62  70 

62  70 

Timekeeper      

1  73 

1  73 

1  73 

65 

2  38 

Watchman     

160 

1  60 

Total     $142.60        $15.15        $157.75 


Cost  per  Night: 

Labor 

Steam   shovel   service    $  22.69 

Engine  service  . . 
Assistant  foreman 
Dumping  cars  ... 
Lighting 


Pumping 
Watching 


22.08 
2.11 

14.00 
1.75 
1.73 
1.75 


Supplies    Total 
$  5.50        $  28.19 
9.00  31.08 

2.11 
14.00 


2.34 
.70 


2.43 
1.75 


Total $66.11        $17.54        $83.65 

Total  day  and  night  $208.71        $32.69        $241.40 

The  prices  at  which  supplies  were  bought  were  as  follows : 
Valve  oil,  50  ct.  per  gal.;  black  oil,  18  ct.  per  gal.;  signal  oil,  34 
ct.  per  gal.;  kerosene,  10  ct.  per  gal.;  gasoline,  17  ct.  per  gal.; 
shovel  and  engine  coal,  $1.48  per  ton  on  Little  Shoal  Cut  Off 
work,  $1.50  on  Big  Shoal  Cut  Off;  waste,  6  ct.  per  Ib. 

For  the  sake  of  comparison  of  the  two  jobs  Mr.  Sesser's  figures 
are  arranged  as  follows: 

Little  shoal 
cut  off 
May  21 
Sept.  30 
May  22 
Sept.  30 

Days  steam  shovel  on  work 190  133 

Nights  steam  shovel  on  work 
Days  worked  by  steam  shovel 


Big  shoal 
cut  off 

Date  shovel  commenced  work Apl.  27 

Date  shovel  completed  work Nov.  2 

Date  shovel  commenced  night  shift June  20 

Date  shovel  completed  night  shift   .'. .     Oct.  26 

190 

129 

140 


88 


Nights  worked  by  steam  shovel 

Total    days    worked    by    steam    shovel     (10-hr,    shift 

called  a  day) 

Shovel  laid  up  due  to  rain  and  Sundays   (shifts) 

Shovel  delayed,  moving  and  shovel  failure  (shifts) . . . 

Waiting  for  grading  of  temporary  track  (shifts) 

Percentage  of  199  days  of  shovel  service  delayed 

Total  car  output,  day  shift  ....  v .  v ,. . . 47,682 


228 
57 
23. 
11 


199 

8 


4 


484 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Big  shoal  Little  shoal 

cut  off  cut  off 

Total  car  output,  night  shift   27,377  23,116 

Cubic  yards  handled,  day  shift  160,121  105,818 

Cubic  yards  handled,  night  shift  91,590  82,422 

Cubic  yards  per  car   3.35  3.56 

Cubic  yards  per  day  (10-hr,  shift)   1,104  946 

Percentage  of  night  shift  output  to  day  shift  output         84%  78% 

The  cost  of  the  work  is  shown  in  the  following  tabulations,  all 
yardage  being  cross-section  measurements. 

The  progress  of  the  work  in  the  Big  Shoal  Cut  Off  from  May  to 
Oct.,  inclusive  was  251,711  cu.  yd.  On  the  Little  Shoal  Cut  Off 
188,240  cu.  yd.  were  moved  from  May  to  Sept.  inclusive. 


COST  OF  STEAM  SHOVEL  WORK 

Big  shoal  Little  shoal 

Equipment:  cutoff  cutoff 

Steam  shovel,  depreciation  at  10%  $     500  $     500 

Engines,  depreciation  at  5%  200  220 

Dump  cars,  depreciation  at  10%  505  423 

Spreader,  depreciation  at  5%  90  90 

Total    $  1,315  |  1.233 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 0.005  0.006 

Bunk  Houses: 

Material   $     757  $     757 

Labor    388  310 

Total    $  1,145  $  1,067 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 0.004  0.005 

Water  Supply: 

Material   $     191  $     311 

Labor 81  300 

Total    $ 272  $ 611 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 0.001  0.004 

Shovel  Work,  Labor: 

Shovel   service    $  6,228  $  5,360 

Engine  service   6,417  5,303 

Car  repairs  and  blacksmithing   771  514 

Lighting     185  203 

Dumping   cars    4,265  3,149 

Total    $17,867  $14,529 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 0.071  0.077 

Shovel  Engine  and  Car  Supplies: 

Valve  oil   $     184  $       84 

Black  oil   90  108 

Signal  oil 17  26 

Kerosene     95  366 

Gasoline   128  146 

Coal  for  shovel   .                                                        ..,,;,;     1,539  1,629 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      485 

Big  shoal  Little  shoal 
cut  off  cut  off 

Coal  for  engines   ..  1,982  1,200 

Waste    .  48  48 


Total     $4,483  $3,607 


Cost  per  cu.  yd  .................................  0.018  0.019 

Temporary   trestle    ...................................    $JM)08*  I  3,853* 

0.031 


Cost  per  cu.  yd  .................................  0.050  0.042 

Supervision  and  engineering   ......................    $  _  610  $  _  487 

Cost  per  cu.  yd  .......................  -.  .........  0002  0.003 

Grand  total    .................................     $47,140  $35,205 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd  ...........................  0.187  0.187 

*  Cost  per  lineal  foot  on  Big  Shoal  work:  Labor,  $1.30;  material,  $1.74; 
total,  $3.04.  On  Little  Shoal  work  cost  per  lineal  foot  was:  Labor,  $1.22; 
material,  $1.51;  total,  $2.73. 

t  On  Big  Shoal  work,  labor  cost  was  $11,582,  and  value  of  track  supplies, 
$7,339  ;  depreciation  on  latter  and  actual  cost  amounted  to  $8,856,  making  total 
cost  of  track  work,  $12,238.  On  the  Little  Shoal  work,  the  labor  cost  was 
$6,673,  and  value  of  track  supplies,  $6,480;  depreciation  and  actual  cost  on 
latter  amounted  to  $1,144,  making  total  cost  track  work,  $7,817. 

Mr.  Sesser  states  that  the  limits  to  which  a  shovel  will  work  is 
a  most  important  consideration  in  planning  and  estimating  work 
of  this  kind.  It  is  not  economy  to  work  the  shovel  to  its  ex- 
treme limit  in  lift  and  reach.  The  shovel  on  this  work  at  times 
loaded  the  5-yd.  cars  on  a  loading  track  9  ft.  higher  than  the 
shovel  track,  with  the  track  centers  22  ft.  Loading  at  such 
height  is  very  slow  work  and  is  liable  to  wreck  the  cars  badly 
on  account  of  the  lack  of  clearance  for  the  dipper  after  emptying. 
When  there  is  more  than  one  cut  to  be  made  and  where  time  is 
the  all  important  factor,  7  ft.  difference  in  elevation  between 
the  shovel  and  loading  tracks  allows  rapid  work  and  gives  better 
results. 

In  laying  out  steam  shovel  work  considerable  can  be  saved 
at  times  by  taking  advantage  of  the  natural  conditions  of  the 
work  as  they  exist.  The  track  arrangement  and  the  future 
track  arrangements  as  the  work  progresses  are  oftentimes  ne- 
glected, causing  serious  delays  to  the  shovel.  On  few  jobs  has 
the  writer  seen  the  shovels  work  to  their  capacity,  on  account 
of  poor  track  arrangement  and  the  consequent  inability  to  keep 
the  cars  to  the  shovel.  One  must  have  good  running  track  over 
the  entire  work. 

Shovel  Work  at  Belle  Fourehe  Dam.  The  following  was  pub- 
lished in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  March  18,  1908,  and  in 
Engineering  News,  April  2,  1908.  It  refers  to  the  cost  of  work 
on  the  embankment  of  a  dam  built  under  contract  for  the  United 


4S6  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

States  Reclamation  Service  in  South  Dakota.  This  contract  was 
suspended  in  January,  1908. 

The  material  of  which  the  dam  was  constructed  was  a  heavy 
adobe  clay  with  occasional  layers  of  shale.  This  material  was 
excavated  by  steam  shovels  dumping  into  cars  hauled  by  dinkeys, 
and  also  with  elevating  graders  dumping  into  wagons.  (For  the 
cost  of  work  done  by  the  graders  see  Chap.  IX.)  The  material 
was  dumped,  spread  and  rolled  in  6-in.  layers,  all  stones  exceed- 
ing 6-in.  in  diameter  being  removed  before  rolling.  The  total 
volume  of  the  dam  is  1,600,000  cu.  yd.  and  during  1906-07 
about  32%  of  this  amount  was  placed. 

During  1906  a  75-ton,  2^-cu.  yd.  dipper,  steam  shovel  was  em- 
ployed, and  during  1907  two  of  these  shovels  were  used.  The 
material  was  hauled  in  trains  of  10  Western,  4-cu.  yd.  dump  cars 
by  18-ton  Davenport  dinkeys.  The  average  haul  during  1906  was 
1  mile,  up  a  2%  maximum  grade,  and  during  1907,  1  mile  do\vn  a 
maximum  4%  grade. 

Material  was  spiead  in  6-in.  layers  by  4-horse  buck  scrapers  and 
leveled  by  a  6-horse  road  leveler.  The  tracks  were  laid  so  that 
the  earth  was  spread  to  a  distance  of  50  ft.  from  them,  and  then 
were  shifted  10  ft.  after  the  completion  of  every  third  layer. 
Sprinkling  was  done  by  means  of  a  hose  attached  to  iron  pipes 
in  turn  connected  to  a  pump.  The  rolling  was  performed  by  a 
32-hp.,  21-ton,  traction  engine,  and  a  12-ton  road-roller.  The 
traction  engine  was  very  efficient. 

Common  labor  was  paid  $2.25  to  $2.50  and  horses  $1.15  per  day 
of  10  hr.  Coal  cost  $10.50  per  ton  delivered.  The  cost  is  given 
below,  and  the  labor  account  includes  the  railroad  fare  of  em- 
ployes, lighting,  heating,  superintendence,  engineer,  bookkeeper, 
timekeeper,  blacksmith,  machinist,  clerk  and  building  rental. 
These  items  amount  to  about  3.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  charge  for 
depreciation  and  repairs  is  based  upon  the  estimated  salvage  of 
machinery  and  equipment.  The  supply  account  includes  coal,  oil, 
power,  etc.  The  cost  of  sinking  the  artesian  wells,  each  1,430 
ft.  deep,  and  of  obtaining  suitable  water  for  boiler  use  has  been 
distributed  in  the  itemized  costs.  . 

Cost  of  Steam  Shovel  Work  on  Belle  Fourche  Dam  Embank- 
ment, for  1906  and  1907.  (Yardage  for  both  years  was  305,000 
cu.  yd.  The  daily  average  per  shovel  was  951  cu.  yd.  per  day  of 
10  hr.)  ..iriiifii!  r 

Excavation  :  Total          Cost  per  cu.  yd. 

Labor  '  ;  ;.v.  .'.'I'.T.  .  .*«?£&  .SAWUV.    $14,215.01  $0.047 

Depreciation  and  repairs  ....,  j*..\%..  £,892.81  0.029 

• 


--•  ..........  -••-  .....        8'189-94  - 

Total     .,..,.  .,4,,w^mfW,*31,297.76  $0.103 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      487 


Hauling: 

Labor     ............................  $11,228.17  $0.037 

Depreciation    and   repairs    .......  9,285.76  0.030 

Supplies    ..........................  10,738.00  .      0.035 


Total 


$31,251.93  $0.102 

Jilflfu     fc  •lOJ-JJilhtO')     ^l! 


Main  Track: 

Labor     $  3,633.29 

Depreciation  and  repairs  3,991.96 

Total     $  7,625.25 


Rolling : 

Labor     

Depreciation   and  repairs 
Supplies    


$  1,891.63 
1,361.03 
2,176.06 


Total     $  5,428.72 

•>  I       TfJ  .  I    M]M     I 

Watering : 

Labor     $  4,143.20 

Depreciation    and   repairs    3,611.69 

Supplies    1,243.43 


Total     


$  8,998.32 


Grand  totals: 

Labor     $  71,163.44 

Depreciation   and   repairs  -» 27,827.08 

Supplies 22,347.43 

Total     .  ..  $121,337.95 


$0.012 
0.013 

$0.025 


$0.006 
0.004 
0.007 

$0.017 


$0.014 
0.012 
0.004 

$0.030 


$0.234 
0.090 
0.073 

$0.397 


Cost  of  Railway  Work.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  5, 
1008,  describes  work  that  was  done  in  the  south  on  the  excava- 
tion of  a  railroad.  It  comprises  a  month's  work  during  the  fall 
of  the  year,  when  the  weather  conditions  were  fairly  good,  there 
being  only  occasional  rain  storms. 

Description  of  Work.  The  work  consisted  of  widening  one  side 
of  a  cut,  the  average  height  of  the  excavation  being  about  40  ft. 
The  water  in  the  side  ditch  of  the  cut  was  turned  by  boxes  under 
the  track  into  the  ditch  on  the  other  side,  making  the  work  dry. 
The  extra  width  given  to  the  cut  varied  from  17  to  21  ft.,  and 
this  distance  would  not  allow  of  the  regular  jack  arms  being 
used  on  the  shovel  at  all  times.  When  this  was  not  possible  a 
special  short  jack  arm  was  used  on  one  side  of  the  shovel,  giving 
2  ft.  additional  clearance.  Short  jack  arms  are  valuable  for  such 
purposes,  but  the  stability  of  the  shovel  is  greatly  reduced  by 
their  use.  ^'S  ' 

The  railroad  company  operated  its  trains  through  the  cut 
while  the  work  was  going  on.  In  all  there  were  about  30  trains 
a  day  on  one  track.  Four  of  these  trains  were  for  passenger 
service  and  two  were  carded  freights.  These  six  trains  had  to 
be  cleared  by  the  contractor's  dirt  trains,  ten  minutes  on  their 


488  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

running  time,  as  furnished  by  the  telegraph  operator,  kept  in 
the  contractor's  camp  by  the  railroad  company.  The  rest  of  the 
trains  were,  cleared  as  they  approached  or  else  flagged  until  the 
dirt  trains  could  take  a  side  track. 

The  contractor's*  outfit  was  a  standard  gage,  and  the  main 
line  of  the  railroad  was  used  as  a  loading  track  and  for  hauling 
the  material.  The  excavated  material  was  hauled  two  ways  to 
the  dumps.  One  haul  averaged  a  mile  and  the  trains  were 
dumped  from  the  main  line,  the  material  being  used  to  widen  a 
long  embankment.  The  average  haul  to  the  other  dump  was  2 
miles,  and  the  material  was  dumped  from  a  temporary  trestle, 
being  used  to  make  a  new  embankment  alongside  of  an  old  one. 
Half  the  material  excavated  went  to  each  dump,  as  the  time 
saved  in  dumping  from  the  trestle  compensated  for  the  extra  dis- 
tance hauled. 

The  material  excavated  was  a  red  clay  mixed  with  mica  and 
this  clay  could  be  classed  as  "  average  earth."  In  the  two  months 
29,800  cu.  yd.  of  this  clay  were  excavated,  and  1,200  cu.  yd. 
of  solid  granite.  The  granite  was  in  the  bottom  of  the  cut,  over 
an  area  about  200  ft.  long.  Encountering  this  rock  and  having 
to  take  it  out  to  grade  retarded  the  progress  of  the  shovel,  as 
during  the  time  the  shovel  was  working  in  the  rock  the  record  of 
cars  loaded  each  day  was  not  over  one-third  as  large  as  when 
working  in  earth  above.  The  side  of  the  cut  was  excavated  to  a 
%.  to  1  slope,  with  the  result  that  several  cave-ins  occurred.  Two 
of  these  cave-ins  moved  the  shovel  a  foot  or  more  to  one  side  and 
caused  delays  of  5  to  6  hr.  while  the  shovel  was  being  dug  out 
by  hand  and  the  jack  arms  made  solid. 

Outfit.  The  outfit  was  a  new  one,  the  shovel,  cars  and  other 
tools  for  the  most  part  having  been  bought  new.  The  shovel  was 
a  Bucyrus  65-ton,  with  a  2^-cu.  yd.  dipper,  with  14  x  14-in. 
crowding  engines  on  the  boom.  The  shovel  used  had  only  one 
piece  of  timber  on  it,  a  piece  to  protect  the  hoisting  chain.  The 
dipper  was  speeded  to  make  4  dips  per  min.,  and  in  good  material 
it  sometimes  did  it,  loading  12  cars,  36  dipperfuls,  in  9  min. 
The  dipper  had  a  lift  of  17  ft.  and  could  dig  earth  27  ft.  to  one 
side,  dumping  24  ft.  on  the  other  side,  thus  covering  a  distance 
of  51  ft.  By  placing  the  shovel  on  crib  work,  the  shovel  could 
dig  5  ft.  below  the  base  of  rail.  This  style  of  shovel,  equipped 
with  extra  short  arm  jacks,  is  well  adapted  to  grade  revision 
work  on  railroads,  as  it  is  not  too  heavy  to  move  over  wet 
ground,  and  has  such  a  range  of  work  as  to  admit  of  handling 
heavy  excavation,  with  a  minimum  of  track  laying  and  shifting. 
Such  a  shovel  also  saves  many  moves  forward  in  heavy  excava- 
tion. When  the  pit  is  dry,  this  shovel  could  be  moved  forward 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      480 

0  ft.  in  from  3  to  4  min.,  although  it  has  been  moved  in  2  min. 
Jn  wet,  soft  pits,  when  cribbing  is  necessary  to  hold  up  the 
shovel  and  jack  arm  blocks,  from  5  to  10  min.  are  consumed  in 
moving  the  shovel  forward.  The  water  tank  on  the  shovel  had 
a  capacity  of  about  1,500  gallons. 

Two  Rogers  locomotives  were  used.  These  had  16-in.  cylinders 
and  four  51 -in.  driving  wheels.  They  were  second-hand  engines 
just  from  the  shop,  and  each  had  had  a  new  boiler  put  on  it 
within  5  years.  Their  tanks  carried  about  3,000  gallons  of  water. 
Both  of  these  engines  did  good  service. 

Each  train  was  made  up  of  12  Kilbourne  and  Jacobs,  6-yd., 
two  way  dump  cars.  A  record  of  the  cars  loaded  each  day  was 
kept,  and  this  divided  into  the  yardage  given  in  the  engineer's 
estimate  showed  each  car  carried  4}£  cu.  yd.  place  measurement. 
Ordinarily  4  dippers  of  earth  loaded  a  car,  so  each  dipper  load 
amounted  to  iy8  cu.  yd.  place  measurement. 

A  gasoline  pump  pumped  water  direct  to  the  steam  shovel,  and 
also  pumped  water  into  a  10,000  gal.  wooden  tank  for  the  loco- 
motives. 

A  3%-in.  Ingersoll  drill  was  used  in  drilling  the  rock,  steam 
being  furnished  from  the  boiler  of  the  shovel.  This  drill  was 
capable  of  putting  down  a  20-ft.  hole. 

The  cost  of  the  outfit  was  as  follows: 

Shovel    (65    ton)    $10,000 

2   locomotives 10,000 

24  (6-yd.)   dump  cars  at  $125  3.000 

Tanks,   pumps,  etc.,  for  water   1,000 

Rock  drill,   etc 400 

Blacksmith    shop    200 

Hydraulic   jacks,    etc 400 

Small    tools    1,000 

Camp     ' 1,000 

Total $17,000 

Accident.  The  shovel  had  been  set  up  and  was  ready  to  dig 
dirt  by  Saturday  night.  In  moving  it  into  position  over  ground 
made  soft  by  the  previous  month's  rains,  it  careened  to  one  side 
and  fell  over,  the  shovel  and  boom  resting  on  the  main  track. 
8  by  8  timbers  30  ft.  long  had  been  put  under  the  ties  to  stiffen 
the  track  but  a  rail  joint  broke  over  a  point  where  two  of  these 
timbers  butted  together. 

The  wrecking  crane  sent  by  the  railroad  not  being  powerful 
enough  to  lift  the  shovel  it  was  decided  to  place  two  "  deadmen  " 
or  anchors  in  the  ground  on  the  side  of  the  shovel  away  from 
the  main  line  track  and  pull  the  shovel  up  in  this  manner.  This 
was  done,  but  owing  to  the  soft  ground  the  first  "  deadmen  " 
pulled  out.  New  ones  were  sunk  much  deeper  and  ties  used  to 


400  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

brace  them.  A  line  was  hitched  around  the  boiler  of  the  shovel 
and  another  to  the  "  A  "  frame  and  heavy  triple  blocks  used  be- 
tween the  shovel  and  the  deadmen.  Then  two  locomotives  were 
hitched  to  each  of  the  lines,  and  started  off  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. The  shovel  was  thus  pulled  over  onto  its  wheels,  setting  in 
the  mud. 

About  midnight  rain  began  to  fall  and  this  retarded  the  work. 
By  5  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  track  was  repaired  and  tratlic 
was  resumed. 

On  Monday  began  the  work  of  repairing  the  shovel.  The  hy- 
draulic jacks  raised  the  car  high  enough  to  build  a  track  under  it. 
Several  gear  wheels  were  broken  on  the  boom  and  new  ones  were 
ordered  by  telegraph  and  put  in  place  when  they  arrived.  The 
dipper  arm  had  been  bent,  and  it  had  to  be  straightened.  All  of 
these  things  were  done  by  the  contractor's  own  forces  in  a  week, 
and  the  shovel  was  again  ready  to  go  to  work.  The  steel  house 
was  battered  up  somewhat,  but  a  handy  blacksmith  fixed  up  all 
but  the  corrugated  plates,  and  several  of  these  were  replaced  a 
few  months  afterwards. 

Cost  of  Repairs.  The  cost  of  the  repairs  was  about  $1,100.  Of 
this,  $325  ^was  for  new  parts  for  the  shovel.  The  railroad  com- 
pany's charges  were  $80  and  the  labor  charges  of  men  working 
on  the  shovel  and  waiting  to  go  to  work,  such  as  train  crews, 
amounted  to  $700.  This  included  office  men  and  all  general  ex- 
penses. This  labor  cost  has  been  included  in  with  the  two 
months'  work  that  is  being  described,  as  the  contractor  included 
it  in  with  his  regular  pay  roll  and  it  was  charged  against  the 
work  done  that  month.  The  repair  bill  and  the  railroad  com- 
pany's charge  have  not  been  included  in  with  the  costs  to  be 
given  below.  These  were  considered  charges  against  the  whole 
job.  The  total  cost  of  the  accident  charged  against  the  yardage 
moved  at  this  point  would  amount  to  less  than  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Methods  of  Working.  In  order  to  operate  the  contractor's 
trains  the  railroad  company  furnished  a  telegraph  operator,  but 
the  contractor  boarded  him  free  of  charge.  The  dirt  train 
operated  on  "  work  train  orders."  The  railroad  company  kept 
an  inspector  on  the  work,  and  with  the  company's  permission  the 
contractor  paid  him  a  salary  and  put  him  in  charge  of  the  dumps 
as  superintendent  of  dumps.  This  was  found  to  be  a  very  satis- 
factory arrangement. 

The  temporary  trestle  was  about  25  ft.  high.  It  was  built  of 
round  poles,  costing  3  ct.  per  ft.  delivered  on  the  ground.  The 
braces  used  were  3x8  in.,  and  the  stringers  were  12  x  12,  18  ft. 
long,  the  bays  of  the  trestle  being  16  ft.  long.  This  timber  (pine) 
cost  $10  per  M  ft.  B.  M.  The  trestle  was  erected  by  a  sub-con- 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       491 

tractor  for  $3  per  M.  This  gave  a  cost  for  the  temporary  trestle 
complete  of  1%  .ct.  for  each  cu.  yd.  dumped  from  the  trestle. 
Only  one-half  the  material  excavated  in  these  two  months  went 
to  this  trestle. 

Cost  of  Work.  Below  is  given  the  total  cost  of  the  two  months' 
work,  inch-ding  all  cost  to  the  contractor  except  the  expenses  in- 
curred at  his  home  office.  With  a  large  number  of  jobs  going 
on  this  item  of  expense  would  be  small.  A  10-hr,  day  was 
worked.  The  following  prices  were  paid  for  supplies: 

Black  powder,   per  keg   $1.25 

Dynamite,    per  Ib 0.11 

Exploders  (average)    0.06 

Fuse,  per  100  ft I 0.45 

Caps,    per    100    0.60 

Coal  (run  of  mines) ,  per  ton   3.25 

The  total  cost  of  the  work  for  the  two  months  was: 


Office   and   Superintendence: 

Engineer   in   charge    

1  bookkeeper 

1  clerk     

1  telegraph  operator's  board   

1  night   watchman    

1  cook  and  1  flunky   

1  superintendent     

Oil  for  camp   


Loading: 
1  shovel    runner 
1  craneman 

1  fireman      

2  pitmen     

4  pitmen     


$    300.00 

130.00 

80.00 

30.00 

70.00 

130.00 

280.00 

14.00 

$1,034.00 


$    280.00 

180.00 

60.00 

132.50 

212.00 


Blasting: 

Steam  drill  and  drilling 
Powder   and   dynamite    . 

Exploders,    etc.     f-rJilV 

73    tons    coal     

Oil,  gear  shield,  etc 

Repairs  to  shovel 

' 


Hauling: 

2  locomotive    enginemen 
2  firemen 
2  conductors 
4  flagmen 

1  car    oiler    

200   tons    coal 

Engine  and  car  repairs 

Oil,  waste,  etc 

!i; 


•  n  nr?K<'  it!. -i- 


$  42.50 
52.00 
16.00 
237.25 
21.00 
15.00 

$1,248.25 


$    360.00 

160.00 

300.00 

212.00 

53.00 

650.00 

30.00 

50.00 

$1,823.00 


492  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Dumping: 

1  inspector $     80.00 

1  fireman     132.50 

12   men    636.00 

1  fireman     159.00 

20   men    1,060.00 

Temporary  trestle,  16,100  cu.  yd.  at  1%  ct 281.75 


$2,349.25 
Miscellaneous : 

1  blacksmith     $    169.00 

1  blacksmith  helper    53.00 

Extra  gang: 

1  foreman,  1  month  only   54.00 

10  men,  1  month  only   270.00 


$    546.00 

Total  labor  and  supplies  $7,000.00 

Interest  and  depreciation   1,080.00 

Grand   total    $8,080.50 

Interest  and  depreciation  does  not  include  repairs  and  is 
charged  at  the  rate  of  2%  per  month,  worked.  This  is  an  ample 
allowance. 

The  output  of  the  shovel  per  day  worked  was  nearly  700  cu. 
yd.,  but  for  the  full  number  of  working  days  in  the  two  months 
the  output  per  day  averaged  about  600  cu.  yd.  The  average 
cost  per  cu.  yd.,  including  both  earth  and  rock,  for  the  details 
of  the  work,  was: 

Office  and  superintendence   $0.033 

Loading     0.040 

Hauling    0.059 

Dumping     0.079 

Miscellaneous    0.018 

Interest  and  depreciation   0.035 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.264 

Where  earth  and  rock  are  moved  jointly  it  is  not  possible  to 
keep  the  actual  cost  of  each  class  of  excavation,  but  the  total 
cost  of  the  two  can  be  kept,  and  a  comparative  cost  with  the  con- 
tract price  for  the  earth  and  rock  can  be  calculated.  This  is  a 
cost  that  can  be  relied  upon. 

To  illustrate  the  comparative  cost  an  example  will  be  given. 
If  earth  is  being  excavated  for  35  ct  and  rock  for  75  ct.  and 
10,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  and  5,000  cu.  yd.  of  rock  are  excavated, 
and  there  is  made  a  profit  of  15%  on  the  work,  then  the  cost 
of  the  earth  excavation  will  be  85%  of  35  ct.  or  29%  ct.,  and  the 
cost  of  the  rock  excavation  will  be  85%  of  75  ct.,  or  63%  ct. 

Such  costs  on  this  work  figured  out,  there  being  a  profit  made 
of  nearly  20%,  gives  for  earth  the  following: 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       493 

Office  and  superintendence $0.032 

Loading     0.037 

Hauling    0.054 

Dumping     0.072 

Miscellaneous    0.017 

Interest   and   depreciation    0.033 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.245 

The  cost  of  the  rock  excavation  per  cu.  yd.  was: 

Office  and  superintendence   $0.085 

Loading     0.098 

Hauling     0.148 

Dumping     0.190 

Miscellaneous    0.046 

Interest   and   depreciation    0.089 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.656 

Cost  of  Excavating  Gravel  in  a  Canal.  Mr.  J.  B.  Brophy 
furnishes  the  following  data  to  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct. 
14,  1908.  The  work  was  done  at  the  canal  near  Trenton,  Ontario. 
The  material  was  a  gravel.  The  cutting  was  1(%  ft.  deep  and 
was  side  cutting,  the  material  being  loaded  into  cars  as  high  as 
the  machine  would  reach.  From  June  1  to  13  the  shovel  exca- 
vated 16,000  cu.  yd.,  the  average  haul  being  1,200  ft.  From 
June  15  to  30,  20,000  cu.  yd.  were  excavated,  the  average  haul 
being  1,400  ft.  This  makes  a  total  of  36,000  cu.  yd.  with  an 
average  haul  of  a  little  more  than  1,300  ft. 

The  outfit  used  on  the  work  consisted  of  the  following:  A 
65-ton  steam  shovel  with  a  2i£-cu.  yd.  dipper,  made  by  the 
Bucyrus  Steam  Shovel  Co.,  of  South  Milwaukee,  Wis.  Two  12- 
ton  Porter  dinkeys.  About  l^-mile  of  track  was  used  and  22 
dump  cars  of  4  cu.  yd.  capacity.  The  cost  of  this  outfit  was 
approximately  as  follows: 

65-ton  shovel   $  9,000 

2   (12-ton)   dinkeys   5,000 

22  (4-yd.)  dump  cars  at  $230  5,060 

16  tons  20-lb.  rails  at  $32   512 

1,000  ties  at  10  ct. 100 


Total    $19,672 

Estimating  2%  for  monthly  interest,  depreciation  and  repairs, 
gives  a  charge  per  month  of  about  $390. 

The  shovel  worked  12  hr.  per  day,  but  the  track  gang  and 
water  wagon  only  worked  10  hr.  per  day.  We  assume  the 
standard  wages  on  this  class  of  work,  which  are: 

Shovel    runner    $125  per  month 

•>;a*      Craneman    90  per  month 

Fireman    60  per  month 

Watchman    40  per  month 


494  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Dinkey  runners $3.00*per  day 

Brakemen     .... 2.00  per  day 

Foremen.    , 3.00  per  day 

Oiler '   1.75  per  day 

Laborers   1.50  per  day 

Water    boy    1.00  per  day 

Team   (with  driver)    5.00  per  day 

During  the   month   26   days   were  worked.     The   total   cost   of 
the  work  and  the  organization  of  the  forces  were: 

W  Loading: 

shovel   runner    $125.00 

craneman    90.00 

!    fireman 60.00 

'    pitmen     156.00 

team  hauling  water    180.00 

50  tons  coal  at  $5   250.00 

Oil,   waste,   etc 10.00 


Total  loading $871.00 


Hauling  :- 

2  Dinkey  runners $156.00 

2  brakemen    < 104.00 

1  oiler    45.50 

1  trackman 39.00 

60  tons  coal  at  $5  300.00 

Oil,   waste,   etc 16.00 

Total    hauling $660.50 

Dumping: 

1  foreman $  78.00 

16  laborers    624.00 

1  water    boy    26.00 


Total  dumping  $728.00 

Track  gang 

1  foreman     .„• $  78.00 

5  laborers     195,00 

1  superintendent 150.00 

1  timekeeper 65.00 

1  watchman     40.00 

Interest,   depreciation  and  repairs   (estimated)    .,  390.00 

Grand  total    ; $3,177.50 

The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  material  excavated  was: 

Superintendence $0.007 

Loading    0.024 

•  Hauling    0.018 

Dumping   0.020 

Track  work   0.008 

Interest,   depreciation  and  repairs   (estimated)    0.010 

Total  per  cu.  yd ..'.^.^1 $0^7 

"ilinnnr  vtij  •".;_]£ .  ...'^isfunn    l'»/od<J 

The   yardage   moved   in   one  shift   is  very   large   for   this   size 

shovel. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS     495 

A  High  Steam  Shovel  Output.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Aug.  25,  1909,  gives  the  following:  During  the  month  of  March, 
1909,  a  60-ton  shovel  moved  37,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  from  a 
very  wet  cut,  on  the  Carolina,  Clinchfield  &  Ohio  Ry.  The  quan- 
tity of  water  encountered  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  dinkey 
track  required  corduroying  with  two  layers  of  poles  for  its  en- 
tire length  of  12  ft.  on  each  lift.  This  same  shovel  also  moved 
35,000  cu.  yd.  in  January  and  25,000  cu.  yd.  in  February,  making 
a  total  of  97,000  cu.  yd.  for  three  winter  months.  This  fine  record 
is  due  in  part  to  the  excellent  organization  of  the  contractors  and 
their  skill  in  taking  advantage  of  every  opportunity  of  increasing 
the  output. 

As  a  comparative  cost  per  cu.  yd.  to  the  contractors  for  this 
shovel  during  the  month  of  March,  actual  figures  as  obtained 
from  them  ar.e  given  below: 

March  Estimate,  37,000  cu.  yd.;  Working  Days,  24 

Labor $2,076.27 

Coal    480.00 

Supplies      25.00 

Repairs 95.00 

Oil  waste   50.00 

Depreciation     170.00 

Total     $2,896.27 

Cost  per   cu.   yd '. $0.08 

Plus   trestle 01 

Total    $0.09 

The  distributed  cost  is  as  follows: 

. 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Loading     *  1 V.'.  'Uv  JiTi .  Jj; '...... $0.028 

Hauling 0.018 

Dumping     0.019 

Trestle 0.010  ] 

Maintenance 0.015 

Total     -. $0.090 

This  material  was  handled  by  three  12-ton  dinkeys,  each  haul- 
ing nine  4-cu.  yd.  cars  and  side  dumped  from  a  65-ft.  fill. 

Engineering  Xews,  Apr.  21,  1910,  states  that  all  records  hitherto 
made  on  the  Panama  Canal  were  broken  by  Steam  Shovel  213 
working  in  the  Culebra  cut  on  March  22.  According  to  the 
Canal  Record  of  March  30,  this  shovel  excavated  in  eight  hours' 
working  time  4,823  cu.  yd.  of  rock  and  earth,  measured  in  place, 
and  loaded  235  Lidgerwood  cars.  The  shovel  was  actually  work- 
ing five  hours  and  twenty  minutes  of  the  time,  so  the  actual 
average  rate  of  work  was  15  cu.  yd.  per  min.  The  distribution 
of  time  for  the  eight  hours  was  as  follows: 


490  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Minutes 

Time  loading   320 

Moving  up  20  times,  5  minutes  each  100 

Waiting  for  cars   55 

Coaling   shovel 5 

The  cost  for  labor  for  running  the  shovel  on  this  day  was 
$30.21,  and  the  cost  for  supplies  was  $24.59,  making  a  total  ex- 
pense of  $54.80,  itemized  as  follows: 

Labor 

1  engineer,  one  day,   at  $7.56   $  7.56 

1  craneman,  one  day,  at  $6.48   6.48 

1  foreman,   one  day,    at  $2.83    2.83 

2  firemen,  one  day  each,  at  $1.67   3.34 

1  laborer,   8  hours,   at  13  ct 1.04 

7  laborers,  8  hours  each,  at  16  ct 8.96 


Total   labor    $30.21 

Supplies 

5%  tons  of  coal,  at  $4.41  $23.15 

3  gallons  of  car  oil,  at  18  ct 54 

2  gallons  of  valve  oil,  at  31  ct 62 

2  Ib.  of  cup  grease,  at  10  ct 20 

1  Ib.  gear  grease,  at  8  ct 08 

Total   supplies    $24.59 

Grand    total    $59.80 

. 

This  is  1.14  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Steam  Shovel  Work  on  the  Western  Maryland  Ry.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Apr.  26,  1911,  gives  the  cost  of  excavat- 
ing during  a  record  month  by  a  70-ton  Bucyrus  shovel,  one 
of  13  shovels  used  on  the  Cumberland-Connellsville  exten- 
sion 

The  plan  of  taking  out  the  cut  required  a  switch-back  in  order 
to  get  the  material  to  the  fill.  The  distance  from  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  cut  to  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  fill  was  1,600  ft. 
by  dinkey  track  measurement,  and  a  3.5%  grade  was  used  from 
the  mouth  of  the  cut,  to  a  point  of  switch-back,  a  distance  of 
950  ft.  A  passing  siding  open  at  both  ends,  of  sufficient  length 
to  hold  a  dinkey  and  12  dump  cars,  was  placed  about  mid-way 
of  the  switchback  and  as  soon  as  the  loaded  train  cleared  the  up- 
hill switch  the  empty  train  had  a  clear  right  of  way  to  the 
shovel. 

The  record  output  of  37,100  cu.  yd.  in  30  working  days  (one 
10-hr,  shift)  was  made  during  the  month  of  March,  1911. 

The  grade  left  by  the  shovel  in  making  each  cut  was  always 
in  a  uniform  condition  for  moving  the  shovel  back  for  a  new 
cut  and  when  the  dinkey  track  was  thrown,  it  required  very  little 
surfacing  to  put  it  in  order.  A  gang  of  1  foreman  and  4  men 
maintained  the  track  and  kept  it  in  such  good  condition  that 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      497 

it  was  possible  for  a  16-ton  dinkey  to  haul  twelve  4-cu.  yd.  cars 
at  a  high  speed. 

•A  dump  gang  of  1  foreman  and  8  men  was  able  to  take  care  of 
the  material  as  it  came  to  the  fill  and  at  the  same  time  keep 
the  dump  in  good  shape.  In  beginning  the  fill  (that  is  when 
the  material  was  dumped  from  the  trestle),  planks  were  ex- 
tended from  each  side  in  order  to  hold  a  foot  walk  for  the  men, 
so  the  entire  train  could  be  dumped  from  the  trestle.  In 
doing  this  there  was  always  enough  material  deposited  on  the 
bottom  sills  of  the  trestle  bents  to  prevent  the  main  fill  from 
pushing  the  trestle  down. 

The  method  of  raising  the  fill  from  the  trestle  (which  is  below 
grade)  to  a  height  to  allow  for  shrinkage,  is  novel.  As  the 
trestle  on  side  hill  work  is  always  placed  on  the  up-hill  side 
of  the  center  line,  by  elevating  the  down-hill  rail,  it  prevents 

Allowance 
/'"    for  Shrinkage 
A^ , ^B 

voSf, 

rfcr 

!  '•  fimsned '  Roodb 
of  term  i  Settles 

Fig.  50.     Section  of  Fill. 

the  cars  from  being  overturned  in  dumping  (requiring  very 
little  chaining,  only  when  the  cars  are  loaded  with  heavy  boul- 
ders) and  at  the  same  time  the  dump  is  being  raised  to  the 
proper  height,  C  to  B,  at  the  required  width  of  roadbed  on  the 
lower  side,  as  shown  by  Fig.  50 ;  the  fill  is  then  made  from 
B  to  A. 

For  the  first  15  days  the  shovel  was  working  in  a  hard  sand- 
stone ledge  about  12  ft.  thick,  and,  in  shooting,  the  material 
broke  in  large  boulders  which  required  considerable  chaining.  A 
total  of  16,000  cu.  yd.  were  moved  during  this  time.  During  the 
latter  15  days  the  shovel  was  working  in  black  shale  and  moved 
21,100  cu.  yd. 

There  were  five  moves  during  the  month,  a  distance  of  500  ft. 
each  time.  There  was  an  average  loss  of  1  hr.  each  day  during 
the  month  in  shifting  track  on  the  dump.  The  total  number 
of  cars  for  the  30  days  were  12,443.  The  largest  day's  run  was 
836  cars,  the  average  number  of  cars  per  day  was  415,  and  the 
average  yardage  per  car  was  2.98  cu.  yd. 

The  cost  of  the  work,  37,100  cu.  yd.  for  the  month,  was  as 
follows : 


40s  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Total  expense  of  the  shovel,  including  superintend- 
ent, walking  boss,  shovel  and  dinkey  crews  and 

all  other  labor    $3,623.00 

Explosives     302.00 

Trestle     229.00 

Coal     235.00 

Oil  and  waste   32.00 

Water     112.00 

Interest  on   plant    110.00 

Depreciation     460.00 

Total $5,103.00  $0.13% 

The  equipment  comprised  one  70-ton  Bucyrus  shovel,  two  16-ton 
Vulcan  dinkey  engines,  24  4-cu.  yd.  Western  dump  cars,  54  tons 
60-lb.  rail  and  one  Cyclone  well  drill. 

Excavation  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Ry. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  28,  1900,  gives  the  following: 
On  the  construction  work  of  the  C.  M.  &  St.  P.  coast  extension 
there  were  many  large  fills.  From  one  steam  shovel  pit,  the 
Newcomb,  some  250,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  was  taken. 

The  following  tabulated  statement  shows  the  data  of  and  cost 
of  operations  at  this  pit  for  the  month  of  Mar.,  1000:  — 

Shovel  —  Bucyrus  No.  453,  2^-yd.  dipper,  65-ton. 
Engines  —  Prairie  type,  3  in  use,   tractive  power,  33,300  Ib. 
Cars  —  Western  dump,  average  load  12.6  yd. 
Trains  —  1  engine  handling  13  loads,   and  caboose  per  train. 
Yardage,   68,000  cu.  yd.,   handled  in  27  working  days,   10  hours  each. 
Yard  miles,  308,780. 

Average  haul,  4.54  miles.  Rate  of  ascending  grade  against  loads,  88  ft. 
per  mile. 

->-ff---r  _  _      :i.!f';Vj:f;b     ui     f»  'M'fjfi- 

Labor  Loading: 

Steam  shovel  pay  roll   $1,815.64 

Section    labor 99.94 


Total  labor $1,915.58 


Work  train  service: 

Conductors,  95.8  days  at  $3.68   $    352.54 

Brakemen.   191.6  days  at  $J.53    484.75 

Engineers,   95.8  days   at  $4.40    421.52 

Firemen,  95.8  days  at  $2.95 '282.61 

768  tons  of  coal  at  $4  3,072.00 

1,916,000    gal.    water    (255,466    cu.    ft.    at    .07    per    100 

cu.    ft.)     '178.83 

95.8  engine  days  for  supplies  at  $0.32   

81.0  engine  days  for  depreciation  at  $2.03   164.43 

81.0  engine  days  for  repairs  at  $3   243.00 

81.0  engine  days  for  interest  at  $2.03   164.43 

Total &394.T7 

Coal  Used  by  Steam  Shovel: 

172.8  tons  coal  at  $4   $    691.20 

Total     .                  $8,001.55 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       499 

Less  Comp.  Credits  (Profits) 
Boarding    comp  .......................................     $    174.27 

Commissary    ...........................................  15.74 

Total    credits    [?$.£&&£  ....................    $    190.01 


Total  cost,  net   ................................     $7,811.54 

The  cost  was,  therefore,  11.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  68,000  cu.  yd. 
handled  during  the  month. 

Excavation  on  the  North  Shore  Channel,  Chicago.  Sections 
Nos.  4  and  5  of  the  North  Shore  Channel  of  the  sanitary  district 
of  Chicago  were  contracted  to  James  0.  Hayworth.  The  work 
of  drag  line  machines  on  these  sections  was  described  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  April  27,  1910. 

The  top  10  ft.  consisted  of  a  clay  which  could  readily  be  dumped 
from  dump  cars,  but  below  this  the  clay  was  heavy  and  tenacious 
and  came  in  large  lumps.  It  was  excavated  by  a  70-ton  Vulcan 
steam  shovel  with  a  3-cu.  yd.  dipper.  The  steam  shovel  loaded 
into  Western  3-cu.  yd.  dump  cars  which  were  handled  by  Daven- 
port locomotives  out  of  the  cut  and  onto  the  crib  piers  behind. 
which  the  spoil  was  dumped. 

These  cars  were  dumped  in  the  usual  way  until  the  sticky  clay 
noted  above  was  met,  then  they  would  not  dump  properly.  A  der- 
rick was  then  arranged  to  do  the  dumping.  A  sling  was  devised 
which  would  hook  into  and  lift  the  car  body  from  the  trucks  and 
by  winding  up  on  the  engine  would  tilt  the  body  and  empty  it. 

The  cost  of  excavation,  as  kept  by  the  engineers,  was  as  fol- 
lows for  1908,  when  194,280  cu.  yd.  were  excavated:  An  8-hr. 
day  was  worked  and  wages  paid  were  as  follows: 

Men  in  dump  per  day  ...................................     $1.50 

Men  around  shovel  per  day   .............................      1.75 

Steam  shovel  enginemen  per  month   ...............  $125  to  $150 

Steam  shovel  cranemen  per  month    .......................      90 

The  value  of  the  excavating  plant  used  was  $16,035,  and  the 
assumed  depreciation  chargeable  to  Section  1  was  $16,035  X 
50%  =  $8,017. 

The  total  amount  expended  on  excavation  (194,280  cu.  yd.)  'in 
1908  was  as  follows: 

Materials:  \  '»'  •  Total 

Operation    .....................  .  .....................     $8,639 

Repairs   and   plant    .................................        7,156 


Totals      $15,795 

Per  cu.  yd $0.081 

Labor : 

Operation     $32,241 

Repairs   and  plant    3,295 


Totals $35,536 


500 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Per  cu.  yd  ..........................................      $0.182 

Grand  totals    ....................................     $51,331 

Per  cu.  yd  ..........................................      $0'.264 


The  items  making  up  these  totals  were  as  follows: 


Materials  : 


Operation        Rep.  &  Pint. 


Shovel 

Dinkeys 

Track 

Dump 

Cars 

Coal 

Office 

Insurance 

General 

Totals 


$1,208 

753 

0 

259 

216 

6,066 

0 

0 

136 

$8,638 


Labor  : 

Shovel    .................  $8,728 

Dinkeys     ...............  5,876 

Track    ..................  5,951 

Dump     .................  9,146 


Cars 

Coal 

Office 

Insurance 

General 


34 

585 
0 

606 
1,315 


Totals     $32,241 


$1,502 

1,148 

2,222 

0 

1,863 
0 

360 
0 
61 

$7,156 


$    820 

359 

0 

0 

1,975 

0 

8 

0 

103 

$3,295 


Total 

$2,710 

1,901 

2,222 

259 

2,079 

6,006 

360 

0 

197 

$15,795 


$  9,548 

6,265 

5,951 

9,146 

2,009 

585 

8 

606 
1,418 

$35,536 


The  costs  of  operation  in  excavation  were  distributed  as  fol- 
lows per  cu.  yd. : 

Steam  Shovel: 

Labor $0.0450 

Coal    0.0172 

Supplies     0.0062 

General 0.0034 


Total    $0.0718 


Transportation : 

Labor    

Coal    

Supplies     . . . 
General    


$0.0310 
0.0171 
0.0051 
0.0009 


Total    $0.0541 


Track : 

Labor 

General   and   supplies 


$0.0314 
0.0009 


Total    $0.0323 

Dump: 

Labor    $0.0478 

Supplies 0.0012 

General     0.0023 

Total    $0.0513 

Grand  total  


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      501 

Steam  Shovel: 

Labor $0.0021 

Materials     0.0035 

General 0.0004 

Total    $0.0063 

Transportation : 

Labor     $0.0061 

Material     , 0.0077 

General    .  0.0004 


Total    $0.0142 

Track : 

Materials $0.0057 

General     '. .  0.0004 


Total    $0.0061 

Grand  total   $0.0266 

In  figuring  the  net  costs  of  repairs  and  plant  charges  the  total 
estimated  amount  of  excavation  on  the  section,  or  390,000  cu.  yd. 
lias  been  used  as  the  divisor.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  re- 
pair and  plant  charges  itemized  were  all  that  were  necessary  to 
put  the  plant  in  shape  to  complete  the  work.  Summarizing 
we  have: 

Operation    *.  •. $0.209 

Repair  and  plant  charges  0.027 

Depreciation   on  plant    0.021 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.257 

Yearly  Average  Outputs  on  the  Hill  View  Reservoir.  The 
yearly  output  of  steam  shovels  in  building  the  earth  embankment 
for  the  Hill  View  Reservoir,  New  York  City,  is  given  by  Arthur 
Tidd,  in  Engineering  Xews,  Sept.  9,  1915.  The  formation  was  of 
very  hard  packed,  dense,  glacial  drift,  containing  many  stones  and 
boulders  but  no  ledge  rock.  The  material  was  well  graded  from 
a  coarse  sand  down  to  a  very  fine  rock  flour,  and  was  a  most 
excellent  one  for  a  reservoir  embankment. 

All  the  material  was  excavated  by  steam  shovels,  and  about 
1(V/(  sent  out  on  trains.  As  long  as  the  complete  steam  shovel 
plant  could  be  operated  (that  is  until  the  bank  became  so  nar- 
row on  top  that  the  dumping  area  was  restricted)  the  material 
was  taken  out  of  the  basin  by  two  tracks,  one  at  the  north  and 
one  at  the  south  end,  using  pushing  engines  when  the  grade  re- 
quired them.  Both  lines  were  relocated  and  regraded  several 
times  as  the  banks  rose.  The  steam  shovels  used  for  the  bulk 
of  the  excavation  were  four  heavy  70-ton  shovels,  and  four  light 
30-ton  shovels.  The  large  shovels  worked  in  the  heavy  cuts, 
taking  the  full  depth  (40  ft.  at  the  deepest  point)  at  one  time. 


502  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

These  cuts  were,  however,  shot  ahead  of  the  shovel  with  black 
powder.  The  small  shovels  took  the  lighter  cuts,  and  in  a  few 
cases  ran  through  in  two  lifts.  The  material  was  handled  in 
4-yd.  side-dumping  cars  in  10-car  trains  by  10-  to  15-ton  loco- 
motives running  on  3-ft.  gage  track  laid  with  65-  to  70-lb. 
rails. 

A  large  number  of  boulders  of  all  sizes  up  to  1  yd.,  and  in 
some  cases  2  or  3  yd.  in  volume,  were  encountered  everywhere 
throughout  the  cuts,  and  their  handling  became  an  important 
factor  in  the  general  excavation  problem.  Many  boulders  were 
saved  for  future  use  in  paving,  riprap  or  for  crushed  stone,  but 
the  accumulation  interfered  so  much  with  succeeding  excavation 
operations  that  the  following  seasons  as  many  as  possible  were 
sent  out  onto  the  bank.  A  large  force  using  a  portable  gasoline 
air-compressor  for  drilling  was  employed  continuously  breaking 
up  boulders.  Winter  work  helped  somewhat,  but  the  problem 
was  an  ever  present  and  troublesome  one. 

Although  monthly  outputs  ranging  from  20,000  to  24,000  cu. 
yd.  per  70-ton  shovel  were  not  uncommon  in  the  early  part  of 
the  work,  the  best  year  output  was  190,000  cu.  yd.,  and  the 
average  yearly  output  for  each  of  two  shovels  for  five  years  was 
120,000  cu.  yd.  The  shovels^ere  in  use  practically  all  the  time. 
The  length  of  working  day  was  8  hr.,  and  one  shift  daily  was 
worked.  The  average  yearly  output  for  each  of  three  30-ton 
shovels  was  49,000  cu.  yd.,  or  about  40%  as  much  as  with  the 
70-ton  shovels. 

A  Good  Steam  Shovel  Record.  The  Excavating  Engineer,  Oct., 
1915,  states  that  a  3-yd.,  70-ton  Bucyrus  Steam  Shovel,  working 
in  hard-packed  sand  with  loam  and  gravel,  at  Providence,  R.  L, 
averaged  2,816  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day  for  12.5  days,  loading 
into  4-yd.  cars.  The  face  averaged  about  12  ft.  high.  The  ma- 
terial was  hauled  in  three  trains,  of  fourteen  4-yd.  cars  each,  by 
20-ton,  36-in.  gage,  locomotives,  an  average  distance  of  about 
i/8  mile.  During  the  12.5  days  about  0.5  day  was  lost  the  first 
day,  and  two  other  days  were  devoted  to  moving  back  to  a  new 
cut. 

Records  on  a  Large  Cut  for  Track  Depression.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  June  28,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

A  900,000-cu.  yd.  cut,  which  eliminates  39  crossings  at  grade 
was  made  in  Minneapolis,  Minn.  In  this  work  the  tracks  were 
lowered  to  give  a  clearance  under  bridges  of  18%  ft.;  this  neces- 
sitated a  cut  averaging  22  ft.  in  depth.  The  work  was  done  by 
the  operating  department  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul 
R.  R.  with  company  forces. 

The  total   depth  of  the  cut  was  made   in  from  5   to  7   cuts, 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      503 

depending  upon  the  depth  carried.  These  cuts  were  generally 
carried  for  a  stretch  of  about  eight  blocks  at  a  time.  The  usual 
method  of  procedure  was  to  use  one  track  as  a  loading  track 
while  the  shovel  was  making  as  deep  a  cut  as  possible  to  one 
side.  This  usually  averaged  about  8  ft.  When  this  cut  was 
completed  to  the  required  distance,  a  new  track  was  laid  here 
and  used  as  a  loading  track  while  the  shovel  was  shifted  to  the 
other  side. 

The  shovel  used  was  a  65-ton  Bucyrus  equipped  with  a  2^-yd. 
dipper.  This  shovel  was  shipped  from  the  manufacturer's  shops 
in  the  spring  of  1907  and  has  been  in  steady  service  for  the  past 
eight  years.  Three  dirt  trains  were  used,  consisting  of  25  ( 12-yd. ) 
Western  air  dump  cars.  Each  train  was  hauled  by  a  class  C-2 
(2-8-0)  locomotive. 

Below  is  a  statement,  prepared  by  J.  G.  Wetherell,  assistant 
engineer,  who  was  in  direct  charge  of  the  work,  for  the  operating 
department,  for  shovel  operation  from  April  19  to  July  23. 

Total  amount  of  excavation  for  season,  cu.  yd 195,908 

Total  number  of  days  shovt'l  worked  82 

Number  of  cuts  shovel  made   8 

Total  distance  shovel  excavated   (total  length  of  cuts),  ft 16,076 

Average  distance  excavated  per  day  shovel  worked,  ft 196 

Average  number  of  hours  shovel  worked  per  day,  hr 8.80 

Total  number  of  cars  loaded  17,107 

Average  number  of  cars  loaded  per  day  208.6 

Average  number  of  cu.  yd.  per  car,  cu.  yd 11.46 

Average  number  of  cu.  yd.  excavated  per  day  2,389.1 

Average  distance  excavated  material  hauled,  miles   5.28 

Greatest  excavation  for  1  month   (June),  cu.  yd 72,934 

Average  daily  excavation  for  June,  cu.  yd 2,805 

Delays  amounted  to  12%  of  the  total  time,   distributed  as  follows:  3.4%, 

moving  shovel  from   one  cut  to  next;   5.3%,   no  cars,   due  to  trouble  at  the 

dump  or  to  main  line  being  used  for  other  purposes ;  1.3%,  rain ;  0.2%, 
shovel  breakdowns;  0.8%,  derailments  in  cut;  1.0%,  miscellaneous. 

Stripping  in  the  Anthracite  Coal  Region.  The  following  is 
from  a  paper  by  J.  B.  Warringer  in  the  Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  as 
abstracted  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  17,  1917.  The 
work  is  stripping  earth  overlying  coal  in  Pennsylvania. 

The  equipment  required  for  a  one-shovel  operation  is  about  as 
follows : 

1  70-ton  shovel.  1  steam  .drill. 

3  18-ton  locomotives.  1  water  tank. 

20  5-yd.   dump   cars.  1  boiler. 

1  star  drill.  1  blacksmith  shop. 

Necessary  rails,  sills,  pipe  lines,  tools,  etc. 

The  total  capital  outlay  for  such  an  outfit  is  approximately 
$30,000. 

The  average  force  required  to  operate  a  one-shovel  stripping 
consists  of  about  35  men,  roughly  as  follows: 


504 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


1  foreman. 

1  shovel  engineman. 

1  craneman. 

1  fireman. 

1  watchman. 

2  laborers. 
4  jackmen. 

3  locomotive  enginemen. 
1  dump   boss. 


6  dumpmen. 

1  track  boss. 

2  trackmen. 

2  drillers,    8    helpers. 
1  boiler   fireman. 

1  blacksmith  and  helper. 

2  coal  diggers.  . 
1  driver. 

1  switchboy. 


The  wages  paid  these  men  amount  to  $2,100  per  month.  The 
shovel  engineman  is  paid  $140  a  month,  the  craneman  $95;  loco- 
motive engineman  $0.25  per  hr.  These  rates  are  all  subject,  how- 
ever, to  the  recent  increases  granted  the  mine  workers,  ranging 
from  7  to  15%. 

The  method  of  opening  a  stripping  with  either  a  Bucyrus 
70-ton  shovel  or  a  Marion  60-ton  shovel,  which  are  the  two 


Fig.  51.     Method  of  Opening  a  Stripping. 

types  most  widely  used  in  anthracite  stripping  work,  is  as  fol- 
lows (Fig.  51)  :  For  the  first  cut  the  track  is  laid  on  the  sur- 
face along  one  limit  of  the  stripping,  usually  the1  bottom  rock 
side,  and  the  shovel  cuts  down  grade  alongside  the  track  until 
a  depth  of  0  ft.  is  reached,  this  being  the  maximum  cut  that  the 
shovel  can  take  and  load  overhead.  When  the  first  cut  is  com- 
pleted for  the  length  of  the  stripping,  the  track  is  laid  in  this 
cut  and  the  shovel  again  cuts  down  grade  until  a  depth  of  9  ft. 
below  the  first  cut  is  reached.  The  shovel  then  continues  cut- 
ting toward  the  other  limit,  the  additional  depth  being  de- 
termined by  the  depth  of  surface  over  the  vein  up  to  30  ft., 
which  is  considered  the  proper  maximum  height  for  a  clay  cut. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       505 

In  working  by  the  above  method,  it  is  necessary  to  leave  a 
bench  at  least  13  ftv  in  width  for  the  laying  of  the  track.  Local 
conditions,  as  a  rule,  render  it  impossible  to  maintain  any  such 
plan  for  the  entire  life  of  a  stripping. 

The  first  cut  as  described  above  is  always  the  first  made  in  a 
stripping  except  in  the  case  of  what  is  known  as  a  side-hill 
stripping.  Here  the  track  is  laid  on  the  surface  and  the  shovel 
started  at  an  elevation  that  will  give  the  required  cut  at  the 
vertical  limit. 

Rock  cuts  are  usually  made  from  22  to  25  ft.  in  height. 

The  tracks  to  the  dump  are  always  on  an  ascending  grade  of 
1%,  but  usually  higher.  Four  per  cent  is  common,  and  grades 
as  high  as  7%  have  been  used.  The  grade  of  the  tracks  in  the 
stripping  pit  is  governed  by  the  necessary  rise  in  elevation  to 
reach  the  dump.  The  locomotives  used  vary  in  size  up  to  20  tons, 
the  latter  being  about  the  heaviest  type  that  can  be  used  safely 
on  a  dump  of  any  height.  A  20-ton  locomotive  will  push: 

10  4%  cu.  yd.  cars  on  a  1%  grade. 
8  4%  cu.  yd.  cars  on  a  3%  grade. 
6  4%  cu.  yd.  cars  on  a  4%  grade. 

The  general  and  best  practice  for  stripping  tracks  is  to  use 
GO-lb.  rails  and  nothing  under  a  No.  6  frog.  Curves  should  be 
kept  to  under  10°,  but  20  to  25°  curves  are  used,  especially  in 
forming  a  dump. 

Dumps  are  made  of  all  heights  and  sizes.  There  is  less  main- 
tenance cost  with  heights  of  about  25  ft.,  as  higher  dumps  tend 
to  settle  and  slip  in  wet  weather. 

The  cars  most  widely  used  are  side-dump  cars  having  capacities 
of  4,  4X£  and  514  cu.  yd.  Some  8  and  10-cu.  yd.  cars  have  been 
used  with  success. 

Under  proper  conditions  outputs  as  high  as-  30,000  cu.  yd. 
per  month  have  been  obtained  for  one  shovel  in  clay.  The  aver- 
age is  about  18,000  cu.  yd.  per  month  in  clay,  varying  consider- 
ably according  to  season  as  shown  in  Fig.  52. 

Hoisting  Planes.  If  the  stripping  is  not  too  deep,  all  the  ex- 
cavated material  can  be  removed  by  locomotives.  In  many  cases, 
however,  this  is  not  feasible,  and  hoisting  planes  must  be  re- 
sorted to.  Practically  without  exception,  even  in  the  largest 
operations,  these  are  single-track  planes  operated  by  small  sec- 
ond-motion hoisting  engines  with  a  capacity  of  about  150  dump 
cars  per  day,  or  about  the  output  from  one  shovel.  The  prac- 
tical problem  involved  in  putting  these  planes  down  along  the 
steep  sides  of  the  average  pit  is  often  a  serious  one.  Some  of  the 
planes  are  anchored  on  a  slope  of  50  to  60°  pitch  by  bars  sunk 
into  the  solid  rock  to  which  the  roadbed  is  tied,  presenting  a 


506 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


very  interesting  sight.  While  nothing  can  be  said  against  these 
small  hoists  for  a  one-shovel  stripping,  it  is  undoubtedly  bad 
practice  to  use  them  in  the  larger  operations  employing  two  or 
more  shovels.  There  are  practically  none  of  these  that  cannot 
be  laid  out  so  that  the  output  from  two  shovels  can  be  brought 
to  the  foot  of  one  plane,  and  this  plane  should  be  equipped  with 
a  hoist  capable  of  handling  with  ease  300  and  more  cars  per 
day.  This  plane  can  be  either  single  track  or  double  track,  but 
the  grade  should  be  maintained  at  about  20°,  which  is  the  average 
for  the  single  track  planes  now  in  use. 


98.000 

K.OOO 

f 

80  000 

\ 

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^ 

k^ 

78.000 

/ 

\  

^ 

\ 

78.000 

f 

\ 

/ 

^ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

TJ  70*000 

\ 

f 

\ 

/ 

3  68*000 

--  -"**"* 

y 

t 

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\ 

9  «frzi 

\ 

s 

\ 

_  ... 

s 

•»»^ 

s 

V 

50.000 
48  000 

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£- 

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1  E? 

£• 

46.000 

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3- 

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42,000 

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g 

0 

s 

3 

s 

Fig.    52.     Stripping   Operations    of   One    Company   Averaged   by 
Months  Over  a  Period  of  4  Years. 

.Some  figures  have  been  worked  up  showing  a  comparison  of 
cost  of  the  two  varieties  of  planes,  taking  a  double  track  plane 
handling  only  the  Output  of  two  shovels  which  would  allow  the 
greatest  advantage  of  comparison  possible  to  the  small  hoist. 
The  first  cost  of  the  small  hoist  job  is  very  lo\\r,  as  the  hoist 
itself  is  usually  picked  up  second  hand  around  the  collieries.  It 
would  be  something  as  follows  for  a  300-f t.  length  of  plane : 


Hoist     

Tracks,   track  material,  rope,  etc. 
Grading  for  hoist  and  plane  


Total    ... 


%    500 

700 
1,000 

$2,200 


For  the  double  track  plane  with  the  larger  hoist  the   figures 
would  be: 

Tracks,   track  material,  rope,   etc $1,100 

Hoist 5,000 

Hoist  house,  pipe  line,  etc 800 

Grading  for  hoist  and  plane  3  000 

Total    $9,900 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      507 

To  operate  the  single-track  plane  two  top-men,  two  bottom-men, 
one  locomotive  engineman,  one  hoist  engineman,  four  men  and  a 
boss  on  the  dump,  are  required,  while  the  double-track  plane  would 
require  three  top-men,  three  bottom-men,  two  locomotive  engine- 
men,  one  hoisting  engineman  and  seven  men  and  one  boss  on  the 
bank. 

The  comparative  cost  would  be  as  follows: 

Single  track  Double  track 

Labor  per  day   $17.88  $26.21 

Power    4.30  6.48 

Interest  and  depreciation,  15%   1.00  4.00 

$23.18  $36.69 

Figuring  150  cars  for  the  single-track  plane,  the  operating 
cost  per  car  would  be  $0.155  and  at  300  cars  for  the  double-track 
plane  $0.122  or  a  difference  of  $0.033  per  car. 

The  location  of  the  limits  for  a  stripping  are  set  on  a  line 
where  the  normal  slope  of  the  overburden  figured  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  final  cut  intersects  the  surface.  Naturally  a  shovel  - 
cannot  cut  to  any  such  slope  and  must  accomplish  the  same  re- 
sult by  a  series  of  steps.  The  normal  slope  that  earth  of  a  clayey 
nature  will  take  is  about  1  to  1.  Sandy  ground  requires  1^  to 
1  or  even  2  to  1,  while  rock  can  be  cut  nearly  vertically  if  the 
height  of  bank  does  not  exceed  one  shovel  cut.  For  greater 
depths,  y2  to  1  must  be  allowed  or  even  1  to  1  if  the  rock  is  of  a 
shaley  nature.  The  importance  of  having  the  foot  of  the  strip- 
ping slope  well  back  from  the  bottom  rock  of  the  coal,  to  prevent 
the  washing  of  overburden  into  the  exposed  vein  by  rains,  is  very 
great.  The  standard  width  for  this  ledge  or  berm  is  10  to 
15  ft. 

Prices  of  Non-Revolving  Traction  Shovels.  For  low  bank 
work  in  average  earth,  where  the  amount  to  be  excavated  is 
small,  20  to  35-ton  shovels,  usually  fitted  with  traction  wheels, 
but  which  can  be  arranged  with  railroad  trucks,  cost  as  follows, 
prior  to  the  war: 

Shipping  Dipper                          Clear  height  of  lift 

Weight  Capacity  Traction  wheels          R.  R.  trucks  Price 

22  tons  %  cu.  yd.                      12'  2"                  -       13'  2"  $4,750 

32  tons  1%  cu.  yd.                      12'  8"                         13'  8"  5.600 

Shovels  of  small  size  usually  have  vertical  boilers. 

A  35-ton  shovel,  with  a  very  high  crane  which  increases  the 
width  of  cut  about  7  ft.  and  the  height  of  lift  about  6  ft.,  costs 
$5,800.  These  are  regularly  equipped  with  a  1^4-yd.  dipper. 

Shoveling  Soft  Shale.  On  the  P.  C.  &  W.  R/ R.  in  Ohio,  a 
35-ton  Vulcan  traction  shovel  was  employed  in  loading  blasted 


508 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


shale  into  dump  cars,  at  the  time  the  author  was  on  the  work  in 
1903. 

The  material  was  drilled  with  hand  churn  drills,  holes  being 
15-ft.  deep.  Each  hole  was  chambered  with  1^  sticks  of  dyna- 
mite and  exploded  with  75  Ib.  of  black  powder.  About  4  holes  per 
day  were  fired. 

The  shovel  had  a  1^-yd.  dipper.  Six  3-yd.  dump  cars  were 
loaded  in  11  min.  Only  one  train  was  used,  the  shovel  waiting 


Fig.  53.     Non-Revolving  Traction  Shovel  with  2^4-cu.  yd.  Dipper. 

C  min.  while  the  train  was  hauled  800  ft.  to  the  dump  and  re- 
turned by  a  dinkey.  The  dumping  of  the  train,  one  car  at  a  time, 
through  the  trestle  occupied  3  min.  The  locomotive  therefore 
travelled  1,600  ft.  (going  empty  on  an  8  or  10%'  grade)  in  3 
min.,  or  at  the  rate  of  about  6  miles  per  hr.  Part  of  the  waiting 
time  is  occupied  by  the  shovel  in  moving,  each  4  ft.  move  requiring 
about  3  min. 

The  force  employed  was  as  follows: 


1  foreman 
1  shovel  runner 
1  craneman 
1  fireman 


1  locomotive  runner 


1  brakeman 
1  pumpman 
6  drillers 

1  blacksmith 

2  dumpmen 


The  shovel  consumed  28  bushels  of  coal  and  the  locomotive  7 
bushels  per  day.  (Note  —  A  bushel  of  coal  weighs  approximately 
75  Ib.) 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      509 

About  500  cu.  yd.  were  excavated  in  a  10-hr,  day. 

On  another  section  of  this  work  a  65-ton  shovel  was  operating 
at  a  disadvantage  because  only  one  train  of  6  cars  was  provided. 
The  train  was  loaded  in  5  min.,  but  10  min.  were  lost  while  wait- 
ing for  the  return  of  the  empty  cars. 

A  Steam  Shovel  Loading  Wagons.  The  following  is  given  by 
John  S.  Ely  in  Engineering  News,  July  14,  1904: 

A  45-ton  Bucyrus  steam  shovel  equipped  with  a  1%-yd.  dipper, 
working  in  soft  material,  excavated  a  cut  8  ft.  deep,  and  22  ft. 
wide.  Dump  wagons  were  loaded  with  one  dipperful  each.  The 


Fig.  54.     Marion  Model  250  Stripping  Shovel. 

speed  of  the  teams  ranged  from  160  to  180  ft.  per  min.  The  aver- 
age speed  being  167  ft.  the  haul  one  way  varied  from  1,250  to 
1,500  ft.  and  was  partly  up  hill  and  partly  down.  The  wagons 
were  dumped  without  stopping. 

On  one  occasion  when  the  haul  was  only  200  ft.,  6  wagons  kept 
the  shovel  busy.  From  2:40  to  2:44^  p.  M!,  4  wagons  were 
loaded,  then  the  shovel  moved  ahead  5  ft.  in  i£  min.  and  waited  2 
min.  for  a  wagon.  From  2:48  to  3:02  P.M.,  27  wagons  were 
loaded  and  then  the  shovel  moved  ahead  5  ft.  in  2  min.  From 
3:05  to  3:10  P.M.,  12  wagons  were  loaded.  Between  2:40  and 
3:10  the  first  wagons  made  2  round  trips.  In  the  above  run 
about  half  the  time  was  lost  waiting  for  wagons,  there  being 
26  wagons.  The  dipper  loaded  at  the  rate  of  3  wagons  per  min., 


510  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

but  allowing  10  min.  out  of  every  hour  for  moving  forward,  an 
average  of  2^  wagons  per  min.  should  have  been  maintained. 
This  gives  us  this  rule  for  obtaining  the  number  of  wagons  re- 
quired for  steam  shovel  work:  To  obtain  the  number  of  wagons 
multiply  the  haul  in  100-ft.  stations  by  3. 

The  cost  of  work  was  as  follows:  1  steam  shovel  runner  at 
$150  per  month,  or  60  ct.  per  hr.;  1  cranesman  at  $125  per  month, 
or  50  ct.  per  hr. ;  1  fireman  at  $50  per  month,  or  20  ct. 
per  hr.;  10  pitmen  at  15  ct.  each,  or  $1.50  per  hr.:  1%  tons  of 
coal  per  day  at  $2.20  per  ton,  or  33  ct.  per  hr. ;  incidentals  at 
about  10  ct.  per  hr.;  total,  $13.23  per  hr.  of  shovel  time.  Haul- 
ing cost  $6.00  per  day. 

On  the  day  the  record  was  kept  the  shovel  out-put  was  1,043 
wagon  loads,  the  best  day's  record  was  1,078  wagons  containing 
about  1%  cu.  yd.  each. 

Mr.  Ely  believes  the  output  should  be  150  wagons  or  180  cu.  yd. 
(place  measure)  per  hr. 

Large  Kevolving  Shovels.  The  largest  steam  shovels  built  are 
of  the  revolving  type.  Machines  weighing  360  tons  are  in  use, 
and  are  sufficiently  successful  to  make  it  seem  probable  that  the 
limit  in  size  is  not  yet  reached.  These  machines  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed for  stripping  the  over  burden  from  ore  and  coal. 

Fig.  55  and  the  following  table  of  specifications  give  an  idea 
of  the  possibilities  of  this  machine. 

TABLE  OP  SPECIFICATIONS  OF  MARION  COAL  STRIPPING 
STEAM  SHOVELS 

1%  to  1  Slope  of  Spoil  Bank 

MODEL  271 

5- Yd.  Dipper,  90-ft.  Boom 

A  C  C"  D  E  F 

40'  57'  57'  22%'  4'        ,  18%' 

42'  51%'  51%'  21%'  4'  17%' 

44'  40'  40'  21%'  4'  17%' 

46'  31'  31'  21%'  4'  17%' 

48'  20'  20'  21%'  4'  17%' 

The  dimensions  for  C,  D,  E,  and  F  in  the  above  tables  are  the  limit  for 
corresponding  depth  cover  or  over-burden  "  A,"  and  all  operations  must  be 
calculated  to  come  safely  within  them. 

For  depths  of  cover  or  over-burden  less  than  that  given  in  the  tables,  the 
dimensions  for  C,  D,  E,  and  F  would  remain  the  same  as  for  the  least  depth 
"  A,"  in  each  table. 

Thickness  of  coal  vein  has  no  effect  on  the  stripping  ability  of  these  ma- 
chines unless  conditions  other  than  those  above  considered  are  encountered. 

A  360-ton  steam  shovel  is  used  for  stripping  iron  ore  on  the 
Mesabi  Range  in  Minnesota.  It  is  equipped  with  6  to  8-cu.  yd. 
dipper  and  has  great  reach.  Fig.  56,  taken  from  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  July  17,  1918,  shows  a  cross-section  of  a  single  cut. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       511 

The  loading  track  was  laid  in  the  surface  of  the  ground  as 
shown  at  A,  and  on  this  particular  cross-section  the  great  shovel 
had  sufficient  reach  to  push  the  accumulated  spill  from  the  cars 
clear  of  the  further  rail  of  the  loading  track. 


Fig.  55.     Diagram  Showing  Eeach  of  Large  Stripping  Shovels. 

The  divisions  marked  from  1  to  10  show  the  cuts  that  would 
have  been  necessary  had  the  same  cross-section  been  removed  with 
a  Model  91  shovel  weighing  107  to  123  tons  and  having  a  2^ 
to  4-yd.  dipper,  and  the  loading  tracks  for  the  different  cuts  are 
lettered  from  A  to  H.  Track  A  is  the  loading  track  for  the  first 


k - -//»'«- J 

Fig.  56.     Cross-Section  of  Cut  Made  by  a  Model  300  Shovel  and 
Cuts  Required  to  Remove  Same  Area  with  Model  91  Shovel. 

cut,  track  B  for  the  second  cut,  track  C  for  the  third  and  fourth, 
and  so  on. 

Output  of  Large  Stripping  Shovel.  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Dec.  20,  1911,  describes  a  large  revolving  shovel  used  for 
stripping  24  ft.  of  over  burden  from  a  bed  of  coal  at  Mission- 
field,  111.  The  shovel  was  made  by  the  Marion  Steam  Shovel 
Co.  and  had  the  following  general  dimension's: 

Net  shipping   weight 135  tons. 

Approximate   working   weight    146  tons. 

Size  of  dipper,  cu.  yd 3l/2 

Length  of  boom  between  centers 65  ft. 

Height  of  dump  above  rail  (boom  at  45  deg.)...45  ft. 

Radius  of  cut  at  30-ft.  elevation  74  ft. 

Radius  of  cut  at  bottom  of  pit  55  ft. 

Center  of  dump  from  pivotal  center  66  ft. 

Radius  at  rear  end  of  cab  from  pivotal  center. 31  ft.  6  in. 


512  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Hoisting  engine   (double)    12  x  14  in. 

Swinging  engine    (double)    9x9  in. 

Crowding  engine   (double)    8x8  in. 

Boiler,    locomotive  type    , 60  in.  x  17  ft. 

Boiler  designed  for  pressure  of   150  Ib. 

Working  pressure  carried   125  Ib. 

The  machine  has  been  handling  1,600  cu.  yd.  per  8-hr,  shift, 
and  is  being  operated  by  men  who  have  learned  to  operate  it  in 
this  field.  For  several  days  the  machine  took  out  more  than 
2,000  yd.  per  day,  and  it  is  claimed  by  the  builders  that  after  the 
operators  become  expert  the  average  output  should  equal  this 
amount. 

As  to  expense,  the  machine  is  operated  by  1  engineman,  1  crane- 


Fig.    57. 


Longitudinal   Section   of   Revolving   150-Ton  Marion 
Steam  Shovel. 


man,  1  fireman,  1  oiler  or  roustabout,  2  track  men  and  1  water 
and  coal  man,  making  a  total  crew  of  7  men.  The  machine  is 
equipped  with  feed-water  heating  and  purifying  system,  which 
reduces  the  coal  consumption  very  materially  and  it  is  operated 
daily  on  about  2  tons  of  coal. 

Large  Revolving  Steam  Shovel  for  Canal  Construction.  Ac- 
cording to  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  1,  1914,  the  large 
size  revolving  steam  shovel,  frequently  used  in  coal  stripping 
work,  may  be  profitably  employed  in  certain  kinds  of  earth  ex- 
cavation. A  machine  of  this  type  was  used  in  connection  with  an 
inclined  tipple  in  excavating  Section  9  of  Calumet  Sag  Canal,  111. 
An  interesting  feature  of  this  plant  is  its  ability  to  excavate  the 
entire  prism  of  the  canal  at  one  cut  (except  the  solid  rock  at  the 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       513 

bottom)    and  place  the  material  in  the  spoil  bank  at  one  oper- 
ation. 

The  Calumet  Sag  Canal  at  this  point  had  a  bottom  width  of  36 
ft.,  a  depth  of  cut  of  36  ft.  and  slopes  of  2  horizontal  to  1  ver- 


Fig.    58.     Diagram    Showing    Arrangement    of    Revolving    Steam 
Shovel  and  Steel  Tipple  for  Canal  Excavation. 

tical,  thus  giving  a  top  width  of  180  ft.  There  were  about  6 
or  8  ft.  of  solid  limestone  in  the  bottom  of  the  cut,  the  remainder 
being  a  glacial  drift  consisting  of  sand,  gravel,  boulders  and 
clay. 

Fig.  58  shows  a  typical  cross-section  of  the  canal  prism  and 


Fig.  59.     Marion  Model  36  Revolving  Shovel. 

the  general  dimensions  of  the  shovel  and  tipple.  The  steam 
shovel  used  was  a  Marion  with  a  3^-cu.  yd.  dipper  and  a  75-ft. 
boom.  The  extreme  height  of  dump  was  53  ft.  above  rails;  ex- 
treme radius  of  dump  83  ft.;  and  the  radius  of  cut  at  34  ft. 


514 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


above  rails  was  88  ft.  The  working  weight  of  the  shovel  was  355,- 
000  Ib.  The  tipple  consisted  of  a  cantilever  incline  of  structural 
steel,  which  was  carried  by  two  parallel  standard  gage  tracks 
on  the  canal  berm  with  a  hinged  apron  extending  down  the  slope 
into  the  prism.  On  this  incline  were  two  standard  gage  tracks, 
which  carried  the  two  dump  cars  of  10-cu.  yd.  nominal  capacity. 
These  cars  were  operated  independently  of  each  other  by  a  double 
cylinder  double  drum  engine,  with  10^-  x  12-in.  cylinders.  A 
100-hp.  locomotive  boiler  furnished  steam  for  the  engine  at  125 
Ib.  pressure. 


Fig.  60.     American  Railroad  Ditcher  Mounted  on  M.  C.  B.  Trucks. 

The  method  of  operation  was  as  follows:  The  car  was  lowered 
into  the-  pit  on  the  inclined  apron  and  filled  with  two  loads  of 
the  3^-cn.  yd.  dipper,  then  hauled  to  the  top  of  the  incline  where 
it  ran  onto  a  steel  tipple  frame,  which  was  hinged  to  the  top  of 
the  incline  by  a  heavy  shaft.  The  car  was  securely  held  on  this 
frame  by  dogs  which  engage  automatically.  As  the  car  reached 
its  position  on  the  tipple  frame  it  released  a  latch  which  per- 
mitted the  frame  with  the  car  to  tip  outward,  thus  dumping  the 
load.  A  pendulum  counterweight,  attached  to  the  tail  of  the 
tipple  frame  by  a  wire  cable,  prevented  it  from  tipping  too  far, 
and  returned  it  to  its  normal  position  after  the  load  is  dumped. 
The  car  was  then  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the  incline  by  a  foot 
brake.  While  one  car  was  being  dumped  the  second  car  was  being 
loaded  by  the  shovel;  thus  there  were  no  delays  waiting  for 
cars. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      515 


The  complete  weight  of  the  tipple  with  cars,  engine,  boiler, 
fuel  and  counterweights  was  approximately  300,000  lb.,  but  as 
nearly  all  of  this  weight  was  carried  by  the  rear  truck,  which  is 
over  80  ft.  from  the  edge  of  the  slope,  no  trouble  was  experienced 
by  caving  of  banks  due  to  the  weight  of  the  machine. 

Railroad  Ditchers  or  Locomotive  Crane  Shovels.  These  are  lo- 
comotive cranes  with  a  shovel  boom  hinged  to  the  center  of  the 


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Actual  Working  Hours. 
Cost  of  Handling  Material  with  a  Double  Ditcher  Train. 


mast.  They  are  mounted  on  the  flat  cars  they"  load,  or  on  special 
trucks. 

Single  Track  Revolving  Shovels.  These  are  built  up  to  40  tons 
in  weight.  They  can  load  and  dump  at  any  angle  which  is  of 
advantage  in  loading  wagons  but  not  at  all  necessary  in  loading 
cars  on  a  parallel  siding.  For  this  reason  most  small  revolving 
shovels  are  built  with  traction  wheels. 

Cost  of  Handling  Material  with  Double  Ditcher  Train.  In 
Railway  Maintenance  Engineering  the  following  daily  cost  of 
operating  a  double  ditcher  train  is  given: 


516  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Two  operators  at  $125  per  month  $  9.60 

Two  firemen 3.00 

Interest  on  cars  and  ditchers  4.14 

Depreciation  on  cars  and  ditchers  4.78 

Oil,  waste,   etc 1.00 

Coal     5.00 

Locomotive  coal,  etc 15.00 

Train    crew    25.00 

Repairs     2.00 

Labor  at  $1.50  per  day  6.00 

$75.52 


Fig.  62.    Double  Ditcher  Train. 

Conditions.  Train  —  Four  air  dump  cars,  80  cu.  yd.  capacity, 
two  flat  cars,  one  water  car.  Speed  20  miles  per  hr.  Switch  — 
2  miles  to  run. 

Based  on  the  above  figures  and  conditions  the  curves  shown  in 
Fig  61  are  drawn. 

A  Revolving  Shovel  for  a  Brickyard.  Wm.  J.  Spear  gives  the 
following  relative  to  the  work  of  a  Vulcan  No.  1  revolving  steam 
shovel.  The  machine  weighed  28  tons  and  was  equipped  with  a 
%-yd.  dipper.  The  work  was  the  excavation  of  clay  for  brick 
manufacturing.  The  shovel  was  required  to  dig  only  80  cu.  yd. 
per  day.  For  this  outfit  only  one  man  operates  the  machine 
and  he  fires,  acts  as  engineer  and  trips  the  bucket  door.  The 
shovel  loaded  one  %-yd.  dump  car.  This  car  was  pulled  to  the 
brick-yard,  an  average  distance  of  700  ft.,  by  a  horse  driven  by 
a  boy.  The  shovel  loaded  a  second  car  while  the  first  was  being 
hauled  to  the  brick  yard.  The  shovel  worked  10  hr.  and  used 
000  Ib.  of  coal  per  day.  Water  was  furnished  for  the  shovel  from 
a  tank  that  supplied  the  brick  yard  at  a  cost  of  about  7  ct. 
per  day.  One  man  was  used  to  keep  the  track  in  condition  and 
to  clean  up  behind  the  shovel  and  around  the  cars.  The  total 
value  of  the  outfit  including  cars  was  a  little  over  $5,100  in 
1908. 

Small  Revolving  Shovels.  The  following  is  from  Dana's 
"  Handbook  of  Construction  Plant."  Revolving  steam  shovels  on 
traction  or  railroad  wheels  are  as  follows: 

Clear  height  of  lift 

Size          Shipping  Dipper  Traction  R.  R.  1914 

No.  Weight  Capacity  Wheels  Wheels  Price 

0  15  tons  %  cu.  yd.  8'  4"  9'  $3,750 

1  24  tons  %  cu.  yd.  10'  6"  11'  3"  5.000 

2  35  tons  1&  cu.  yd.  10'  6"  11'  6"  6,000 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      517 


518 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


A  No.  1  shovel  of  the  above  type  was  designed  for  general 
use  on  such  work  as  real  estate  development.  For  excavating 
small  sewers  about  3  ft.  wide  and  10  to  16  ft.  deep  a  very 
narrow  dipper  of  ^-cu.  yd.  capacity  and  a  dipper  handle  about 
30  ft.  long  are  used.  In  digging  deep  trenches  in  very  sandy 
soil  where  many  shifts  from  place  to  place  are  necessary,  and 
where  frequent  curves  are  encountered,  this  shovel  is  not  a  suc- 


Fig.  64.    Horizontal  Crowding  Motion  of  Erie  Shovel,  Made  by 
the  Ball  Engine  Co.,  Erie,  Pa. 

cess,  but  in  firm  earth  where  the  sewer  is  long  and  continuous  it 
is  very  efficient.  50  to  75  lin.  ft.  of  trench  4  ft.  wide  and  12  ft. 
deep  have  been  excavated  and  back-filled  in  8  hr.  by  a  machine  of 
this  type.  One  runner,  one  fireman,  and  two  helpers  form  the 
crew.  Platforms  16  ft.  long  of  12  x  12-in.  timbers  are  necessary 
for  the  shovel  to  run  on.  These  being  built  in  four  sections,  each 
4^  ft.  wide,  are  carried  forward  by  being  hooked  to  the  boom. 
For  excavating  cellars  the  shovel  has  a  standard  dipper  handle 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       519 

with  a  %-yd.  bank  dipper,  and  for  unloading  cars  or  erecting 
steel,  a  crane  boom  25  ft.  long  designed  for  use  with  a  %-cu.  yd. 
clam  shell  or  orange  peel  bucket,  or  a  chain  and  hook.  The  price 
in  1914  was: 

Shovel  with  %  cu.  yd.  dipper  and  30-ft  dipper  handle    $4,550 

Standard  dipper  handle  and  %  cu.  yd.  dipper  500 

Crane  boom  without  bucket  475 

A  revolving  shovel  with  a  horizontal  crowding  engine,  which 
enables  it  to  excavate  very  shallow  cuts  economically,  has  inde- 
pendent engines  for  hoisting,  swinging  and  crowding,  and  a  ver- 
tical boiler. 

Rated 

Shipping  wt.  Dipper  capacity 

Size              Wt.  equipped  capacity  1914  per  hr. 

No.            (Tons)        (Tons)  Mounting  (cu.  yd.)  price  (cu.  yd.) 

0  13                 15  Standard  %  $3,750  35—40 

1  26                30  Gauge  or  1                      5,500  50—60 
Special        20                20  Traction  %                  4,750  40—50 

A  Mired  Revolving  Traction  Shovel  Can  Lift  Itself  several 
inches  off  the  ground  so  that  planking  can  be  placed  under  the 
wheels.  This  is  done  by  dropping  the  dipper  to  the  ground  — 
as  illustrated  in  Engineering  News,  Dec.  28,  1916  —  and  starting 
the  crowding  or  boom  engines,  and  forcing  the  dipper  handle  in 
an  upward  direction.  As  the  dipper  is  placed  flat  on  the  ground 
it  is  impossible  to  force  it  below  the  surface.  Consequently,  when 
the  boom  or  crowding  engines  are  started,  the  shovel  is  forced  to 
rise  off  the  ground. 

Cost  of  Excavating  a  Cellar  with  a  Revolving  Shovel.  Ac- 
cording to  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.  15,  1908,  in  digging 
the  foundation  and  cellar  of  a  new  building,  in  Minneapolis,  Minn., 
the  contractor  used  a  steam  shovel  manufactured  by  the  Brown- 
ing Engineering  Co. 

This  shovel  was  a  locomotive  crane  with  a  dipper  and  dipper 
arm  attached  to  the  boom.  One  advantage  of  this  shovel  is  that 
the  boom  angle  is  variable,  being  raised  and  lowered  by  a  lever 
convenient  to  the  engineer's  hand.  The  dipper  arm  works  on  a 
shipper-shaft  through  the  boom.  This  allows  the  dipper  to  dig 
both  low  down  under  the  boom,  and  also  high  up  on  a  bank. 
In  digging  this  cellar,  the  shovel  at  first  dumped  the  dirt  di- 
rectly into  the  wagon,  but  afterwards  into  a  hopper,  under  which 
the  wagons  were  driven  and  loaded.  This  hopper  was  roughly 
made,  having  no  bottom,  but  it  saved  the  wagon  from  being  hit 
by  the  dipper,  and  also  prevented  dirt  from  being  spilled  off  the 
wagon  when  loading.  The  hopper  was  picked  up  and  moved 
about  as  needed  by  the  crane. 


520  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Two  men  only  were  needed  to  operate  this  shovel,  the  engineer 
and  fireman;  the  latter  both  fires  and  trips  the  dipper  door. 
The  cost  of  operating  the  shovel  per  day  was  as  follows: 

Engineman,  10  hr $3.00 

Fireman,    10   hr 200 

Coal,   %  ton  at  $4   2.00 

Oil  and  waste   , 0.30 


Total  operating  cost  per  day   $7.30 

The  material  in  this  cellar  was  hard  stiff  yellow  clay,  part  of 
the  time  frozen  from  6  to  10  in.  The  shovel  averaged  400  cu.  yd. 
per  day.  A  further  reason  for  this  small  output  was  a  lack  of 
wagons.  Nevertheless  the  cost  of  loading  the  wagons  was  only 
3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  and.  including  taking  the  shovel  to  another  job 
3  miles  away  the  cost  was  only  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  Empire  Engineering  Co.,  of  Montreal,  Canada,  moved  one 
of  these  shovels  over  an  ordinary  wagon  road  a  distance  of 
two  miles,  under  its  own  steam.  Two  sets  of  rails  were  used, 
the  machine  picking  up  the  set  in  the  rear  and  swinging  them 
around  in  the  front.  The  cost  of  moving  was: 

One  engineman,  3  days   $9.00 

3  laborers,  3  days  at  $1.60  14.40 

Fuel     4.00 

Oil  and  waste   60 

Team  hauling  water,  3  days   10.50 

Total    $38.50 

This  makes  a  cost  of  $19.25  per  mile,  which  is  very  cheap. 
The  fact  that  the  crane  revolves  cheapens  the  moving  as  well  as 
much  other  work  it  does.  In  moving  ahead  in  the  cut  the  track 
is  moved  in  the  same  manner.  Then,  too,  when  the  machine  has 
cut  to  the  end  of  a  row,  it  does  not  have  to  be  turned  like  a  shovel, 
but  it  revolves  on  its  circle,  and  immediately  begins  digging. 

In  cellar  excavating,  after  the  earth  is  excavated,  the  dipper 
arm  can  be  taken  off,  and  the  machine  used  as  a  crane  for  hoist- 
ing and  erecting,  or  for  pile  driving,  and  for  other  purposes. 

It  can  be  equipped  with  a  clam-shell  bucket,  and  used  for  un- 
loading sand  and  stone  from  cars,  and  also  for  unloading  coal. 

Steam  Shovel  Work  at  Springfield,  Mass  Mr.  Charles  R.  Gow, 
in  a  paper  published  in  the  'Journal  of  the  Association  of  En- 
gineering Societies  for  December,  1910,  gives  some  facts  and  fig- 
ures concerning  the  operation  of  a  No.  1  (24-ton)  shovel  of  the 
revolving  traction  type.  This  shovel  was  assembled  at  the  rail- 
road siding  and  transported  about  6}£  miles  over  extremely 
bad  roads.  Plank  track  was  necessary  and  the  time  occupied 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVfELS       521 

was  six  days.  The  cost  of  unloading,  assembling  and  trans- 
porting to  work  was  $25,3.15.  The  depth  of  excavation  varied 
from  1  to  17  ft.  Part  of  the  ground  was  fairly  easy  and  the 
shovel  excavated  300  to  500  cu.  yd.  per  day,  or  at  the  rate 
of  one  loaded  team  per  min.  while  actually  working.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  excavation  was  in  extremely  hard  ground  with 
many  large  boulders  and  a  shovel  of  60  to  70  tons  would  have 
been  more  economical.  The  yardage  fell  to  100  cu.  yd.  per 
day.  In  the  light  cut  of  1  to  2  ft.  the  dipper  was  crowded 
7  ft.  horizontally,  thus  tilling  it  reasonably  full. 

The  cost  of  steam  shovel  excavation  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  45,- 
081  cu.  yd.  during  191  working  days,  or  235  cu.  yd.  per  day,  was: 

Cost  of  delivering  and  installing  shovel  $     495.89 

Foreman,    supervising    1,668.00 

Shovel  operation,  labor   2,118.81 

Shovel  operation,  coal,   oil,   etc 1,487.67 

Total  cost  of  operation   $  3,606.48 

Per  cu.   yd 0.080 

Repairs,    labor    $     315.57 

Repairs,    materials    631.14 

Total  cost  of  repairs    $      946.71 

Per  cu.   yd 0.021 

Depreciation  on  shovel   $1,758.16 

Teaming  excavated   material    9,692.42 

General  expense,    12.9%    2,344.21 

Grand   total    $20,511.86 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd $0.455 

The  cost  of  repairs  is  exceptionally  high  on  account  of  the 
very  difficult  nature  of  the  work  performed.  Two  new  booms 
were  supplied  by  the  makers  to  take  the  place  of  broken  ones, 
the  second  being  of  a  special  design.  Several  new  dipper  arms 
were  required  and  the  dipper  teeth,  chains  and  ropes  were 
replaced  every  few  weeks. 

A  No.  1  shovel,  working  in  a  cellar  excavation  about  13  ft. 
deep,  loaded  the  material,  which  consisted  of  pliable  clay  with  a 
few  12-in.  boulders,  into  cars  drawn  by  a  horse  along  a  single 
track.  The  costs  were  as  follows: 

Wages  of  engineman   ".I  $4.00 

Wages   of  fireman    ! 2.00 

Wages  of  one  foreman  3.00 

Wages  of  three  laborers   5.25 

Coal 4.00 

Oil,    waste,   etc 1.00 

Interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  (estimated)   5.30 

Total    $24.55 

Cubic  yards  per  day   , .         410 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 6  ct. 


522  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  Thew  Revolving  Shovel  is  made  in  the  following  sizes: 


0 
A-l 

1 
2 
3 
4 


Weight 
tons 
15 
18 
24 
32 
35 
40 
55 


Dipper 
capacity, 
en.  yd. 


7/8 

lVs-1% 
%*-!* 

!%-!%* 


Capacity 

cu.  yd. 

per  hr. 

40 

40 

60 

80 

50* 

100 


Coal,  daily,  Ib. 
One  man  Two  man 

operation 


600 
1,000 
1,500 


operation 
1,000 
1,000 
1,500 
2,000 


*  lu  shale  or  hardpan. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       523 

The  shovel  is  furnished  with  two  forms  of  boom  equipment: 
the    horizontal    crowding    motion    which    possesses    definite    ad- 
vantages for  shallow  cut  work;   and  the  shipper  shaft  crowding 
mechanism  and  long  dipper  stick  for  use  where  maximum  operat- 
ing ranges  are  desired. 


» 

"•'••  •--* //I 

" 


Fig.  66.     Horizontal  Crowding  Motion  of  Thew  Shovel. 

Excavating  a  Street  with  a  Revolving  Shovel.  According  to 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  9,  1909,  a  No.  O  (15-ton)  Thew 
steam  shovel  was  used  for  excavating  about  18,000  cu.  yd.  for  the 
repaving  of  Wentworth  Ave.  in  Chicago.  The  cut  ranged  from 
14  to  16  in.  in  depth. 

The  shovel  loaded  directly  into  wagons  and  had  to  wait  on  the 
wagons.  This  limited  its  output  which,  however,  ran  from  150  to 
300  cu.  yd.  per  8-hr.  day.  The  shovel  was  operated  by  a  shovel- 
man  and  a  fireman.  A  snatch  team  was  used  'at  times  to  help 
wagons  out  of  the  pit.  Altogether  the  working  gang  employed  at 
the  shovel  was  8  men.  About  1  ton  of  coal  was  burned  per  day. 

The  success  of  the  shovel  on  this  work  was  due  to  its  full  circle 
revolution  and  horizontal  crowding  motion. 

Operating  a  Revolving  Shovel  in  Brick  Clay.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  April  12,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

The  Macon  Brick  Co.,  of  Macon,  Ga.,  used  a  25-ton  Vulcan  re- 


524  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

volving  shovel  for  excavating  about  100  cu.  yd.  of  brick  clay  per 
day. 

The  shovel  is  equipped  with  a  %-yd.  dipper.  The  dipper  han- 
dle is  12  ft.  long  and  will  dump  12^  ft.  above  the  rail.  It  will 
clear  a  floor  32  ft.  wide  and  make  a  cut  40  ft.  wide  in  a  6-ft. 
bank.  It  swings  through  a  full  circle.  The  Macon  Brick  Co. 
employed  the  following  men  in  their  work: 

1  engineer,   per  day   $3.00 

1  helper,   per   day    1.25 

2  trackmen,   per  day    2.50 

Oil,  waste  and  repairs,  per  day  0  50 

Coal,  600  Ib.  per  day  1.05 

Total  labor  and  fuel   , $8.30 

The  shovel  is  in  operation  only  a  part  of  the  time  and  could 
furnish  twice  as  much  clay  from  the  8-ft.  bank  if  the  clay  were 
needed. 

Excavating  a  Building  Foundation  with  a  Revolving  Shovel. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  30,  1913,  gives  the  following: 

In  excavating  for  the  foundations  of  a  reinforced  concrete 
building  in  Boston,  the  Aberthaw  Construction  Co.  of  Boston  ob- 
tained cost  figures  which  are  low  for  a  city  job  where  the  hauls 
to  dumps  averaged  over  a  mile.  The  site  was  excavated  to  10  ft. 
deep;  the  digging  was  good;  there  were  no  rocks,  the  material 
being  mostly  cinders.  A  %-cu.  yd.  Thew  steam  shovel  was  used 
and  the  carting  was  done  by  2-horse  end  dumping  wagons  each 
of  a  capacity  of  2  cu.  yd.;  in  other  words,  each  wagon  had  a  ca- 
pacity of  three  shovelsful.  The  total  cost  of  the  6,076  cu.  yd.  ex- 
cavated, including  excavating,  labor,  teaming  and  dumping,  lum- 
ber for  runs,  and  all  fuel  and  other  expense  in  connection  with  the 
shovel,  was  66.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  itemized  figures  are  presented 
below : 

Excavating: 

Shovel,  25  days $    300 

1  fireman,  25  days  at  $18  per  week )      99Q 

1  engineer,  25  days  at  $37  per  week i      zzy 

1  foreman,  25  days  6  hr.  at  $5  83 

2  laborers  trimming  around  shovel  at  $2  100 

Preparatory  to  shovel  and  other  labor,  during  shovel- 
ing, 411  men  at  $2 ;  estimated  10%  at  dump  740 

Miscellaneous   laborers    37 


$1,489 

Excavating   6,976  yards,   21.3   ct.   per   cu.   yd;    does   not   in- 
clude runway. 

Hauling  and  Dumping: 

481  teams  at  $6  $2,886 

Foreman,  32  days  at  10  hr.  at  $5  176 

Laborers    

Lumber   for   runs    31 

$3,175 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      525 

Teaming  and  dumping  6,976  yd.  cost  45*£  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Total  cost  per  yd.  of  excavating,  teaming  and  dumping  was 
66.8  ct. 

Revolving  Shovel  Working  Excavating  Macadam.  James  L. 
Kehoe,  describing  a  pavement  job  in  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  July  8,  1914,  says: 

Old  macadam  was  encountered  on  the  section  of  street  having 
no  car  tracks,  on  the  remainder,  gravel  and  hardpan.  Owing  to 
the  short  time  allowed  to  complete  the  work,  together  with  the 
hard  cutting  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  use  a  steam  shovel. 

On  the  old  macadam  section  a  No.  0  (15-ton)  Thew  steam 
shovel  of  the  traction  type  was  placed  in  the  center  of  the  street 
loading  from  both  sides  into  1%  and  2-cu.  yd.  dump  wagons. 
Cuts  averaged  from  12  to  18  in.  deep  at  the  center  line,  and  4 
to  6  in.  at  the  curb.  A  level  cut  to  grade  was  made  by  the  shovel 
across  the. street  for  a  width  of  25  ft. 

The  material  near  the  curb  was  piled  in  front  of  shovel  by 
means  of  buck  scrapers  working  evenings,  or  before  starting  in 
the  morning.  In  this  way  the  shovel  always  had  enough  material 
to  load  all  teams  for  the  first  trip  without  loss  of  time. 

Owing  to  the  shallow  cutting  the  shovel  was  moved  up  about 
every  5  ft.  and  when  there  were  no  teams  to  load  the  shovel 
kept  crowding  ahead  piling  material.  The  average  loading  time 
for  a  li^-cu;  yd.  wagon  was  1  min.  Fifteen  teams  averaged  250 
cu.  yd.  per  day  of  material  hauled  from  the  shovel. 

On  the  hardpan  and  gravel  section  the  shovel  was  placed 
between  the  trolley  tracks  and  curb,  loading  across  the  tracks 
into  side  dumping  trolley  cars  and  dump  wagons.  On  account 
of  the  boom  on  the  shovel  having  only  a  few  inches  clearance  from 
the  trolley  feed  wire,  two  extra  men  were  employed  to  raise  and 
lower  the  wire,  using  notched  poles.  As  the  traction  company 
maintained  a  25  min.  schedule  some  time  was  lost  by  the  shovel 
on  account  of  the  wire  being  raised  and  lowered  so  often.  Earth 
between  the  tracks  was  plowed  with  a  heavy  rooter  plow  hauled 
by  a  trolley  car,  the  shoe  on  the  plow  being  set  so  that  the  point 
just  cleared  the  ties.  This  loosened  material  was  shoveled  to 
one  side  by  hand  and  left  for  the  shovel  to  load.  On  this  sec- 
tion some  hard  shale  was  found  about  6  in.  •  below  grade,  but 
the  shovel  had  no  trouble  cutting  through  it.  Many  predictions 
of  failure  were  heard  from  the  "  sidewalk  inspectors,"  but  after 
the  shovel  had  scooped  several  dippers  of  macadam  they  were 
convinced  that  it  would  excavate  the  entire  street.  Water  for  the 
shovel  was  piped  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  mixer,  a  %-in. 
T  being  placed  every  50  ft. 

A  fine  grading  (or  trimming)  gang  of  ten  men  followed  closely 


526  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAyATION 

behind  the  shovel  grading  to  stakes  set  from  a  grade  line  stretched 
from  curb  to  curb.  About  600  sq.  yd.  of  fine  grading  was  the 
average  per  day. 

Street  Grading  with  a  Revolving  Shovel  in  Los  Angeles.  The 
Excavating  Engineer,  June,  1914,  describes  a  grading  job  on 
which,  despite  the  shallow  cutting,  a  small  revolving  shovel  was 
used  to  splendid  advantage.  The  total  yardage  amounted  to 
23,016  cu.  yd.,  bank  measure,  which  was  handled  between  March 
10th  and  April  25th,  39%  days  in  all,  including  Sundays. 

The  shovel,  which  was  an  18-B  Bucyrus,  equipped  with  a  %-yd 
dipper,  burned  fuel  oil.  12  tanks,  or  10,080  gallons  were  con 
surned  during  this  period.  The  oil  cost  $12  a  tank. 

Throughout  the  entire  job,  Sundays  were  regularly  devoted  to 
washing  out  the  boiler,  cleaning  the  flues  and  making  sundry 
repairs,  which,  doubtless  accounts  to  a  large  degree  for  the  reg- 
ularity of  the  output.  Although  the  greater  part  of  the  material 
was  classified  as  earth,  there  was  over  7,000  yd.  of  rock  and  sand- 
stone, besides  2,300  yd.  of  hard  adobe  clay,  which,  naturally  cut 
down  the  capacity  of  the  shovel  considerably. 

The  following  data  are  given  for  the  performance  of  this 
shovel : 

Total  yardage  (bank  measure)    23,016   cu.   yd. 

Total  time  under  steam  34%   days. 

Lost    time    including    delays    for    moving,    blasting,    re-    23%  hr. 

pairs,  etc ; 67.8  cu.  yd. 

Average  yardage  per  hr.  working  63.4  cu.  yd. 

Average  yardage  per  hr.  under  steam  including  delays.  )     735   wagons 

Maximum  output  per  11-hr,  day  bank  measure   \     1,000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  labor  and  fuel  3.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  best  week's  output  was  perhaps  the  first  week  in  April,  the 
record  of  which  shows  that  4,649  wagons  were  loaded  with  6,300 
cu.  yd.  of  material  in  75  working  hr.,  giving  an  average  of  84 
cu.  yd.  per  hr.  including  delays. 

It  might  be  interesting  to  note  that  after  the  completion  of 
this  job,  the  shovel  was  moved  a  distance  of  about  7  miles  in 
2%  hr.  by  the  use  of  two  five-ton  automobile  trucks.  The  pro- 
pelling was  done  entirely  by  the  trucks  al  a  cost  of  $2.25  per  hr. 
per  truck. 

Basement  Excavation  with  Revolving  Shovel.  Professor  A.  B. 
McDaniel,  in  Engineering  Record,  June  16,  1915,  describes  methods 
employed  and  gives  detailed  costs  of  excavation  for  two  build- 
ings. The  following  is  an  abstract  of  his  article: 

Case  1  —  Steam-Shovel  Excavation.  A  steam  shovel  was  used 
in  excavating  for  the  iirst  building,  which  is  being  constructed 
for  the  Dennison  Manufacturing  Company,  of  South  Farmingham, 
Mass,  The  building  is  rectangular  in  form,  70  ft.  x  159  ft.  5  in., 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      527 

with  two  projecting  stair  towers  and  a  toilet  tower.     The  general 
plan  of  the  building  is  shown  in  Fig.  67. 

The  soil  excavated  was  a  fine,  clean,  siliceous  sand,  in  beds 
from  3  to  7  ft.  in  depth,  and  separated  by  strata  of  yellow  clay, 
of  a  depth  of  1  or  2  ft.  The  excavation  was  carried  down  to  a 
gravel  subsoil,  upon  which  the  footings  were  placed.  The  depth 
of  excavation  varied  from  8.2  to  10.5  ft. 


Fig.  67.    Path  of  Steam  Shovel. 

The  excavated  material  was  used  to  fill  up  two  low,  swampy 
tracts  of  land  which  were  located  about  i£  mile  from  the  site  of 
the  building. 

Method  of  Excavation.  A  new  Thew  Automatic  revolving 
steam  shovel,  type  O  (18-ton),  equipped  with  a  %-yd.  dipper, 
was  used  for  the  bulk  of  the  excavation.  The  manufacturers 
furnished  an  expert  engineer  who  set  up  and  operated  the  ma- 
chine for  several  days,  during  which  time  he  broke  in  a  "green 


528  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

hand "  as  the  runner.  The  latter  operated  the  shovel  without 
aid  or  supervision  during  the  last  ten  days  of  the  work. 

The  shovel  began  operations  near  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
building  plot,  and  excavated  a  cut  abo  t  15  ft.  wide  on  a  de- 
scending grade  of  about  10%.  As  the  shovel  approached  the 
northeast  corner  of  the  plot  it  reached  the  finished  grade,  which 
was  about  10.5  ft.  below  the  original  ground  surface  at  this 
point. 

Path  of  Shovel.  The  path  of  the  shovel  is  shown  by  the  dash 
line  in  Fig.  67.  The  east  side  of  the  excavation  was  complete! 
first,  as  it  was  desirable  to  construct  the  footings  and  erect 
the  basement  column  forms  along  this  side,  adjacent  to  the  mixer 
plant  and  pouring  tower,  as  early  as  possible.  While  the  shovel 
was  excavating  in  a  southerly  direction  along  the  east  side,  a  slip 
scraper  was  used  to  cut  an  inclined  road  from  the  north  gate  on 
Grant  Street,  along  the  north  side  of  the  plot,  and  curving  and 
descending  on  a  grade  of  about  6%  to  the  bottom  of  the  exca- 
vation near  the  north  end  of  the  toilet  tower.  After  the  shovel 
had  started  on  its  second  trip  along  the  plot  the  wagons  came 
in  at  the  south  gate  on  Grant  Street,  passed  down  the  incline 
along  the  south  side  of  the  plot,  around  the  east  side  of  the 
shovel,  where  they  loaded  and  passed  up  the  north  incline  and  out 
the  north  gate  on  Grant  Street,  to  the  dump. 

Support  for  Shovel.  On  account  of  the  loose  character  of  the 
soil  and  the  inflow  of  water  when  the  excavation  reached  grade, 
it  was  necessary  to  support  the  shovel  on  planking.  A  .movable, 
sectional,  platform  was  built  of  4  x  8-in.  timbers,  bolted  together 
to  form  sections  3  ft.  wide  and  12  ft.  long.  Four  of  these  sec- 
tions were  used  on  straight  stretches,  and  two  triangular-shaped 
sections,  half  the  size  of  the  rectangular  sections,  were  employed 
on  the  turns.  Near  the  center  of  both  ends  of  each  section  was 
placed  a  heavy  iron  eye  by  means  of  which  the  section  could  be 
shifted  around  with  a  chain  attached  to  the  dipper  arm. 

Neglecting  time  lost  through  breaks  in  machinery,  inclement 
weather,  etc.,  the  shovel  was  excavating  about  60%  of  the  work- 
ing time.  Special  effort  was  made  to  keep  the  shf>vel  always 
supplied  with  wragons  to  load,  and  very  little  delay  was  occasioned 
from  waiting  for  teams.  From  two  to  three  shovelfuls  were  re- 
quired to  load  each  wagon  to  an  average  capacity  of  about  1}£ 
cu.  yd.  (loose  measurement).  On  account  of  the  looseness  of  the 
material,  the  average  shovelful  was  about  }£  cu.  yd.  Based  on  a 
large  number  of  observations,  the  average  time  to  make  a  com- 
plete dipper  swing  was  26  sec.  and  the  minimum  time  was  18  sec. 
The  average  time  to  load  a  wagon,  with  three  swings,  was  1 
min.  46  sec.,  and  the  minimum  time  was  1  min.  21  sec. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AXD  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       529 

Labor  and  Fuel  Costs.  The  labor  crew  consisted  of  one  fore- 
man, one  engineman,  one  fireman  and  two  pitmen,  or  laborers. 
Following  is  a  schedule  of  labor  expenses  per  day  of  9  hr. : 

1  foreman  at  $6  per  day $  6.00 

1  engineman  at  $0.45  per  hr 4.05 

1  fireman  at  $0.30  per  hr 2.70 

2  pitmen  at  $2.03  per  day   4.06 

Total  labor  cost  per  9-hr,  day  $16.81 

Water  was  supplied  to  the  boilers  through  a  rubber  hose.  Coal 
and  coke  were  hauled  thrice  daily  from  a  pile  on  the  east  side 
of  the  excavation  and  shoveled  into  a  large  wooden  bunker  built 
on  the  rear  of  the  machine.  The  fuel  cost  for  the  operation  of  the 
shovel  for  17  days  was  as  follows: 

7  tons  coal  at  $6.25   $43.75 

1  ton  coke  at  $6.75   6.75 

Total  cost  of  fuel    $50.50 

The  excavation  was  leveled  up  and  made  closely  to  grade  by 
the  use  of  a  slip  scraper,  which  was  attached  by  a  chain  to  the 
clipper  handle.  This  work  was  done  as  far  as  practicable,  during 
the  short  periods  of  waiting  for  wagons,  at  the  beginning  and 
end  of  each  half  day's  work. 

The  hauling  away  of  the  excavated  material  was  done  by  rear 
dump  carts  hauled  by  two  horses.  These  carts  had  a  rated 
capacity  of  1  cu.  yd.,  and  were  generally  filled  by  three  dipper- 
fuls  to  a  capacity  of  1}£  cu.  yd.  Care  was  taken  to  place  the 
bulk  of  the  load  over  the  rear  axle,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  dump- 
ing. From  8  to  14  teams  were  used  and  the  latter  number 
proved  to  give  the  most  efficient  operation  of  the  shovel.  The 
average  haul  was  1,800  ft.  The  teams  were  run  continuously  in  a 
circuit,  and  except  for  a  short  distance  (about  200  ft.)  the 
loaded  teams  were  not  allowed  to  pass  the  unloaded  teams. 
Bunching  of  the  teams  was  largely  eliminated  by  careful  supervi- 
sion of  the  dumping  and  the  movement  of  the  carts  along  the  road. 
A  decided  tendency  to  lag  was  noticed  each  day  during  the  last 
hour  of  work.  Some  drivers  would  stop  work  during  the  last 
half  hour  if  they  thought  that  another  load  would  take  until 
after  5  o'clock  to  dump.  In  the  morning  several  teams  were  usu- 
ally late  in  arriving  at  the  shovel  for  the  first  load.  In  order 
to  eliminate  these  time  losses,  at  the  end  of  the  first  week's  work 
a  bonus  of  25  ct.  was  offered  to  each  driver  who  made  24  trips 
per  day.  During  the  first  day's  work  under  the  bonus  plan  one 
man  made  25  trips,  four  men  made  24  trips  and  seven  others 
raised  their  previous  day's  record  by  one  trip.  After  a  study  of 


530 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


this  result  a  bonus  schedule  was  established  as  follows:  25  ct. 
per  day  per  man  for  24  trips ;  40  ct.  per  day  per  man  for  25 
trips;  50  ct.  per  day  per  man  for  26  trips. 

The  average  mimber  of  trips  per  day  per  team  for  the  last 
full  day's  work  (July  22)  was  nearly  25.  Several  teams  made 
26  trips  per  day. 

Time  Records.  A  timekeeper  stationed  near  the  building  site 
kept  a  record  of  the  time  that  each  team  entered  the  south  gate 
and  left  the  north  gate.  This  record  served  to  show  the  character 
and  length  of  delays  in  the  yard,  such  as  loss  of  time  in  pulling 
up  to  shovel,  and  delay  at  the  shovel.  The  dump  foreman  kept 


<n  LJ 


6    9    JO    II    13    14   15  16   17  IQ  20  21    22  23  24 

Time  of  Operation-Days  in  July,  1914 
Fig.  68.     Shovel  Haul  and  Dump  Costs. 

a  record  of  the  time  of  arrival  of  each  team  at  the  dump,  and 
also  of  any  delay  in  dumping  and  leaving  the  dump.  The 
watches  of  the  yard  timekeeper  and  the  dump  foreman  were 
synchronized  daily.  At  the  end  of  each  day's  work,  the  two  rec- 
ords were  compared  and  a  study  was  made  to  determine  the  num- 
ber, character,  length  and  cause  of  all  delays,  the  inefficient  teams, 
the  proper  size  and  distribution  of  the  load  in  the  carts  for  effi- 
cient hauling  and  dumping. 

The  average  length  of  haul  was  1,800  ft.  The  average  time 
to  make  a  round  trip  was  about  21.5  min.,  and  the  minimum  time 
was  15  min.  Each  of  the  two  dump  sites  was  a  low,  swampy 
basin  which  it  was  desired  to  grade  up  to  the  level  of  the  ad- 
jacent streets.  The  fill  at  each  site  was  made  at  two  points 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       531 

simultaneously  and  was  built  out  from  firm  soil  by  rear-dumping 
from  platforms.  These  platforms  were  made  of  several  sections 
of  2  x  12-in.  planks  16  ft.  long,  cleated  together  on  the  under  side. 
As  the  dump  was  carried  out  the  sections  of  platform  were  moved 
ahead.  Railroad  ties  were  used  as  dumping  blocks.  To  facilitate 
the  dumping,  especially  when  the  sand  and  clay  was  wet  and 
sticky,  the  drivers  greased  the  main  axle  trunnions  and  salted  the 
inside  surfaces  of  the  carts  each  morning  before  starting  work. 
The  depth  of  fill  varied  from  0  to  7  ft. 

The  labor  used  in  operating  the  dump  during  the  first  week 
consisted  of  a  foreman,  a  sub-foreman  and  four  laborers.  This 
force  was  gradually  reduced  to  a  foreman  and  three  laborers 
during  the  last  four  days  of  work.  Thus  an  economy  of  30% 
was  effected  during  the  time  that  an  increased  output  of  16% 
occurred.  Fig.  68  and  the  following  table  give  a  summary  of 
the  total  daily  and  the  unit  costs  for  the  various  divisions  of  the 
work  and  the  job  as  a  whole. 

Cost  per 

Total  cost  cu.  yd. 

Labor  at  shovel   $    262.31  $0.0515 

Labor   at  dump 236.53  0.0464 

Labor  on  roads  and  inclines   18.90  0.0037 

Teams   and  hauling   1,058.59  0.2078 

Superintendence,    etc 150.00  0.0294 

Lumber  for  inclines,    platforms,  etc 250.00  0.0491 

Unloading,     setting     up,     dismantling     and     loading 

shovel     179.05  0.0351 

Rental   of  shovel 390.00  0.0765 

Coal,  oil,   waste,  repairs,  etc 66.60  0.0131 

Total  (17  days)    $2,611.98  $0.5126 

*  Based  on  total  computed  excavation  (place  measurement)  of  5,095  cu.  yd. 

A  somewhat  similar  building  excavating  job  is  described  by 
Professor  McDaniel  in  this  same  article.  Wheel  and  drag  scrapers 
were  used,  also  dump  carts  loaded  by  hand.  The  final  average 
unit  cost  was  $1.10  per  cu.  yd. 

Cost  with  a  Thew  Shovel  on  Street  Work.  A  description  of 
the  work  of  3  revolving  shovels,  one  with  a  %-yd.  dipper  and  two 
with  %-yd.  dippers,  used  in  street  grading  in  Minneapolis  during 
1014,  is  given  by  Prof.  A.  B.  McDaniel,  in  Engineering  Record, 
July  31,  1915.  The  material  excavated  was  ordinary  earth  and 
underlying  glacial  clay.  On  ordinary  grading  work,  with  an  aver- 
age haul  of  300  ft.,  the  cost  of  excavation,  hauling,  and  dumping, 
was  15  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  with  1^-yd.  wagons,  and  11  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
with  cars. 

An  18-ton  revolving  shovel  (Thew)  with  a  %-yd.  dipper  was  used 
in  excavating  hard,  dense  clay  of  the  street  surface.  This  ma- 
terial was  mixed  with  boulders.  The  use  of  a  heavy  pavement 


532  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

plow  had  been  found  to  be  impracticable.  The  average  cut  was 
1  ft.  The  excavated  earth  was  dumped  into  1^-yd.  bottom-dump 
wagons.  The  cost  of  excavation  under  average  working  condi- 
tions per  8-hr,  day  is  given  below.  An  average  hourly  excava- 
tion of  31.25  cu.  yd.  was  obtained.  The  cost  does  not  include 
the  cost  of  hauling  the  material  to  the  dump  or  of  taking  care  of 
it  after  it  has  reached  there. 

1  engineman $  6.00 ' 

1  fireman     2.50 

2  laborers,   at  $2.50   5.00 

Total  labor  cost   $13.50 

C9al,  Vz  ton,  at  $6  $  3.00 

Oil,  grease  and  waste  0.15 

Repairs  and  overhead  charges  1.05 

Total   fuel  cost   $  4.20 

Total  cost  of  excavating  250  cu.  yd $17.70 

Cost  of  excavation  of  1  cu.  yd $0.07 

Another  Thew  revolving  shovel  equipped  with  a  %-yd.  dipper 
was  used  for  street  grading  in  Lexington,  Kentucky.  The  ma- 
terial excavated  was  a  packed  clay  and  loam  surface.  In  60  hr., 
exclusive  of  the  time  lost  because  of  delays  and  causes  foreign  to 
the  work,  1,445  cu.  yd.,  "  place  measure,"  were  excavated.  The 
depth  of  the  cut  was  10  in.  The  total  length  of  excavation  is 
1,788  ft.  The  number  of  teams  used  was  10.  The  average  exca- 
vation per  hr.  was  24  cu.  yd. 

In  Ogden,  Utah,  another  Thew  revolving  shovel,  with  a  %-yd. 
dipper  was  used  in  street  pavement  work.  The  contract  included 
the  removal  of  22,500  sq.  yd.  of  concrete  pavement,  10  in.  thick. 
The  shovel  removed  a  section  of  concrete  600  ft.  long  and  20  ft. 
wide  each  working  day.  The  loading  of  teams  was  delayed  on 
account  of  the  frequent  passage  of  street  cars.  The  cost  of  this 
work  was: 

1  foreman    %  4.50 

1  engineman     • -00 

Ifireman     3.00 

2  pitmen,    at  $2    ' 4.00 

5  teams  and  drivers,  at  $5   25.00 

Total  labor  cost   $43.50 

Cost  of  excavation  per  sq.  yd $0-°3 

Cost  of  excavation  per  cu.  yd O-11 

In  a  fourth  case,  a  Thew  revolving  shovel,  equipped  with  a 
%-yd.  dipper,  was  used  in  1912  for  the  removal  of  macadam 
surface  on  a  section  of  a  street  in  St.  Louis.  The  street  was 
28  ft.  wide  and  the  macadam  was  13  to  18  in.  thick.  The  total 


Loose  earth 
Yardage 
360 
300 
250 
200 

Packed  earth       Hardpan 
Yardage            Yardage 
280                       225 
240                        175 
200                        150 
150                        100 

Pavements 
Yardage 
300 
250 
200 
150 

COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      533 

excavation  was  2,915  cu.  yd.  loose  measure,  made  in  a  total  oper- 
ating time  of  94  hr.,  an  average  of  7.8  hr.  per  day  for  12  days. 
The  average  excavation  was  31.9  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  of  actual  working 
time. 

The  following  is  the  output  to  be  expected  of  a  revolving  shovel 
in  shallow  excavation.  This  table  is  based  on  the  use  of  an  18-ton 
revolving  shovel,  equipped  with  a  %-yd.  dipper,  efficiently  oper- 
ated. The  outputs  are  based  on  62  observations  under  the  con- 
ditions named. 

Depth  of 
cut  in  in. 

18 

12 


Cost  of  Revolving  Shovel  Work  in  Road  Grading,  California. 
J.  E.  Bonersmith,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  19,  1916, 
gives  the  following: 

The  work  described  was  on  the  California  State  Highway  be- 
tween Tormey  and  Eckley  in  Contra  Costa  County,  California, 
and  was  done  in  1915.  The  road  graded  was  four  miles  in  length 
and  contained  72,000  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  through  a  rather  rough 
country.  The  material  consisted  of  earth,  soft  and  hard  shale. 

The  method  of  work  was  as  follows:  After  the  culverts  were 
constructed,  two  fresno  gangs  (each  gang  having  a  six-horse 
plow  and  from  four  to  six  fresnos)  were  started  and  made  the 
fill  over  the  culverts;  also  moved  the  dirt  in  all  cuts  where  the 
hauls  were  200  ft.  and  less.  A  Model  31  Marion  Revolving  Shovel 
(28-tons  shipping  weight,  1  cu.  yd.  dipper)  followed  the  fresno 
gangs  and  loaded  all  the  material  that  had  to  be  hauled  into 
dump  wagons.  The  number  of  wagons  varied  from  six  to  twelve. 
Behind  the  steam  shovel,  a  small  fresno  with  four  muckers  did 
all  the  finishing  work. 

The  road  was  graded  to  a  width  of  21  ft.  and  through  the 
thorough  cuts  the  shovel  had  to  turn  through  a  full  180°.  On 
this  work,  the  average  output  of  the  shovel  for  an  8-hr,  day  was 
375  cu.  yd.,  as  there  was  considerable  loss  of  time  in  spotting 
the  wagons;  but  where  the  dipper  was  swinging  only  through  90°, 
it  handled  510  cu.  yd.  The  local  water  was  the  cause  of  some 
delay,  and  since  the  water  is  a  very  serious  question  in  the  cost 
of  equipment  on  any  job,  we  now  make  it  a  rule  to  have  the  water 
analyzed  and  the  proper  boiler  compound  on  hand  before  the 
shovel  starts  to  work.  i.iiWrf 

Rentals  per  day:  Horses  rented  to  job  at  $1.25  per  working 
day;  fresnos,  wagons,  etc.,  at  $0.25  per  working  day;  wagon 


534  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

and  fresno  driver  at  $2.50  per  day;  Marion  steam  shovel,  includ- 
ing fuel,  runner,  etc.,  $50  per  day.  These  costs  of  equipment  are 
used  on  all  our  work,  as  we  have  found  from  many  years  of  ex- 
perience that  it  is  the  only  way  we  can  arrive  at  a  true  cost. 
Take  .the  shovel  as  an  example;  its  rental  is  based  on  the  fol- 
lowing charges: 

First   cost,    $8,200;    life    of   shovel,    1,000    working   days    in   six  years; 

cost     per     day      ..................................  ."  ..................  $8,25 

6%  interest  on  $8,200  for  three  years,  $1,476;  interest  per  day  ........  1.48 

Repairs  (when  the  shovel  is  broken  down  the  engineers',"  firemen, 

etc.,  time  is  charged  to  repairs),  per  day  ..........................  2.00 

Freight,  knocking  down,  etc.  (this  cost  was  arrived  at  by  cost  kept 

on  another  shovel),  per  day   ............................  ............  3.00 

Fuel,  %  ton  of  coal  per  working  day  at  $12  per  ton  ...................  9.00 

Water  wagon  with  four  horses  and  driver,  per  day  ...................  7.75 

Water  and  oil,  per  day   .................................................  .85 

Engineer,    per    day    .....................................................  6.75 

Fireman,     per     day    ...................................................  ..  3.00 

Two  pitmen  at  $2.50  per  day  ...........................................  5.00 

Incidentals  ............  .................  .-,;y.  .  J  we,jp.  ..<-.  ................  2.92 

Total  cost  per  day  .......  .  ......  ;..::;.l:;.<  A.  •<.'..•;;;  ...........     $50.00 

Following  is  the  total  cost  of  the  above  mentioned  grading  of 
the  State  Highway  between  Tormey  and  Eckley,  72,000  cu.  yd.: 

Horses,  8,756  days  at  $1.25  per  day  .  .................................  $10,945.00 

Equipment,  1,842  days  at  25  ct.  per  day  ..........................  .,  .  '        460.50 

Driver  labor,  1,842  days  at  $2.50  per  day   .......................  ....  4,605.00 

Steam  shovel,  104  days  at  $50  per  day   .............................  5,200.00 

Foreman,  120  days  at  $5  per  day   ................................  ...  '      600.00 

Timekeeper,  4  months  at  $75  per  month  ............................  300.00 

Muckers  and  slopers,  500  days  at  $2.25  per  day   ....................  1,125.00 

Muckers,  slopers,  etc.,  *12  days  at  $2.50  per  day   ........  .......... 

Purchases   (picks,  shovels,  lanterns,  oils,  etc.)    ........  .  ..  ..........  182.60 

Insurance    ..................  ........................  .  .............  -.  ,/r,n 


Total    cost     ......................  '.....'  .....  •••  .....  iyuqij'Llfe.     $24,248.10 

Cost  per  cu.  yd  .....  ............  ..................................        ^3-7  ct. 

Revolving  Shovel  on  Road  in  Oregon.  In  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  June  7,  1916,  N.  J.  Chapman  describes  a  notable  ex- 
ample of  road  grading.  The  work  was  in  Klamath  County, 
Oregon,  overlooking  Klamath  Lake,  and  was  part  of  a  9-mile 
road,  about  7}£  miles  of  which  were  light  earthwork,  which  was 
performed  with  teams  and  scrapers.  The  remaining  1}£  miles 
were  steam  shovel  sidehill  cutting  around  Rattle  Snake  Point 
and  having  a  grade  of  about  3%.  The  cut  was  made  with  a  side 
slope  of  1  on  iy2  and  wide  enough  to  give  a  20-ft.  roadway  out- 
side the  ditch.  This  cutting  gave  a  yardage  per  lineal  foot  of 
road  of  from  5  to  8}£  cu.  yd.  The  material  consisted  of  loose 
boulders,  which  had  slid  down  the  mountain  side,  overlying  in 
places  cemented  gravel,  cinders,  chalk  rock  and  solid  ledge. 
All  had  to  be  blasted, 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS    535 

The  general  method  of  work  was  to  blast  and  excavate  with 
steam  shovel,  casting  the  spoil  down  hill  to  form  embankment. 
A  4-in,  duplex  pump  operated  by  a  6-hp.  Fairbanks-Morse  gasoline 
engine  was  set  12  ft.  above  lake  level.  A  2i£-in,  suction  pipe  was 
used.  The  delivery  pipe  was  2  in.  in  diameter  and  650  ft.  long 
and  delivered  up  hill  to  a  tank  located  above  all  parts  of  the 
work.  From  this  storage  tank  the  water  was  piped  to  the  steam 
shovel  and  camp.  To  provide  the  daily  supply  the  pump  had  to 
be  operated  about  one  hour.  For  the  drilling,  a  10-hp.  Sullivan 
air  compressor  driven  by  a  6-hp.  Fairbanks-Morse  gasoline  engine 
was  mounted  on  skids  back  of  the  shovel  and  the  air  pipe  ahead 
to  two  Little  Giant  rock  drills.  One  team  could  move  the  com- 
pressor plant  ahead  1,000  ft.  and  set  it  up  ready  for  work  in 
30  min. 

The  steam  shovel  was  a  No.  14B  (20-ton)  revolving  Bucyrus. 
The  crew  worked  on  and  about  the  shovel  consisted  of  an  engine- 
man,  a  fireman,  a  pitman  and  a  wood  and  water  man.  The 
shovel  graded  7,884  lin.  ft.  at  an  average  rate  of  about  60  ft. 
per  day.  The  total  operating  cost,  including  labor,  oil,  repairs, 
fuel  and  lights,  but  excluding  interest,  depreciation  and  overhead 
charges,  was  $6,480,  or  about  12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Finishing  behind 
the  shovel  was  done  by  hand  and  it  usually  took  three  men  per 
day  to  finish  up  in  good  shape.  The  cost  of  finishing  was  3  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.,  based  on  the  total  yardage  handled  by  the  shovel. 

Blasting* ahead  of  the  shovel  cost  more  than  solid  rock  would 
have  cost,  because  the  drills  could  not  be  used  in  all  material, 
In  many  places  "  coyote  "  holes  6  in.  in  diameter  and  20  ft.  into 
the  bank  had  to  be  drilled  by  hand.  Also  care  had  to  be  exer- 
cised in  blasting  to  protect  the  railway  tracks  downhill  from  the 
grading.  The  crew  ahead  of  the  shovel  consisted  of  from  6  to 
12  men,  and  one  powerman,  who  did  all  the  loading  and  firing. 
A  60-hole  battery  was  used  for  firing.  The  blasting  cost,  includ- 
ing labor,  powder,  exploders  and  battery,  $11,882  or  about  22  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  based  on  the  total  steam  shovel  yardage. 

Cost  of  Street  Grading  with  Revolving  Shovel,  in  Minneapolis. 
Fred  T.  Paul,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  7,  1916,  de- 
scribes work  done  by  force  account  in  1915  under  the  City  En- 
gineer's Department.  The  material  moved  was  a  conglomerate 
with  a  medium  fine  sand  predominating.  The  cut  was  from  2  to 
15  ft.  deep,  70  to  80  ft.  wide,  and  about  3,500  ft.  long.  A  Marion- 
Osgood  No.  18,  %-cu.  yd.  traction  steam  shovel  placed  the  ma- 
terial in  ordinary  li£-cu.  yd.  dump  wagons,  and  these  in  turn  de- 
posited it  in  the  fills  on  the  street,  making  an  average  haul  for  the 
job  of  1,000  ft. 

The  work  was  started  June  12  and  finished  Aug.  20,  covering 


536  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

a  period  of  55  full  working  days  of  eight  hours  each,  and  five  part 
days.  On  these  part  days,  little,  if  any,  dirt  was  moved,  but  the 
engineer,  foreman,  fireman,  watchman  and  timekeeper  received 
full  time  —  while  the  laborers  and  teams  were  given  only  part 
time.  A  total  of  21,500  pu.  yd.  of  material  were  handled  in  the 
55  full  days,  making  an  average  day's  output  of  391  cu.  yd.  The 
maximum  was  reached  during  five  days  in  the  heaviest  cut  when 
611  cu.  yd.  per  day  was  moved. 

The  total  material  cost  of  the  job  was  as  follows: 

27.45  tons  of  soft  coal  at  $5.05  per  ton  ..............................  $    138.62 

50  gal.  steam  cylinder  oil  at  $0.294  per  gal.   .  .  .  .......................  14.70 

Blacksmith   repairs    ...................................................  17.64 

New  shovel  parts    .....................................................  .82 

Miscellaneous,  including  waste,  packing,  hose,  grease,  etc  .........  27.78 

$    199.56 
The  average  daily  payroll  was  as  follows  : 

1  foreman  at  $4  per  day   .............................................     $       4.00 

1  engineman  at  $6  per  day    ..........................................  6.00 

1  fireman  at  $2.50  per  day   ..........................................  2.50 

l-20th  timekeeper  at  $4  per  day   ....................................  .20 

1  watchman  at  $2.50  per  day  .........................................  2.50 

2  laborers  on  dump  at  $2.50  per  day  each  ..........................  5.00 

2  laborers  in  pit  at  $2.50  per  day  each   .............................. 

1  laborer  on  coal  and  water  at  $2.50  per  day  ....................... 

6  laborers  straightening  and  leveling  up  at  $2.50  per  day  each  ...... 

7  teams  on  dump  wagons  at  $5  per  day  each  ......................  35.00 

Total  average  daily  payroll   ..............................  ••  •••     $     77.70 

Grand  total  payroll  for  sixty  days'  ...................................     $4,553.61 

Total  material  as   above    .............................................         199.56 

Interest  and  depreciation  on  plant  .................................. 

$4,823.17 

Distribution  and  Unit  Costs 

General  —  Amount 

Foreman,  60  days  at  $4   ..............................................     $    240.00 

l-20th  timekeeper,  60  days  at  20  ct  ................................... 

Total  general    ....................................  ,  .............     * 

Per  cu.  yd  ...........  ......................................... 


Excavating  and  Placing  Material  in  Wagons 


Engineer      o  days  at  $6   ..............................................  *    360.00 

Fireman,  60  days  at  $2.50   .....................................  ....... 

Watchman,  60  days  at  $2.50  ..........................................  150.00 

2  pit  laborers,  58  days  at  $5   .........................................  "JO-WJ 

Laborer  on  coal  and  water,  58%  days  at  $2.50  .......................  145.61 

6  laborers  on  cleanup,  58  days  at  $15  ................................ 


Total  labor 
Per  cu.  yd 


JSSJf  °nd     eti  .an  %  «  HOW 


$2,235.17 
Per  cu.  yd.   :'.  ................................................         *°-104 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       537 

Hauling,  Including  Placing  in  Dump 

7  teams,  58V2  days  at  $35  , $2,046.00 

2  laborers,  58  days  at  $5 290.00 

$2,336.00 

Per  cu.  yd $0.109 

Grand  totals    $4,823.17 

Per  cu.  yd $0.224 

Based  on  the  total  cost  of  moving  21,500  cu.  yd.  an  average 
distance  of  1,000  ft.,  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  hauled  100  ft.  would 
be  .022.  However,  the  actual  hauling  cost  per  cubic  yard  per 
100  ft.  was  only  .011. 

Revolving  Shovel  on  Street  Railway.  Costs  are  given  by  Tir- 
rell  J.  Ferrenz,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  18,  1916,  as 
follows : 

The  Chicago  Surface  Lines  build  on  the  average  from  50  to 
60  miles  of  single  track  per  year.  Inasmuch  as  the  city  of 
Chicago  embraces  over  200  square  miles  of  territory  within  its 
corporate  limits,  widely  divergent  soil  conditions  are  encountered 
in  this  work.  These  include  a  large  amount  of,  stiff  clay  and 
sandy  soil,  together  with  considerable  swamp  land  and  in  some 
instances  of  outcropping  rock.  It  is  the  practice,  wherever  con- 
ditions permit,  to  employ  a  steam  or  electric  shovel  in  excavating 
to  subgrade  for  the  track  structure. 

The  standard  type  of  construction,  as  approved  by  the  Board 
of  Supervising  Engineers,  provides  for  depths  of  21%  in.  and 
23%  in.  from  the  street  grade  to  track  foundation,  the  width 
of  cut  commonly  being  18  ft.  2  in.  for  double  track. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  by  a  detail  time-study  of 
excavation  on  West  51st  St.,  between  Leavitt  St.  and  Central 
Park  Av.,  a  distance  of  1%  miles: 

Depth  of  cut,   average    26  in. 

Width  of  trench    -. 18  ft.  2  in. 

Kind  of  material  Stiff  clay 

Type  of  shovel  (18-ton)    Thew  steam  shovel 

Capacity  of  shovel  %  cu.  yd. 

tfwell  of  Broken  Ground.  The  quantity  of  material  in  place 
was  obtained  by  taking  levels  at  various  points  and  computing 
the  yardage  for  each  10-ft.  section.  Loose  earth  was  removed  by 
wagons  which  were  loaded  full  each  trip. 

Lineal  feet  excavated  on  test 230 

Total  place  measurement,   cu.  yd 230 

Number  of  loads  221 

Capacity  per  load,  cu.  yd • 2 

Total  loose  material,  cu .  yd 442 

Swell  of  broken  ground,  per  cent 34 

Time  Excavating  and  Loading: 

Wagon  in  position  for  loading,  min 0.25 

Time  for  loading,  min 1.52 


538  HANDBOOK. OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Getting  under  way,  min 0.20 

Moving  up  shovel,  min 0.20 

Minimum  time  per  load,  min 2.17 

Average  time  per  load,  including  all  stops,  delays,  etc.,  min 2.52 

Average  number  of  loads  per  10-hr,  day   238 

Cubic  yards  loose  material  loaded  per  10-hr,  day   476 

Cubic  yards  in  place  loaded  per  10-hr,  day  355 

Lineal  feet  excavated  per  10-hr,  day   243 

Cubic  yards  in  place  per  lineal  foot  1.46 

Time  Hauling.  Hauling  was  done  by  a  teaming  contractor 
under  a  general  agreement  covering  the  removal  of  all- excavated 
material  within  the  limits  of  a  specified  territory.  Hauling  by 
wagon  over  common,  fairly  dry,  unpaved  streets  required  0.5  min. 
per  100  ft. 

Rate  per  100  ft.,  incl.  stops,  lost  time,  etc.,  min 1.085 

Average  length  of  haul,  ft 800 

Hauling  time  per  trip,  mm 17.36 

Total  time  per  trip,  incl.  loading,  min 19.88 

Number  trips  per  team  per  10-hr,  day  30 

Number  teams  required  8 

'-•(;;,      ;    '»OfH  x<li     '^Mifl 

Labor  Excavating  and  Loading: 

1  engineman  at  75  ct.  per  hr $  0.75 

1  fireman  at  34  ct.  per  hr 0.34  * 

10  laborers  at  22%  ct.  per  hr '.....  2.25 

TToT 
Per  hour  *  3-3* 

Total  per  10-hr,   day 33.40 

The  gang  of  ten  laborers  was  used  in  moving  shovel  platform, 
furnishing  coal  and  water  for  shovel,  dressing  up  ditch  and  load- 
ing wagons.  One  shovel  watchman  was  employed  at  $2.50  per 
day.  His  duties  consisted  in  watching  shovel  and  keeping  up  fire 
at  night.  A  lunch  period  of  30  min.  was  allowed  at  noon. 

Cost  of  Supplies  for  Shovel: 

3  tons  Pocahontas  coal  at  $5.25  , $15.75 

5  gal.  cylinder  oil  at  $0.40  , 2.00 

SVs.  gal. 'engine  oil  at  $0.275 0.96 

3  Ib.  colored  waste  at  $0.07  0.21 

IV?.  Ib    white  waste  at  $0.105  0.16 

2  Ib.  cup  grease  at  $0.08  0.16 

Total  cost  per  week  of  six  days $19.24 

Cost  per  day 3-21 

Summary  of  Costs: 

Per  10-hr.  Per  cu.  yd. 

day  in  place 

Excavating  and  loading  $33.40  $0.094 

Watching  shovel    2.50  0.007 

Supplies  for  shovel  3.21 

Total    $39.11  $0.110 

Eevolving  Shovel  Work  on  Roads  in  Utah.  According  to  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Nov.  6,  1918,  the  State  Roads  Com- 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AK±>  ELECTlRIC  SHOVEL&      530 

mission  of  Utah  is  employing  steam  shovels  on  heavy  cuts  and 
sidehill  work  in  connection  with  road  construction  projects.  On 
one  job  in  Weber  Canyon,  near  Henefer,  a  20-ton  Bucyrus  Model 
18-B,  working  on  sidehill  cuts  for  roadway,  moved  about  400 
cU.  yd.  per  8-hr,  shift  for  several  days.  The  material  was  about 
35%  earth  and  05%  boulders,  ranging  from  6  in.  to  3  ft.  in 
diameter  or  even  larger.  Some  of  the  larger  boulders  were 
broken  with  blasting  powder  ahead  of  the  shovel.  The  total  oper- 
ating expenses  per  8-hr,  shift  were  as  follows: 

»  wia-z  ^m?>  jiora  Vrt'eilhta  '•*&%  <>"*  ^uitfiov/  ,n,l>  * 

Team   and   wagon    .................  .  .....................  $  6.00 

Steam  shovel  engineman   ................................  6.00 

3  men  at  $4   ..............................................  12.00 

Field  engineer    ...........................................  6.00 

Coal      .....................................................  4.00 

Oil        .....................  ................................  LOO 


Total  per  day  l.'^!^!.^.  ^.J^.^L^l...    $^00 

Taking  into  account  the  time  lost  for  occasional  repairs,  a  unit 
price  of  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  was  obtained  on  the  greater  part  of  this 
work. 

Steam  shovel  work  in  Willow  Creek  on  the  Castle  Gate-Du- 
chesne  post  road,  Carbon  County,  Utah,  had  the  following  quan- 
tities in  the  July  estimate,  1918: 

Wyfil    -    I'tiii    yl.'fy/     .      <ii    llil    lAt/riiioi    6  •  ;*:|JJIH   <>l    r'liiitt   t    ittn'i  &  f  i,'>x*t    ."'ftrt1* 

Cu.  yd. 
E  arth    .....................................................     3,500 

Loose  rock  ............  ...............  •  .....................    1,000 

Solid   rock    ...............  ......  ...........................    1,800 


Total   .... ;;':CV;i . ivl AwL Ji'f :wyJL»fl 6,300 

The  pay  roll  covering  this  work,  including  blasting  the  ledge 
rock  and  large  boulders  and  some  leveling  and  finishing  of  the 
grade,  amounted  to  $1,283,  giving  a  unit  cost  of  20  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Motor  Trucks  Loaded  by  Steam  Shovel.  When  motor  trucks 
are  used  in  earth  excavation,  the  spoil  is  generally  loaded  onto 
a  platform  or  into  a  hopper,  and  thence  dumped  into  trucks,  in 
order  that  the  trucks  may  be  kept  off  the  soft  ground.  In  the 
excavation  for  the  cellar  of  the  Circle  Building,  at  Columbus  Cir- 
cle, New  York  City,  according  to  Engineering  News,  September 
30,  1915,  the  trucks  were  sent  directly  into  the  cellar  being  exca- 
vated. Three-ton  motor  trucks  were  loaded  by  a  steam  shovel, 
which  started  at  one  end  of  the  site  and  worked  lo  the  other  end, 
where  it  turned  around  and  dug  its  way  out.  Each  truck  held 
4  cu.  yd.  of  earth.  Twenty  trucks  were  employed,  each  hauling 
seven  loads  per  day.  The  trucks  were  drawn  out  of  the  excava- 
tion by  a  cable  operated  by  a  hoisting  engine. 

Motor  Trucks  for  the  Public  Service  Terminal,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  12,  1916,  gives  the  following: 


540  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  contract  by  Holbrook,  Cabot  &  Rollins,  New  York,  N.  Y., 
for  the  Public  Service  Terminal  at  Park  Place,  Newark,  N.  J., 
called  for  the  excavation  of  over  120,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  to  be 
removed  from  a  plot  900  ft.  long,  with  an  average  width  of  140 
ft.  and  a  depth  of  25  ft.  below  curb.  In  addition  there  were  136 
caissons,  averaging  8  ft.  in  diameter,  to  be  sunk  to  a  depth  of  at 
least  58  ft.  in  order  to  reach  rock. 

In  hauling  the  excavated  material  from  ten  to  twelve  Fierce- 
Arrow  trucks  were  employed.  The  trucks  were  operated  18  hr. 
a  day,  working  two  9-hr,  shifts  of  men,  one  going  on  at  5  A.  M. 
and  the  other  quitting  at  midnight.  With  ten  trucks  in  service 
the  average  working  per  day  was  9%  trucks.  The  only  truck 
troubles  were  a  few  broken  springs,  due  to  the  rough  road  over 
which  the  hauling  was  done.  With  the  ten  trucks  working  18  hr. 
per  day,  28  trips  per  truck,  of  5^  miles,  were  made.  Each  truck 
carried  a  load  of  4  cu.  yd.  or  a  total  of  112  cu.  yd.  per  day.  The 
trucks  were  loaded  by  steam  shovel,  and  the  average  time  of 
loading  was  3  minutes.  A  concise  statement  of  the  operations 
is  contained  in  the  following  report,  submitted  Dec.  2,  1914, 
after  the  work  was  well  under  way: 

Ten  4-yd.,  5-ton  Fierce-Arrow  trucks  in  15  weeks  carried  53,000  cu.  yd. 
earth  excavation  7  miles  to  make  a  four-foot  fill  18  ft.  wide  and  2  miles 
long.  This  sand,  loam  and  gravel  was  loaded  by  a  Bucyrus  18-B,  25-ton 
revolving  shovel  from  the  %-yd.  dipper  directly  into  the  trucks,  which  took 
it  up  a  400-foot  5%  grade  planked  ramp,  then  over  cobblestone  and  other 
poor  pavement  in  streets  with  car  tracks  and  over  one  drawbridge  to  the 
above  mentioned  fill,  which  was  parallel  to,  but  only  connected  at  intervals 
with,  the  turnpike  road.  The  time  of  loading  varied  from  one  to  five  min- 
utes and  up.  Unloading,  aVout  the  same  time.  The  following  are  the 
figures : 

Number  of  trucks  on  the  job   10 

Number  of  trucks  actually  at  work,  average  about. .  9% 

Number  of  loads   13,928 

Average  loads,  cu.  yd 3-° 

Average  weight  of  load  at  98  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.  tons  4.9 

Total  mileage  for  9V2  trucks  98,888 

Average  mileage  1  truck  10,400 

Number  of  days  worked  (Sunday  not  included)   

Number  of  da'ys  two  shifts  worked   

Total  shifts  worked  in  90  days   

Average  miles  per  9%  hr.  shift  for  9%  trucks 600 

Average  mile  per  truck  per  9%  hr.  shift  

The  books  show  that  the  overhead  expense  was  $8  a  day,  which 
included  interest,  insurance,  garage  service,  and  the  salaries  of 
the  two  drivers.  The  operating  expense  was  shown  to  be  18  ct. 
per  mile,  which  included  tires,  gasoline,  oil,  repairs  and  depre- 
ciation. Figuring  on  the  basis  of  each  truck  making  154  miles 
per  18-hr,  day,  which  was  the  average,  the  total  cost  per  truck 
per  day  was  $35.72,  and  this  reduced  to  the  cost  of  yardage 
removed,  figured  out  32  ct.  per  yd. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       541 

In  estimating  what  the  cost  of  doing  this  work  with  horse 
teams  -vould  have  been,  it  was  figured  that  there  was  a  saving 
of  approximately  60%  in  favor  of  the  motor  trucks.  The  net 
saving  on  this  basis  would  amount  to  $550  a  day.  It  is  some- 
what idle,  however,  to  speculate  along  these  lines,  for  it  is  a  plain 
statement  of  fact  that  horse  teams  simply  could  not  have  done 
the  work  at  any  cost  within  the  contract  time. 

Electrically  Operated  Shovels.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Dec.  14,  1910,  gives  the  following:  The  mechanical  equipment 
of  an  electrically  operated  shovel,  i.  e.,  the  dipper,  boom,  car  and 
trucks,  is  built  along  the  familiar  lines  of  the  steam  shovel.  The 
power  equipment  consists  of  a  motor  of  from  50  to  200  hp.  to 
operate  the  hoist,  and  two  motors  of  from  25  to  80  hp.  to  swing 
the  boom  and  operate  the  thrust.  The  hoist  and  swing  motors 
are  located  in  the  car,  and  are  geared  to  the  drums  through  suit- 
able reducing  gears.  The  thrust  motor  is  mounted  directly  on 
the  boom,  and  communicates  its  motion  to  the  bucket  staff  through 
reducing  gears  connected  to  a  pinion  engaging  a  rack  on  the  staff. 
The  motors  are  of  the  crane  or  mill  type,  with  high  torque  char- 
acteristic, and  may  be  for  either  direct  or  alternating  current. 
They  are  reversing  and  are  under  perfect  control.  When  desired 
the  controllers  may  be  connected  to  the  ordinary  hand  lever  used 
on  steam  shovels,  so  that  a  steam  shovel  engineer  can  operate 
the  electric  shovel  without  any  trouble.  Data  in  regard  to  the 
sizes,  capacities  and  motors  required  are  given  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I  —  ELECTRIC  POWER  SHOVELS 

Weight  Size 

of  shovels  of  dipper  Hp.  of  motors 

Tons  Cu.  yd.  Hoist  Thrust  Swing 

30  1                           50  30  30 

35  1&                      50  30  30 

35  1*4                      60  30  30 

35  1^4                        75  35  35 

42  1V2                      75  30  30 

65  2  100  35  35 

95  3%  150  50  50 

100  4  200  80  80 

The  power  is  ordinarily  taken  from  trolley  wires,  or  from  a 
transformer  located  near  the  cut,  the  feed  cables  from  the  power 
circuit  to  the  car  being  wound  on  a  retractile  reel  in  the  cab 
and  drawn  in  or  paid  out  as  the  cut  advances.  The  wiring  in 
the  car  is  enclosed  in  conduit,  and  is  well  protected  from  moisture 
and  mechanical  injury. 

The  chief  objection  in  the  past  to  electrically  operated  shovels 
has  been  the  possibility  of  damage  to  the  hoist  motor  when  stalled, 
due  to  the  bucket  digging  in  too  deep,  or  striking  a  rock  or  other 
obstruction  in  the  bank.  The  heavy  current  taken  at  such  times 


542  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

was  apt  to  cause  a  burn-out,  while  if  the  motor  was  properly 
protected  by  fuses  or  circuit-breakers,  their  continual  opening 
caused  annoying  interruptions  of  service.  This  difficulty  has 
been  overcome  by  the  use  of  automatic  magnet  switch  control, 
which  protects  the  motor  against  such  overloads  by  cutting 
resistance  into  the  circuit  when  the  current  exceeds  a  certain 
value. 

The  motor  driving  the  thrust  may  be  operated  either  by  a 
drum  controller  or  by  automatic  magnet  control.  The  motor 
and  its  controller  must  be  of  such  a  design  that  the  motor  will 
be  able  to  develop  a  heavy  torque  for  short  intervals  of  time 
while  standing  still,  or  rotating  very  slowly.  Its  duty  is  to 
jam  the  dipper  against  the  bank  and  hold  it  there  while  the 
hoist  operates.  As  soon  as  the  dipper  strikes  the  bank  the  thrust 
motor  ceases  to  revolve,  except  very  slowly,  but  must  still  exert 
full  torque  in  order  to  keep  the  dipper  against  the  face  of  the 
cut.  Its  characteristics  should,  therefore,  be  such  that  it  may 
be  stalled  frequently  for  a  minute  or  more  at  a  time  and  still 
keep  developing  full-load  torque  without  injury. 

The  motor  driving  the  swinging  boom  may  be  operated  by  hand 
control  if  provided  with  a  magnetic  brake  to  stop  the  motor 
quickly  and  keep  the  circuit-breaker  from  opening  if  the  motor 
is  reversed  quickly;  or  may  be  operated  by  automatic  control 
without  a  brake.  The  operator  can  place  the  bucket  with  greater 
precision  and  ease  with  the  automatic  control  on  account  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  magnet  accelerates  the  motor.  The 
controller  panels  and  switches  are  placed  in  the  rear  of  the  car, 
while  the  faster  switches  or  drum  type  controllers  are  placed  in 
the  front  within  easy  reach  of  the  operator.  This  makes  a 
very  compact  and  accessible  equipment. 

Perhaps  the  most  promising  field  for  electric  shovels  is  in  con- 
nection with  electric  traction  lines,  where  electric  power  is 
usually  available  at  a  very  low  rate.  For  this  service  they  are 
mounted  on  standard  gage  trucks  equipped  with  air  brakes,  and 
may  be  hauled  on  the  regular  tracks,  or  may  be  equipped  with  a 
trolley  and  made  self  propelling,  the  maximum  speed  being  about 
5  miles  per  hr.  Great  economy  can  also  be  effected  by  the  use 
of  electric  shovels  in  any  territory  where  coal  is  hard  to  pro- 
cure and  water  power  is  comparatively  cheap,  as  experience  has 
shown  that  with  current  at  2  ct.  per  kw.-hr.  or  less,  their  cost 
of  operation  is  only  about  half  that  of  steam  shovels.  And  as 
part  of  this  saving  is  obtained  by  decreased  labor  costs,  and  the 
cost  for  power  is  only  about  one-third  the  total  cost  of  operating 
the  shovel,  local  circumstances  may  determine  a  saving  at  con- 
siderably higher  power  rates. 

r  Y/K-iii  -l        i         ' 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       543 

Operating  Costs.  While  the  initial  cost  of  electric  shovels  is 
more  than  that  of  steam  shovels,  their  operating  cost  is  usually, 
less.  They  can  ordinarily  be  operated  by  a  smaller  number  of 
men;  the  hauling  of  coal  and  water  is  dispensed  with;  their 
power  economy  is  greatly  superior  to  that  of  the  steam  shovels, 
and  they  can  be  handled  with  greater  precision  and  rapidity.  In 
addition  the  electric  shovel  is  comparatively  noiseless  in  opera- 
tion, which  is  a  great  advantage  for  city  use. 

Some  interesting  data  in  regard  to  the  cost  of  operation  of 
electric  shovels  has  been  obtained  by  the  Vulcan  Steam  Shovel 
Co.,  of  Toledo,  O.  One  of  these  shovels  has  been  operated  by 
the  Milwaukee  Electric  R.  &  Light  Co.  for  several  years,  at  a 
consumption  of  approximately  100  kw.-hr.  per  10-hr,  day.  It  is 
used  for  loading  gravel  at  a  gravel  ba"nk  and  is  operated  by 
two  men,  who  load  from  300  to  400  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  per  day. 
The  average  daily  expenses  of  operating  this  shovel  are: 

One    engineman    $2.00 

One  craneman   1.75 

Electric  power  at  1.5  ct.  kw.-hr 1.50 

Oil,  waste,  repairs,  etc 0.75 

Total  per  day  $6.00 

The  Chautauqua  Traction  Co.,  of  Jamestown,  New  York,  has 
been  operating  a  shovel  equipped  with  a  75-hp.  hoist  motor, 
since  1907.  This  shovel  is  used  in  loading  a  mixture  of  gravel, 
sticky  clay  and  sand,  which  is  very  hard  to  dig,  and  is  operated 
by  2  men  on  the  shovel  and  2  pitmen.  The  current  consumption 
on  a  special  test  averaged  163  kw.-hr.  per  8-hr,  day,  and  534 
cu.  yd.  of  material  were  loaded  in  an  average  day.  The  total 
expenses  per  day,  including  the  pitmen,  were  $8.80,  or  approxi- 
mately 1.7  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  maximum  capacity  of  this  shovel 
is  about  1,000  cu.  yd.  per  8  hr.  If  operated  at  this  capacity,  the 
power  consumption  would  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  out- 
put, but  the  labor  charges  would  be  the  same  as  figured  in  the 
above  statement.  This  would  bring  the  cost  of  shoveling  down 
to  about  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Comparison  of  Cost  of  Steam  and  Electrically  Operated  Shovels. 
Where  the  cost  of  electric  energy  is  very  low,  or  where  the 
smoke  and  sparks  of  a  steam  plant  constitute^  nuisance,  as  in  a 
city,  the  substitution  of  electric  motors  for  the  steam  power  plant 
on  shovels  is  profitable.  Electric '  shovels  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes :  ( 1 )  the  friction-electric,  whicli  is  operated  by  a 
single  constant-speed  motor  with  friction  clutches;  (2)  the  three 
or  four  motor  direct-current  equipment;  (3)  the  three  or  four 
motor  alternating-current  equipment.  The  friction-electric  shovel, 
according  to  Mr.  H.  W.  Rogers  in  Engineering  News,  Mar.  19, 


544       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

1914,  does  not  compare  favorably  with  the  other  two  classes  as 
far  as  speed  is  concerned,  although  it  may  be  operated  as  cheaply. 
The  saving  in  operating  cost  of  the  electric  shovel  over  the 
steam  shovel  depends  on  the  comparative  cost  of  coal  and  elec- 
tric power,  and  will  vary  for  different  localities.  However  it 
should  be  remembered  that  an  electrically  operated  shovel  elimi- 
nates the  fireman,  watchman,  coal  passer,  teaming  for  ^  dav, 
the  use  of  water,  and  considerable  waste.  Assuming  that  the 
shovel  working  year  consists  of  150  days,  and  that  the  shovel 
is  working  but  one  shift  a  day,  the  following  is  the  approximate 
comparative  cost  of  operation  of  steam  and  electric  shovels. 

Labor  per  shift  Steam.  Electric 

Shovel  runner    \ $  6.00  $  6.00 

Craneman    4.00  4.00 

•  ' '      Fireman     2.50 

Six  pitmen  at  $1.75   10.50  10.50 

One    watchman 1.75 

One  coal  passer  1.50 

Teaming  (%  day)    2.50 

Oil  and  waste 1.50  0.75 


Total    labor    $30.25  $21.25 


-Electric 


Direct  Alternating 

Steam  current  current 

Interest  at  6%    $  5.20  $  7.75  $10.85 

Depreciation  at  4%%   4.03  6.00  8.43 

Repairs  at  10%- 8.66 

Repairs  at  6%   7.75  10.85 

Labor  per  shift   30.25  21.25  21.25 


Total  exclusive  of  power.     $48.14  $42.75  $51.38 

The  above  is  based  on  the  following  first  costs  of  shovels: 
Steam  shovel,  $13,000;  direct-current  electric  shovel  $19,400; 
alternating-current  electric  shovel  $27,000. 

Revolving  Electric  Shovel  on  Street  Railway  Work.  The 
following  is  from  Electric  Railway  Jl.,  Dec.  2,  1911:  For  exca- 
vating trenches  for  new  and  rebuilt  tracks,  the  United  Railway 
Co.,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  used  a  Thew  No.  0  (18-ton)  electric 
shovel  with  a  %-yd.  dipper.  In  the  suburbs  in  ungraded  streets, 
where  the  digging  is  to  depths  of  3  or  4  ft.,  the  truck  on  which 
the  shovel  is  mounted  is  self-propelled  on  4-ft.  sections  of  tem- 
porary track,  moved  from  the  rear  to  the  front  of  the  shovel 
as  the  work  proceeds. 

Where  a  shallow  trench  is  being  excavated,  the  shovel  must 
be  moved  forward  frequently,  and  therefore  a  special  cradle  for 
carrying  the  shovel  truck  over  the  trench  on  temporary  track, 
laid  in  advance,  was  devised.  This  cradle  and  truck  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  69.  The  cradle  was  built  of  10-in.  channels  and  equipped 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AXD  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       545 

with  four  12-in.  double-flanged  wheels.  It  is  bolted  to  the  track. 
When  supported  by  this  device  the  propelling  mechanism  of  the 
shovel  was  useless.  Therefore  a  push  car,  fitted  with  axles  having 
wheels  set  at  both  standard  and  10-ft.  gage,  was  used  to  move 
the  shovel.  A  trench  21  in.  deep  and  7.5  ft.  wide,  was  excavated 
at  the  rate  of  300  lin.  ft.  or  146  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.,  under  city 
conditions. 


Blocking  for  Second 
Track  of  Double 
Track  when  Devil    u 
Strip  is  Excavated. 


-Electric-Sh 


Cradle  bolted  to  Track  ol  Electric 


Excavation  in  i 
Devil  Strip.     v 


rench  for  New  Track «-{— 

7'6"wide.  2l"deep.  1       !>J 


End  View  showing  Position  oi  Shovel  on  Truck. 
Fig.  69.     Special  Truck  for  Automatic  Shovel 

Power  Consumption  of  Electric  Shovels.  For  excavating 
gravel  for  the  construction  of  a  dam  across  the  Carson  River  at 
Lahontan,  Nev.,  a  Bucyrus,  21^-yd.  dipper,  electric  shovel  was 
employed.  This  machine,  its  performance  and  power  consump- 
tion were  described  by  Mr.  C.  E.  Hogle  in  Engineering  News, 
Jan.  23,  1913. 

The  hoisting  machinery  was  geared  to  a  115-hp.,  440-volt,  3- 
phase,  60-cyele,  variable  speed  induction  motor  which  also  pro- 
pelled the  shovel.  The  swinging  gear  and  the  thrust  mechanism 
were  each  driven  by  a  50-hp.  motor.  In  addition,  there  was  a 
2-hp.  motor  that  furnished  power  to  an  air  compressor  which 
supplied  air  for  brakes.  On  the  rear  of  the  shovel  were  three 
90-k.v.a.,  single-phase  transformers  which  stepped  down  the  line 
voltage  from  2,300  to  440.  Current  was  supplied  to  the  shovel 
through  700  ft.  of  triple  conductor  cable,  armored  with  D-shape 
steel  tape.  This  was  laid  on  and  dragged  along  the  ground. 

In  order  to  get  some  definite  data  regarding  the  performance 
and  power  consumption  of  this  shovel,  a  test  was  made  at 
Lahontan,  Xev.,  on  the  morning  of  Oct.  14,  1912.  A  polyphase 
recording  watthour  meter,  a  polyphase  curve-tracing  wattmeter, 
a  curve-tracing  ammeter  and  a  voltmeter  were  installed  in  the 
2,300-volt  circuit  supplying  the  shovel.  The  speed  of  the  paper 


546 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


in  the  curve-tracing  ammeter  was  10%  in.  per  min.,  while  the 
speed  of  the  paper  in  the  curve-tracing  wattmeter  was  11  in. 
per  min.  The  different  operations  of  the  shovel  were  noted  by 
a  separate  observer,  who  signaled  to  the  instrument  observers 
and  also  timed  the  different  operations  with  a  stop-watch. 

The  shovel  was  working  in  a  gravel  bank  10  to  12  ft.  deep, 
and  the  clear  lift  of  the  dipper  was  16  ft.  The  conditions  of  the 
work  were  not  favorable  to  making  a  test  for  determining  the 
maximum  excavating  capacity  of  the  shovel.  Only  two  six-car 
trains  could  be  spared  for  the  test,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to 
adjust  the  train  length  to  the  material  to  be  excavated.  The 
shovel  has,  however,  been  operated  at  very  nearly  four  cycles 
per  minute,  a  cycle  being  a  dipper  load. 

The  tests  lasted  throughout  six  trains  of  six  cars  each  and 
current  and  wattmeter  curves  were  taken  throughout  the  whole 
time  covered  by  these  six  trains,  thus  giving  a  complete  record 
of  every  operation.  Only  the  curves  for  train  No.  12  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  figures.  During  the  test'of  train  No.  12 
the  voltage  varied  between  2360  and  1960. 

The  data  derived  from  these  tests  are  grouped  in  the  accom- 
panying table. 


ELECTRIC  SHOVEL  TEST  U.   S.   RECLAMATION   SERVICE- 
TRUCKEE-CARSON  PROJECT 


Lahontan,  Nevada,  Oct.  14,  1912 

Maximum 
peak  per  train 

Am- 
peres at    kilo. 
2,300  v.    watts 


Time  in 

minutes 

Cycles 

No. 
train 

No. 
cycles 

Cubic 
yards 

required 
to  load 

per 
minute 

trains 

9 

12 

24 

4.08 

2.94 

10 

12 

24 

4.57 

2.62 

11 

12 

24 

4.75 

2.52 

12 

12 

24 

4.00 

3.00 

13 

11 

22 

4.00 

2.75 

14 

12 

24 

4.50 

2.67 

Totals 

and 

71 

142 

25.90 

2.75 

226 
259 
236 
225 
252 
238 


rrr.j;»fjoD 

Highest 

average 

kws. 

per 

cycle 

112 

120 
118 
102 
126 


Power 

consumed 

loading 

trains 

kw.hr. 

6.22 

7.68 

6.75 

6.40 

7.12 

6.15 

6.72 
averages 

Total  time  elasped  from  start  of  train  No.  9  to  end  of  train  No.  14  45.5  min. 

Total  time  of  loading  trains    25.9  min. 

Total  time  of  delays,  moving  up,  waiting  for  cars,  etc 19.6  min. 

Digging  and  loading  period  is  57%   of  total  time. 

Delays,  moving  up,  etc.,  is  43%  of  total  time. 

On  the  above  basis  the  amount  of  gravel  excavated  per  8-hr,  day  is  1,500  cu. 

yd.  of  loose  gravel. 

Total  power  consumed  by  six  trains  is  42  96  kw.-hr.  or,  7.16  kw.-hr.  per  train. 
Total  number  of  trains  per  8-hr,  day  =  63  3. 
Power  consumed  by  shovel  prr  8-hr,  day  nr  453  kw.-hr. 
Power  consumed  per  cu.  yd.  of  loose  gravel  =  0.302  kw.-hr. 

Cost    with    Electric    Shovel.     The    Chautauqua    Traction    Co., 
Jamestown,  N,  Y.,  used  a  Vulcan  electric  shovel  during  1908  for 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      547 

excavating  ballast.  This  machine  was  described  in  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Jan.  6,  1909.  Complete,  it  weighed  about  40 
tons.  Power  was  furnished  through  three  variable  speed,  D.  C., 
600  volt,  700  rpm.  motors.  The  hoisting  motor  was  75hp.,  and 
was  provided  with  an  automatic  magnetic  controller  and  circuit 
breaker  for  throwing  off  the  current  when  extraordinarily  hard 
material  was  encountered,  thus  preventing  any  danger  of  the 
motor  stalling  and  burning  out.  The  swinging  gear  motor  was 
30-hp.,  and  the  crowding  engine  motor  was  30-hp.,  also. 

Mr.  A.  N.  Broodhead,  president  of  the  road,  is  authority  for 
the  following  cost  data. 

1  man    $0.33 

1  man 0.25 

2  men,   at  15  ct 0.30 

20,346  K.  W.  hr.  at  .0088  ct 0.18 

Oil  and  waste  (estimated)    . . . 0.04 

Total  cost,  per'hr $1.10 

The  amount  excavated  each  hour  was  66%  cu.  yd.,  giving 
the  following  costs  per  day: 

8  hr.,  at  $1.10,  $8.80. 

8  hr.  at  66%  cu.  yd.,  534  cu.  yd. 

$8.80  divided  by  534  cu.  yd.,  1.64  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  loading. 

The  material  excavated  was  a  mixture  of  gravel,  sticky  clay 
and  sand,  which  made  it  hard  to  dig,  but  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  above  figures,  the  cost  of  this  work  was  very  low.  There 
are,  of  course,  several  causes  for  this,  the  principal  ones  being, 
first,  that  as  the  shovel  requires  no  boiler,  the  cost  of  a  fireman 
and  of  hauling  coal  and  water  are  eliminated;  second,  that  the 
work  of  the  shovel  was  so  intermittent  and  when  the  shovel  was 
idle  no  power  was  being  consumed  as  would  be  the  case  with 
steam  shovel.  The  -shovel  could  have  been  operated  to  its  maxi- 
mum capacity,  which  would  have  given  twice  the  yardage,  at 
nearly  the  same  cost  as  the  men  had  to  be  paid  whether  they 
were  working  or  idle,  and  the  additional  cost  for  power  would 
not  have  been  more  than  twice  what  it  was  which,  on  the  same 
basis,  would  mean  1,068  yards  at  a  cost  of  $10.24,  or  less  than 
1  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Revolving  Electric  Shovel  in  a  Gravel  Pit.  In  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  July  22,  1908,  were  published  data  relating  to 
the  cost  of  operating  a  Thew  No.  1  electric  shovel,  owned  by 
the  Brautford  &  Hamilton  Electric  Railway,  Canada.  The  ma- 
chine weighed  25  tons,  was  furnished  with  a  1  cu.  yd.  dipper, 
and  was  equipped  with  a  35-hp.  motor.  Two  men  composed  the 
operating  crew. 

The  conditions  under  which  this  shovel  was  worked  were  most 
favorable.  It  worked  in  a  gravel  pit,  the  depth  of  the  cutting 


548  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

being  about  14  ft.  The  material  was  very  easy  to  handle.  The 
pit  was  very  long,  so  the  shovel  did  not  need  to  be  shifted  often, 
and  inasmuch  as  it  makes  a  complete  swing,  the  time  of  shifting 
was  very  short.  A  special  trolley  wire  was  used  for  the  motor 
in  the  shovel,  so  that  the  current  was  constant.  No  time  was 
lost  in  moving  the  shovel  ahead,  as  two  men  working  in  the 
pit  would  clean  out  a  space  directly  in  front  of  the  shovel,  when 
the  machine  would  pick  up  a  section  of  track  in  the  rear  and 
place  it  in  the  newly  cleaned  space.  While  the  two  pitmen  were 
fixing  this  piece  of  track  the  shovel  would  take  gravel  from 
the  side,  so  that  not  more  than  a  minute  was  required  to  move 
the  shovel  ahead. 

The  company  had  an  ample  supply  of  flat  cars  on  each  of 
which  were  loaded  14  cu.  yd.  loose  measurement.  There  were 
also  plenty  of  motors  to  haul  the  trains  away,  six  cars  making 
up  a  train.  One  motor  oar  was  used  to  spot  the  cars  continuously, 
and  a  man  was  employed  as  a  signalman  to*  assist  in  spotting  cars. 
The  shovel  worked  *a  10-hr,  shift,  and  any  repairing  and  over- 
hauling was  done  at  night  by  another  crew.  Operating  in  this 
manner,  as  a  rule,  the  shovel  was  loading  the  maximum  time, 
there  being  but  little  time  lost  in  placing  cars  under  the  dipper 
and  in  moving  ahead.  With  the  electric  current  no  time  was 
lost  in  taking  supplies  of  water  and  fuel. 

The  trains  that  carried  the  gravel  away  were  operated  by  a 
motorman  and  one  other  man.  A  plow,  pulled  by  the  motor  car, 
was  used  to  unload  the  cars,  and  two  men  were  kept  on  the  dump 
to  handle  the  cable  of  the  plow  and  to  attend  to  other  details. 

Owing  to  the  large  supply  of  cars  and  motors,  to  the  favorable 
conditions  in  the  pit  and  the  method  of  operating,  the  output 
of  the  shovel  per  day  did  not  vary  much.  A  great  many  days 
100  flat  cars  were  loaded  each  day  and  hauled  away.  This  meant 
an  output  of  1,400  cu.  yd.,  loose  measurement,  or  1,050  cu.  yd. 
place  measurement. 

The  labor  cost  of  operating  per  day  was  as  follows: 

Superintendent    $4-00 

Shovel  Crew: 

2  shovelmen     6.00 

2  pitmen    3.00 

Spotting  Cars: 

1  motorman    , 3.00 

1  signalman   1.50 

Transporting  (2  trains) : 

2  motormen    6.00      -  , 

2  trainmen    3.00 

D   m 

2  men    3.00 

Total'per  day  $29.50 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      549 

With  1,050  cu.  yd.  moved  per  day  we  have  the  following  unit 
cost  for  labor: 

Superintendence    $0.004 

Loading    0.013 

Transporting     0.009 

Dumping 0.003 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.029 

To  •  this  must  be  added  charge  for  power,  plant  charges,  re- 
pairs and  track  work.  When  the  haul  increased  in  length  addi- 
tional trains  were  added,  so  that  the  shovel  was  still  kept  busy 
loading  the  cars. 

On  some  days  the  output  fell  to  80  car-loads  or  less.  With 
this  output,  namely  800  cu.  yd.  place  measurement  per  day,  the 
unit  labor  cost  was: 

Superintendence    $0.005 

Loading    0.017 

Transporting     0.011 

Dumping     0.004 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.037 

The  above  show  low  records  of  cost  for  steam  shovel  work, 
but  they  make  evident  the  economical  features  of  excavating  with 
a  shovel  of  this  type,  as  small  and  inexpensive  crews  are  em- 
ployed, and  a  comparatively  large  output  can  be  obtained  by 
using  the  best  methods  of  operating. 

Electric  Shovel  on  an  Electric  Railway.  The  shovel  used  was 
a  14-B  Bucyrus  electric  operating  at  575  volts.  A  30-hp.  hoist 
motor  and  two  15-hp.  swing  and  thrust  motor  equipment  used 
on  this  shovel  with  a  %-cu.  yd.  dipper.  The  shovel  weighs  19 
tons.  The  work  recorded  was  on  the  electric  lines  of  the  Wilkes- 
Barre  Ry.  Co.,  and  the  data  given  here  are  taken  from  the 
Excavating  Engineer  for  January,  1915,  and  rearranged  by  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Feb.  17,  1915. 

Handling  a  3,500-cu.  yd.  Slide.  In  May,  the  shovel  tackled  a 
3,500-cu.  yd.  slide  on  the  short  line  on  Harvey's  Lake  Division. 
Work  was  started  April  19  and  was  completed  on  May  8.  The 
material  removed  was  hardpan,  loosened  by  the  action  of  the 
frost.  It  contained  a  considerable  amount  of  gravel  and  small 
boulders.  The  latter  running  in  size  up  to  2  and  3  cu.  ft.  When 
dry  this  material  answered  perfectly  the  definition  of  hardpan. 
In  the  winter  months,  the  frost  penetrated  this  slope,  which 
varied  from  20  to  60  ft.  in  height  above  the  track  for  a  distance 
of  about  1,000  ft.  In  the  spring  when  the  frost  came  out,  a 
layer  of  this  material,  averaging  perhaps  1%  ft.  in  thickness, 
slid  down  the  slope,  covering  one  of  the  tracks  to  a  depth  of  from 


550  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

2  to  10  ft.;  the  outside  track  was  kept  open  by  hand  with  some 
difficulty.  When  this  material  was  dried  out  somewhat,  the 
shovel  was  started  at  the  end  of  the  slide,  operating  from  the 
covered  track  and  loading  into  cars  on  the  outside  track. 

Two  motor  cars  and  two  10-yd.  all-steel  Western  side  air-dump 
cars  were  used.  One  motor  car  was  used  for  spotting  one  car, 
while  the  other  motor  car  was  hauling  the  other  car  to  and 
from  the  dump.  The  distance  to  the  nearest  switch  was  about 
800  ft.  and  the  shovel  was  idle  while  the  spotting  car  was  taking 
the  loaded  car  to  the  switch  and  returning  with  an  empty.  On 
this  account  considerable  time  was  lost.  The  record  of  a  typical 
day's  run  shows  that  the  shovel  was  in  actual  operation  225  min. 
out  of  a  10-hr,  day.  The  material  was  hauled  an  average  distance 
of  about  a  mile  and  dumped  along  the  fills  for  the  purpose  of 
strengthening  the  embankments,  and  preparing  for  a  double 
track.  When  the  cars  were  dumped  the  bulk  of  the  material 
was  precipitated  down  the  side  of  the  embankment.  A  thin 
layer  of  ashes  spread  on  the  steel  bottom  of  the  cars  before 
loading  greatly  facilitated  this  free  dumping. 

Although  probably  not  more  than  20%  of  the  material  exca- 
vated was  actually  spread  by  hand  on  the  dump,  yet  it  will  be 
noted  that  this  part  of  the  operation  represents  nearly  50% 
of  the  labor  cost.  Approximately  3,500  cu.  yd.  of  material  was 
removed  in  11  working  days.  The  work  was  considerably  hin- 
dered by  several  trees  that  came  down  with  the  slide,  which 
had  to  be  cut  up  and  removed.  This  material  is  particularly 
difficult  and  expensive  to  remove  by  hand,  and  when  wet,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  handle  by  reason  of  it  adhering  to  the 
shovels.  The  cost  of  removing  a  smaller  slide  that  occurred  at 
this  location,  the  previous  season,  was  approximately  50  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

The  total  cost  of  the  shovel  operation  in  this  instance,  as 
shown  in  the  table  below,  including  spreading  on.  the  dumps, 
spotting  cars,  hauling,  etc.,  was  12.15  ct.,  or  less  than  one-quarter 
of  hand  labor  cost.  One  of  the  principal  advantages  of  the 
shovel  was  that  the  material  could  be  handled  when  in  a  semi- 
fluid state,  thereby  making  it  possible  to  get  the  track  in  opera- 
tion. As  an  indication  of  the  output  obtained  under  these  condi- 
tions, on  May  4,  23  (10-yd.)  cars  or  approximately  345  cu.  yd., 
were  loaded  in  227  min.,  the  shovel  moving  ahead  in  this  time 
36  ft.  On  May  7,  22  (10-yd.)  cars  were  loaded  in  225  min., 
moving  ahead  40  ft.  on  a  curve.  The  material  weighed  125  Ib. 
per  cu.  ft. 

The  cost  of  handling  this  slide  as  given  by  Mr.  Hoffman,  steam 
shovel  engineer,  was: 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS       551 

Ct.  per 
Labor:  cu.  yd. 

Excavating   and  loading    2.1 

Spotting  cars   

Hauling  and  dumping    

Spreading  on  dump   

Total  labor   9-2 

Including  supervision,    about    10-" 

Power : 

Estimate  of  power  used  by  shovel  is  160  kw.-hr.  per  day  @  1% 

ct.,  equals  $2.40  per  day,  or  0.75 

Power  used  by  motor  car  hauling  to  and  from  dump  —  175  kw.- 
hr.  per  day,  or  , ^-80 

Total  for  power    1-55 

Repairs,  supplies,  etc.,  were  negligible  on  this  job,  but  assumed  to  average 
$2  per  or  60  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Ct.  per 
Summary :  cu.  yd. 

Labor,   including  supervision    •" 10.00 

Power,  excavating  and  hauling  (1  mile)    - 

Repairs,   supplies,    etc 

Total   1215 

Note.—  No  allowance  for  interest  and  depreciation  on  equipment. 

Cost  of  Grading  Side  Cut.  This  was  a  sidehill  cut  about  800 
ft.  long  with  a  depth  on  the  center  line  ranging  from  1  to  6  ft., 
averaging  about  3y2  ft.  The  cut  on  the  high  side  ranging  from 
3  to  10  ft.,  averaging  about  6  ft.  The  cut  contained  2,450  cu. 
yd.  The  preliminary  work  consisted  of  grading  a  temporary 
roadbed  parallel  with  and  about  14  ft.  distant  from  the  center 
line  of  the  permanent  track.  Upon  this  temporary  roadbed  the 
ties  and  rails  were  laid  and  used  for  hauling  the  material  to 
the  dump,  after  which  the  track  was  thrown  to  its  permanent 
location. 

A  motor  car  and  a  Western  10-yd.  steel  side  dump  car  were 
used  for  hauling  the  material.  The  grade  was  very  steep  and  the 
track  in  poor  line  and  surface,  necessitating  slow  running  to  and 
from  dump.  The  power  on  this  line  was  weak  and  very  un- 
satisfactory. It  is  probable  that  the  output  would  have  been 
increased  at  least  one-third,  if  satisfactory  power  had  been  avail- 
able. Generally  the  material  was  loam  and  good  digging.  Shale 
rock  was  encountered,  however,  in  the  bottom  of  the  cut  and 
about  25%  of  the  material  excavated  was  shale  ranging  from 
soft,  easy  digging  to  very  hard.  The  time  required  to  make  the 
cut  was  12  working  days  during  which  time  the  shovel  work 
was  delayed  44  hr.  principally  by  lack  of  power.  The  material 
was  dumped  on  a  fill  about  600  ft.  in  length,  ranging  in  depth 
from  2  to  8  ft.,  averaging  about  5  ft.  About  200  lin.  ft.  of  crib 


552  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

trestle  was  erected  over  the  deeper  portion  of  the     fill.  On  the 

remainder  of  the  fill  the  track  was  laid  on  the  original  surface 
and  gradually  jacked  up  to  grade.     The  cost  figures  follow: 

Labor:                                                                                        Total  ciTyd. 

Grading  for  temporary  track $  50.00  $0.0204 

Moving  shovel  into  position   13.24  0054 

Excavating  and  loading  material   107  74  0438 

Hauling  and  dumping  material   60.74  '0247 

Building  crib  trestle   25.00  .0102 

Spreading  material  on  dump  and  raising  track  134.20  .'0547 

Watchman  (%  of  watchman's  time  charged  to  this  job)        12.80  0052 

Blacksmith 5.90  .0024 

Throwing  track  to  permanent  position  30.00  .0122 

Total     $439.62  $0.1790 

Supervision    43.96  .0179 


Total     $483.58  $0.1969 

Power : 

To  operate  shovel,  1,260  kw.-hrs.  @  1^  ct $  18  90  $0  0088 

Hauling  material,  480  kw.-hrs.   @  1%  ct 7.20  .0029 


Total    $  26.10  $0.0117 

Summary : 

Labor,  including  supervision   $0.1969 

Power  (shovel  and  train)   , 0117 


Total  per  cu.  yd $0.2086 

Note.—  No  allowance  for  interest  and  depreciation  on  equipment. 

Revolving  Electric  Shovel  on  Street  Ry.  According  to  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  July  19,  1916,  in  building  its  79th 
St.  line,  the  Cleveland  Railway  Co.  had  to  do  a  considerable 
amount  of  excavation  for  which  it  employed  an  electrically  driven 
Thew  automatic  shovel. 

This  shovel  is  of  the  horizontal  crowding  motion  type  and  has 
several  other  features  of  interest.  It  weighs  13  tons,  and  has  a 
dipper  with  a  capacity  of  %  cu.  yd.  and  a  clearance  height  over 
the  house  of  12  ft.  2  in.  It  is  mounted  on  regular  ca.  wheels 
on  which  it  travels  on  the  car  tracks  and  in  addition  is  equipped 
with  a  set  of  auxiliary  traction  wheels,  33  in.  in  diameter,  and 
15-in.  tread,  which  permits  it  to  run  under  its  own  power  over  the 
ground,  pavement,  or  wherever  it  is  desired  to  take  it. 

The  entire  motive  power  for  traction,  hoisting  and  swinging 
consists  of  one  20-hp.  Westinghouse  compound-wound  550-volt 
direct-current  motor  with  a  starting  and  reversing  control  equip- 
ment. The  motor  operates  at  approximately  constant  speed,  the 
various  motions  being  controlled  through  suitable  friction  and 
gears.  The  current  is  usually  admitted  to  the  shovel  through 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      553 

a  flexible  insulated  cable  connected  to  a  switch  on  the  truck 
frame  and  transmitted  through  copper  rings  to  brushes  sus- 
pended from  the  swinging  turntable. 

The  use  of  one  motor  appears  to  be  a  particularly  desirable 
feature  for  reducing  the  initial  cost  and  affording  greater  flexi- 
bility of  action  in  the  frequent  reversals  of  the  various  operating 
motions;  it  also  means  the  operation  of  three  levers  instead  of 
three  separate  controllers,  and  a  gain  in  time  over  starting  and 
stopping  three  separate  motors.  It  is  distinctly  a  one-man  ma- 
chine. 

The  boom  is  of  the  jackknife  type  with  an  adjustable  section 
that  can  easily  be  located,  allowing  the  shovel  to  pass  under 
the  trolley  wire,  without  interfering  in  any  way  with  the  effi- 
ciency of  its  operation.  The  shovel  swings  through  a  complete 
circle,  delivering  the  excavated  material  at  any  desired  point. 

A  buffer  is  furnished  which  takes  up  the  shock  that  occi.rs 
when  the  shovel  strikes  a  hard  piece  of  excavation.  This  allows 
the  shovel  to  be  released  and  relieves  the  whole  machine  from 
the  strain  to  which  it  would  otherwise  be  subjected. 

Th  cab  is  cut  away  so  as  to  allow  plenty  of  room  for  passing 
cars,  a  feature  of  particular  importance  when  used  on  street 
railway  work. 

The  cost  was: 

Loading: 

Shovel  man  @  40  ct $  4.00 

Four  laborers   @   21  ct -. 8.40 

Current,  oil,  repairs,  etc 1.50 

Loading  per   day   '..     $13.90 

Hauling : 

Four  men    @   26  ct $10.40 

Four  men    @    19   ct -. 7.60 

Two   men    @    30    ct 600 

Hauling  per  day    $24.00 

.Dumping : 

One  foreman   @   30  ct $  3.00 

Six  laborers   @  20  ct 12.00 

Dumping  per  day   $15.00 

Loading,  Hauling  and  Dumping: 

Cubic  yards  loaded  in  10  hr.  May  8  510 

Loading  per  cu.  yd 2.6  ct. 

Hauling  per  cu.  yd 4.4  ct. 

Diimping  per  cu.  yd 2.8  ct. 

Loading,  hauling  and  dumping  per  cu.  yd 9.8  ct. 

Lineal  feet  excavated  on  this  work  . .t 2,700 

Number  of  10-hr,  shifts  operated   .* 12 


554 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Lineal  feet  excavated  per  10-hr,  shift  225 

Cubic  yards  loaded  (place  measure,  per  10-hr,  shift)   450 

Average  loading  cost,  450  yd.   ©  $13.90   3      ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Average  hauling  cost,  450  yd.   @  $24 5l/2  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Average  dumping  cost,  450  yd.   @   $25  31/-}  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Average  loading,   hauling  and  dumping  cost   11%  ct. 

Length  of  haul,  approximately   6  miles 

Average  hp.  used  in  moving  shovtl 15.0 

Maximum  hp.  used  in  moving  shovel ; 20.2 

Average  hp.  used  in  operating  shovel   11.7 

Maximum  hp.  used  in  operating  shovel  43.6 

A  Shovel  on  the  Boom  of  a  Derrick.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Nov.  22,  1911,  gives  the  following:  Fig.  70  shows  an 
ordinary  revolving  mast  derrick  with  a  new  attachment  known 
as  the  Bishop's  Derrick  Excavator. 


Fig.  70.     Excavator  Mounted  on  "  A  "  Frame  Traveler. 

The  carriage  at  the  base  of  the  dipper  arm  is  made  of  steel 
plates  and  contains  four  rollers  which  allow  it  to  run  up  and 
down  the  boom.  Between  the  two  side  plates  and  below  the 
rollers  is  a  cross  channel,  from  which  is  suspended, by  bolts  two 
plates,  one  above  and  one  below  the  stationary  wire  cable  which 
is  attached  to  the  boom  at  the  heel  and  peak.  On  these  plates 
are  cast  iron  grips  to  hold  the  carriage  to  the  wire  when  desired. 
The  end  of  the  dipper  arm  is  provided  with  a  cast  iron  eccentric 
or  cam  shaped  shoe  and  when  the  dipper  arm  is  raised  towards 
the  boom  as  shown  in  its  dumping  position,  the  pressure  is  re- 
leased, and  permits  the  carriage  to  roll  on  the  boom,  but  when 
the  dipper  arm  is  released,  as  shown  in  the  digging  position,  the 
large  end  of  the  cam  or  eccentric  presses  the  lower  grip  plate 
against  the  wire  and  holds  the  carriage  until  the  dipper  arm  has 
been  raised  sufficiently,  when  the  small  end  of  the  cam  or 
eccentric  releases  the  grip,  and  the  carriage  follows  up  the  boom. 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTHIC  SHOVELS       555 

The  automatic  dumping  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. This  is  a  lever  arm  rigidly  attached  to  the  carriage,  which 
acts  on  the  lever  shown  attached  to  the  dipper  arm.  When  the 
dipper  arm  is  brought  almost  parallel  with  the  boom  these  levers 
come  in  contact  and  the  door  latch  on  the  dipper  is  caused  to 
be  pulled  back,  thus  releasing  the  bottom  of  the  dipper.  One  man 
is  required  to  operate  the  shovel  with  a  two-drum  engine  and 
swinging  gear.  One  drum  is  required  to  raise  and  lower  the 
boom  and  the  other  to  operate  the  shovel.  The  operator  slacks 
on  the  digging  line  until  the  carriage  rolls  down  the  boom,  bring- 
ing the  shovel  to  the  desired  position.  He  then  releases  entirely 


Fig.    71.     Keystone   Excavator   Equipped   with    Skimmer.     Boom 
Raised  and  Bottom  of  Skimmer  Dropped  as  When  Dumping. 

and  the  shovel  swings  back  under  the  boom,  the  cam  operates  the 
grip  holding  the  dipper  arm  rigidly  from  sliding  in  the  boom 
and  at  the  same  time  the  boom  is  lowered  and  its  weight  is 
brought  onto  the  dipper.  The  weight  of  the  boom  is  allowed  to 
rest  on  the  shovel  which  it  is  digging. 

The  excavator  is  made  by  the  Union  Iron  Works,  Hoboken, 
N.  J. 

The  Keystone  Traction  Excavator.  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, May  27,  1914,  gives  the  following:  For  the  Keystone  exca- 
vator three  different  types  of  scoops  are  provided,  namely,  a 
dipper,  Fig.  72;  a  skimmer,  Fig.  71,  and  a  ditcher  scoop,  Fig.  73. 
All  three  scoops  are  about  equal  in  capacity,  holding  approxi- 
mately two-fifths  of  a  yard,  and  can  be  operated  at  about  the 
same  speed,  two  to  three  times  a  minute  in  free  digging. 


55G 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  "  skimmer  scoop "  has  a  flat  bottom.  It  is  used  largely 
in  street  grading  and  for  comparatively  shallow  excavation.  It 
is  carried  on  rollers  which  slide  along  the  16-ft.  boom.  When 
the  skimmer  type  of  shovel  is  to  be  used  the  dipper  sticks  are 
removed  and  the  tackling  changed.  The  form  of  the  scoop  makes 
it  possible  to  have  a  smooth,  level,  finished  surface  in  grading. 
Since  the  skimmer  scoop  can  be  moved  11  ft.  along  the  boom,  its 
operation  in  digging  is  like  that  of  a  drag  scraper. 

The   ditching   scoop   differs   from   the   dipper   and   skimmer    in 


Dipper  Bucket  for  Keystone  Excavator. 


shape  and  is  employed  in  making  ditches  for  sewers,  water  mains, 
etc.  It  is  good  for  a  width  of  15  in.  to  44  in.,  and  a  depth  of 
0  or  8  ft.  The  best  record  with  this  type  of  scoop  was  made 
by  S.  B.  Markley,  contractor  of  Woodlawn,  Pa.,  on  work  at 
Conway,  Pa.  He  dug  in  eight  hours  400  ft.  of  ditch  4^  to  5  ft. 
deep  and  36  in.  wide  at  the  bottom.  In  ditching  work  the  action 
of  the  dipper  scoop  is  reversed,  the  scoop  being  carried  on  a  hinged 
arm  at  the  extremity  of  the  boom,  and  the  machine  being  moved 
backward  as  the  ditch  is  completed. 

The  dipper  scoop  is  similar  to  the  ordinary  steam  shovel.     The 
best  record  hitherto  achieved  with  the  dipper  scoop  was  142  loads, 


COSTS  WITH  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  SHOVELS      557 

dump  wagons  of  1^-yd.  capacity  being  well  filled,  in  6^  hours' 
running  time.  For  short  periods  wagons  were  loaded  at  the  rate 
of  one  in  each  one  and  a  quarter  minutes. 

Two  men  are  required  to  manipulate  the  machine.  The  boiler 
is  36  x  69  in.  and  is  of  the  inverted  porcupine  style.  The  engine 
is  8  x  8  in.  The  weight  of  the  complete  machine  is  about  16,000 
Ib.  Its  traveling  speeds  are  1  and  3  miles  per  hr.  The  machine 
is  made  by  the  Keystone  Driller  Co.,  Beaver  Falls,  Pa. 


Fig.  73.     Ditcher  Bucket  Equipment  for  Keystone  Excavator. 

Bibliography.  "  Steam  Shovels  and  Steam  Shovel  Work,"  E.  A. 
Herrman. — "  Handbook  of  Steam  Shovel  Work,"  Published  by  the 
Bucyrus  Co.,  South  Milwaukee,  Wis. — "  Excavating  Machinery," 
A.  B.  McDaniel. — "Cost  Data,"  H.  P.  Gillette. 

"  Steam  Shovel  Work  on  Summit  Division,  Chicago  Canal," 
E.  R.  Shanable,  Jour.  Asso.  Eng.  Soc.  Vol.  14,  June,  1895. — "  The 
Application  of  Electric  Motors  to  Shovels,"'  W.  H.  Rodgers, 
Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  Feb.,  1914. 

"  Giant  Revolving  Shovel  Used  at  Gravel  Plant,"  Engineering 
Record,  Aug.,  1916. — "Second  Track  Construction  and  Improve- 
ment of  Line  and  Grade  from  Madison  to  Baraboo,  Wis.,"  Eng. 
News,  June  3,  1897. — "  Progress  of  the  Excavation  Work  for  the 
Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Terminal  in  N.  Y.  City,"  Eng.  A7.,  Nov.  10, 
1904. — "  A  Method  of  Determining  Slopes  in  the  Bench  System 
of  Steam  Shovel  Operation,"  Eng.  and  Con.,  Mar.  22,  1911. 

I 


CHAPTER  XII 

METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND 
DUMP  BUCKETS 

For  the  purpose  of  a  study  of  methods  and  cost  of  handling 
earth  in  buckets  the  following  classification  will  be  adhered  to : 

Hoist  .Buckets   (Chapter  XII). 

a.  Non-Digging  Dump  Buckets. 

1.  Skips. 

2.  Trunnion  Buckets. 

3.  Bottom  Dump  Buckets. 

b.  Digging  or  Grab  Buckets. 

1.  Orange    Peel    Buckets. 

2.  Power  or  Clam-Shell  Buckets. 
Drag  Scrapers  or  Buckets    (Chapter  XIII). 

a.  Non-lifting  power  scrapers. 

b.  Lifting  dragline  buckets. 

Hoist  buckets  are  suspended  from  derricks,  cableways,  or  loco- 
motive cranes  and  are  accordingly  suitable  for  a  wide  range  of 
uses.  Consult  the  "  Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  by  R.  T. 
Dana,  for  designs,  prices,  etc.  of  derricks  and  buckets. 

Skips.  These  are  trays  or  shallow  boxes  with  one  side  open, 
Fig.  1.  They  are  of  wood  or  steel,  and  are  suspended  from  three 
points  by  chains  leading  to  a  ring  which  is  engaged  by  a  hook 
and  suspended  from  the  derrick. 


. 

, 

.I'miii' 


Fig.  1.     Wooden  Skip. 

J ,wttih*VSr  Kioit  plM&'bnA  «wtivi   U  jnwi 

Cost  with  Skips.  In  foundation  work  it  is  frequently  neces- 
sary to  use  a  derrick  for  handling  the  earth.  Either  wooden 
"  skips  "  or  iron  buckets  are  filled  with  earth  by  shovelers,  and 
a  man-operated,  horse-operated,  or  power-operated  derrick  is 
used  to  lift  the  buckets  out  of  the  way. 

558 


COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND  DUMP  BUCKETS      550 

Work  of  this  character  is  always  expensive  for  only  a  few 
shovelers  can  be  worked  ra  the  pit,  and  as  a  consequence  the 
derrick  is  never  worked  to  its  capacity.  The  following  was  the 
cost  on  one  job :  A  stiff-leg  derrick  with  35-ft.  boom,  and  three 
wooden  skips  (1x4x4  ft. )  constituted  the  plant.  A  team  with 
driver  was  used  to  raise  the  skips.  The  output  in  soft  digging 
per  10-hr,  day  was  100  cu.  yd. 

'd  D->K')  o.t  rj'Mji  it  *>j  \-  fuo'il  ba'^kjtfisi 

6  men  loading  skips  at  $1.50 $  9.00 

1  man   in   pit   hooking   on   skips 1.50 

2  tagmen   swinging   and   dumping    3.00 

1  team  with  driver 3.50 

1  foreman    3.00 


100  cu.  yd.  at  20  ct ! $20.00 

This  was  an  excellent  record,  but  the  digging  was  fairly  easy. 
Four  skips  made  a  1.5-cu.  yd.  wagon  load,  and  it  took  1.5  min. 
to  load,  hoist,  swing  and  dump  a  skip,  half  of  which  time  was 
occupied  in  swinging  the  derrick  boom  out  and  back. 

The  setting  up  of  a  small  derrick  of  this  kind  will  take  a  crew 
of  men  3  hr.  or  less  if  the  foreman  knows  what  to  do,  but  we 
have  known  green  foremen  to  be  all  day  getting  the  derrick  up. 
Where  there  are  trees  to  anchor  to,  a  guy-derrick  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, for  there  are  not  several  tons  of  stone  to  be  handled  as  on 
a  stiff-leg  derrick  which  must  be  weighted  down.  Moreover  a 
guy-derrick  is  quite  easily  shifted  a  long  distance  even  while 
standing.  Some  contractors  set  the  foot  of  the  mast  of  a  guy- 
derrick  on  a  framework  that  rides  of  skids,  and  it  is  then  easily 
dragged  over  the  ground  even  while  upright.  A  hand  winch  is 
never  to  be  used  if  it  can  be  avoided,  for  it  is  too  slow  a  method 
for  moving  earth.  Wagon  boxes  of  special  design  are  sometimes 
made  to  be  lifted  off  the  wagon  bed  with  their  load  of  earth  and 
dumped  into  scows.  Wooden  skips  with  two  sides  only  might  be 
loaded  by  drag  scrapers,  then  lifted  by  a  derrick  and  dumped 
directly  into  wagons  or  into  a  bin  from  which  the  earth  could  be 
drawn  off  into  wagons. 

Foundation  Excavation  with  Derrick  and  Car-  Bodies.  The 
construction  of  an  addition  to  the  power  plant  of  the  Indiana 
Michigan  Electric  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind.,  was  described  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Feb.  28,  1912. 

The  excavation  for  each  foundation  was  36  ft.  square,  and  was 
carried  down  30  ft.  The  pit  was  tight  sheeted  with  2xl2-in. 
plank,  double  lapped.  The  material  encountered  in  the  excava^ 
tion  consisted  of  sand  and  gravel,  to  a  depth  of  about  20  ft., 
and  then  of  clay  to  5  ft.  in  depth.  From  this  point  down  there 
was  blue  clay,  with  an  occasional  pocket  of  quicksand.  The 


560 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


sheeting  was  driven  by  hand,  as  the  excavation  progressed,  by 
two  men  who  were  employed  at  this  work  continuously. 

The  material  was  excavated  by  hand  and  shoveled  into  the 
body  of  a  %-cu.  yd.  car.  This  body  was  V-shaped,  and  was 
fitted  with  legs  so  that  it  could  stand  upright  on  the  ground,  or 
could  be  used  on  the  car.  A  3-way  chain  was  rigged  so  that  the 
car  body  could  be  swung  from  the  derrick.  In  the  pit  were 
employed  from  4  to  6  men  to  each  bucket,  and  each  man  averaged 
about  3  cu.  yd.  of  earth  per  day.  There  were  4  or  5  buckets 
used  in  the  pit. 

Trunion  Buckets  Loading  Wagons  Through  a  Hopper  or 
Table.  J.  C.  Black,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting.  Dec.  11, 
1907,  gives  the  following:  The  work  was  the  digging  of  a  base- 
ment in  Portland,  Oregon. 

The  property  was  a  corner  lot  100  ft.  square  and  nearly  level, 
and  had  been  occupied  by  some  frame  buildings  at  least  one  of 
which  had  a  cellar  and  stone  foundation.  About  8,000  cu.  yd. 
of  material  were  handled,  the  average  total  depth  being  about 


rt-Z 


Eng-Contr 


Fig.  2.     Method  of  Filling  Buckets. 


20  ft.  Almost  the  entire  excavation  was  a  mixture  of  yellow 
clay  and  sand  with  a  small  amount  of  loam.  Excavation  was 
begun  at  the  inner  corner  of  the  area  and  was  rapidly  carried  to 
full  depth  at  that  place,  thus  affording  a  steep  bank  against 
which  to  work.  A  crane  lifted  the  material  from  the  pit  in 
buckets,  and  dumped  it  on  a  table  or  tipple  from  which  it  was 
loaded  into  wagons. 

A  bucket  to  be  filled  was  placed  against  the  face  of  the  bank, 


COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND  DUMP  BUCKETS       561 

as  shown  in  the  sketch,  Fig.  2,  and  was  loaded  partly  by  shovels, 
partly  by  material  picked  from  the  face  so  as  to  fall  into  the 
bucket  and  partly  by  slabs  or  spalls  of  earth  pried  from  the  top 
of  the  bank  with  a  crowbar.  This  last  method  was  exceedingly 
effective,  for  the  earth  broke  off  easily,  and  one  man  with  a  bar 
at  the  top  of  the  bank  could  loosen  large  pieces  with  compara- 
tively little  effort.  Sometimes  enough  earth  to  fill  a  bucket  would 
fall  at  once,  while  that  which  fell  outside  the  buckets  was  in  a 
condition  to  be  easily  handled  by  shovels.  It  is  probable  that 
this  method  of  prying  from  the  top  of  bank  would  prove  uneco- 
nomical for  some  classes  of  material,  but  in  this  material  it 
worked  well. 

The  crane  consisted  of  a  35-hp.  hoisting  engine  and  a  wooden 
derrick  frame  mounted  on  a  timber  sledge.  The  maximum  reach 
of  boom  from  center  of  rotation  was  30  ft.,  but,  by  Ibwering  a 
bucket  almost  to  the  ground  and  then  having  it  set  swinging  by 
the  men  in  the  pit,  it  was  possible  to  drop  it  some  20  ft.  beyond 
the  end  of  the  boom,  thus  affording  a  maximum  working  range 
of  80  ft.  from  point  of  loading  to  dump. 

\Yhen  necessary  to  remove  the  crane  to  a  new  position  on  the 
work,  a  cable  was  made  fast  to  something  which  would  serve 
a.s  an  anchor  and  it  was  made  to  move  itself.  Rollers  were  gen- 
erally used  under  the  sledge.  An .  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half 
was  the  time  consumed  in  moving.  Axles  on  which  could  be 
placed  a  pair  of  rear  wagon  wheels  were  fitted  to  the  sledge  near 
one  end,  and  at  the  other  was  a  place  for  the  forward  truck  of  a 
wagon,  thus  making  transportation  from  one  piece  of  work  to 
another  a  very  easy  matter. 

The  5  buckets  were  made  in  Portland.  The  nominal  capacity 
was  35  cu.  ft.  each.  They  were  dumped  by  tilting;  the  catch 
which  held  them  upright  being  released  by  the  man  at  dumping 
table.  This  table  (Figs.  3  and  4)  or  tipple  was  the  most  inter- 
esting feature  of  the  plant.  It  consisted  essentially  of  a  steel 
frame  supporting  two  trays  under  which  the  wagons  to  be  loaded 
were  driven.  The  trays  are  each  about  1  ft.  deep,  4  ft.  wide 
and  6  ft.  long,  and  when  closed,  met  at  the  •center  forming  one 
large  tray.  In  dumping,  each  tray  rotated  about  an  axis  of  its 
own  near  its  center,  the  weight  of  the  earth  causing  it  to  dump 
automatically  when  released,  and  the  position  of  its  own  center 
of  gravity  making  it  automatically  return  to  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion after  having  emptied  its  contents.  Its  effect  was  to  "  trim  " 
the  load  so  that  little  or  no  work  was  required  to  spread  it  on 
the  wagons,  while  the  amount  spilled  was  negligible. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  table  affords  a  storing  place 
for  materials,  and  thus  reduces  the  lost  time  due  to  irregularity 


662 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


in  arrival  of  wagons.  Usually  only  one  bucket  of  earth  was 
placed  upon  the  table  at  a  time. 

A  record  of  wagons  was  kept  by  the  dumpman  with  pegs  on  a 
tally  board  mounted  on'the  table. 

Of  course  this  loader  was  not  so  near  perfection  but  that  it  was 
occasi6nally  necessary  to  clean  up  around  it,  especially  as  it  was 


Fig.  3.     Plan,  Front  Elevation  and  Side  Elevation  of  Dumping 

Table. 


a  busy  street.  However,  it  reduced  work  of  that  nature  to  a 
minimum.  When  necessary  to  shift  the  position  of  the  table,  a 
timber  yoke  was  fastened  to  the  frame  by  chains,  and  the 
whole  thing  was  moved  by  the  derrick. 

Light  for  the  night  crew  was  supplied  by  three  clusters  of  six 
32-c.p.  incandescents  each,  backed  by  reflectors. 


COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND  DUMP  BUCKETS      563 

'nnK^^f ""  ^SL  IA 

*=^  $Pi 

'alSIiSSgP* 


~'          ttV*  >'*—1-  -«"  T'^ 

J- 4     HrF' — h — fa 

J5       !°fe    PPr       M    vM:^ 
nL       ioS    !•«  ij.       fo      So  1 

4J^         i ;        .    ji  |         jft  H 


Studebaker  dump  wagons  were  used,  and,  by  an  extension  to 
the  top,  they  were  made  to  hold  2,y2  cu.  yd.  each  when  level  full; 
which  shows  that  two  buckets  of  material  were  required  per  load. 

The  cost  of  the  plant  was  approximately  as  follows: 

Locomotive   crane    (including   cable)    $4  500 

Five  buckets  at  $145    725 

Loading   table    500 

Total  (exclusive  of  small  tools)   ^5,725 


504  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Two  crews  of  equal  size  were  employed  most  of  the  time,  a  total 
daily  force  being  about  as  shown  in  the  table.  The  rates  of 
wages  are  assumed,  and  would,  of  course,  vary  from  time  to  time, 
and  with  location. 

Two  foremen,  at  $4  per  day $  8.00 

Two  engineers,  at  $4  per  day   8.00 

Two  firemen,    at  $2.50  per  day    5.00 

Two  signalmen,  at  $2.50  per  day   5.00 

Two  hook  tenders,  at  $1.75  per  day  3.50 

Two  dumpmen,  at  $1 .75  per  day  3.50 

Thirty  laborers,  at  $1.75  per  day   52.00 

Total  daily  wages    $85.50 

One  man  sometimes  acted  as  both  signalman  and  hook  tender. 
Assuming  other  daily  expenses,  we  have: 

Labor     $85.50 

Fuel,  oil  and  supplies 5.00 

^Repairs     5.00 

Total    $97.50 

The  average  daily  output  was  500  cu.  yd.  for  the  two  crews, 
which  gives  a  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  nearly  20  ct.,  loaded  on  the 
wagons.  Each  of  the  30  laborers,  therefore,  averaged  nearly  17 
cu.  yd.  per  day. 

The  following  details  are  from  data  obtained  by  personal  ob- 
servation at  various  times: 

LOADING  BUCKETS 
(All   Buckets  Filled   Heaping  —  35  Cu.  Ft.   Struck  Measure) 

Bucket  Labor                                                                                         Time 

No.  Min.  Sec. 

1  —  3  men    shoveling    3  50 

2  —  4  men    shov.eling    4 

3  —  3  men    shoveling    '. 5 

4  —  3  men  shoveling  and  picking  5  30 

5  —  2  men  shoveling,  1  man  picking  4  55 

6  —  3  men    shoveling 3  45 

7  —  2  men  shovding  and  picking,  1  man  barring  from  top......  3  15 

8  —  2  men  shoveling,  1  man  picking  from  face  into  bucket 4  00 

9 —  1  man  shoveling,   2  men  picking  from  face  into  bucket 

10  —  2  men  shoveling,  1  man  picking  and  barring  3  45 

11  —  1  man  shoveling,  1  man  picking  into  bucket,  1  man  barring    3 

12  —  2  men  shoveling,   1  man  barring  down  from  top    5 

Total,  28  men  shoveling,  10  men  picking  and  barring 50  53 

Average  2^j  men  shoveling,  5-6  men  picking  and  barring  4  15 

This  is  equivalent  to  a  bucket  of  earth  loosened  and  loaded  by 
one  man  in  13^  minutes. 

Data  on  time  consumed  in  handling  buckets  are  as  follows: 

.:'    ....'..    -.foot  uiyiT>  !o"V/r?n'h/-f>)   |&toT 


COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND  DUMP  BUCKETS      565 


£ 

P.    .j 

§    5 


Seconds  of  time 


!*S 

i§3 


Total 

time 

for 

handling 

one 
bucket. 


No.    1. 


3... 
4.. 

5. . 
6... 

7. . 


9... 
10... 
11... 


11  buckets  handled 
Average     .......... 


AU 

43 
45 
60 
38 
37 
50 
62 
43 
44 
45 
42 

509 


15 
17 
20 
18 
18 
18 
15 
17 
16 
15 
18 

187 
17 


13 
8 

10 

14 

12 

8 

10 
15 
10 
20 
19 

139 
13 


Si* 

£§§ 

12 
10 
15 
18 
10 
12 
10 
10 
15 
11 
18 

141 


270 
270 
200 
200 
270 
270 
240 
240 
270 

200 
200 


This  indicates  that  the  time  required  to  handle  one  bucket 
is  approximately  \y2  minutes,  so  that  barring  delays  40  buckets 
of  52  cu.  yd.  would  be  the  maximum  hourly  capacity  of  the  crane. 

The  owners  of  the  plant  are  much  pleased  with  its  operation 
and  are  going  to  give  it  a  trial  with  three  8-hr,  shifts. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  plant  is  of  low  first  cost,  is  adapted  to 
the  handling  of  a  variety  of  materials,  is  economical  of  time,  and 
affords  a  great  saving  in  the  wear  and  tear  on  teams  and  wagons 
which  results  from  hauling  out  of  an  excavation.  This  last  point 
is  considered  by  Mr.  Cook  to  be  the  greatest  advantage  of  the 
system. 

Bottom  Dump  Buckets.  These  are  more  suitable  for  handling 
concrete  than  earth.  Where  present  on  a  job  for  the  former 
purpose  they  are  often  used  for  removing  the  hand  excavation  to 
neat  lines.  For  this  work  they  possess  no  advantage  over  skips. 

Three  Types  of  Buckets  on  Sewer  Work.  According  to  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  June  29,  1910,  bucket  excavation  was 
employed  in  digging  2,723  ft.  of  the  Northwestern  Trunk  Sewer 
at  Louisville,  Ky. 

The  main  plant  for  this  contract  consisted  of  three  ten-ton 
Browning  locomotive  cranes,  two  of  which  were  equipped  with 
automatic  buckets.  One  orange-peel  of  1  cu.  yd.  capacity  and 
one  clamshell  of  %  cu.  yd.  capacity  are  used.  The  cranes  run 
on  standard  gage  track  of  60  and  65-lb.  rails  The  track  is 
laid  along  the  trench  for  600  ft.  On  account  of  there  being  plenty 
of  good  sand  in  the  trench,  it  is  screened  and  used  for  the  con- 
crete. The  screen  used  consists  of  a  framework  placed  opposite 


566  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

to  one  of  the  cranes.  This  crane  dumps  part  of  the  sand  into 
the  hopper  at  the  top  of  the  screen  and  the  sand  and  rejections 
are  carried  by  chutes  to  separate  piles  15  or  20  ft.  away  from 
the  trench. 

In  opening  the  trench  horse  scrapers  were  used  and  enough 
of  the  trench  was  excavated  in  this  way,  and  used  for  filling  in 
low  land  near  by,  to  take  up  the  amount  which  would  necessarily 
have  to  be  spoiled.  An  average  of  half  a  dozen  teams  were  used 
on  this  work  with  one  team  acting  as  a  snap  team.  The  longest 
haul  was  about  100  yards. 

Excavation  and  Backfill.  The  cranes  operate  about  as  follows: 
Crane  No.  1  is  equipped  with  an  Owens  clamshell  bucket  and 
takes  out  the  cut  to  a  depth  of  about  10  or  12  ft.  The  sheeting 
is  started  as  soon  as  practicable  and  crane  No.  2  equipped  with  a 
%-cu.  yd.  bucket  takes  out  the  balance  of  the  cut.  The  cranes 
dump  all  excavated  material  in  a  spoil  bank  except  the  sand, 
which  is  dumped  on  the  screen  by  crane  No.  2.  Crane  No.  3 
brings  up  the  rear  of  the  work  and  does  all  the  backfilling  and 
pulling  of  timbers  and  sheeting. 

Progress  and  Costs.  Progress  and  costs  of  various  parts  of 
the  work  are  interesting.  The  working  day  is  10  hr.  Crane 
No.  1  operates  a  ^-cu.  yd.  Owens  clamshell  bucket  and  averages 
400  buckets  in  10  hr.  or  200  cu.  yd.  This  bucket  handles  a  full 
half  yard  at  each  operation.  The  labor  cost  on  this  machine 
is  as  follows: 

1  engineman  at   $3.50 

1  fireman    2.00 

1  tagman     1 .75 

1  signalman      1.75 

Cost  of  labor  for  200  cu.  yd.  (clay)   $88.90 

Cost  of  labor  per  cu.  yd.,  $0.045. 

The  second  crane  handles  sand  in  a  %-cu.  yd.  dump  bucket 
filled  by  hand.  It  handles  300  buckets  or  225  cu.  yd.  a  day. 
The  labor  cost  on  this  is  as  follows: 

1  engineman     '. $3.50 

1  fireman    2.00 

1  foreman    2.00 

8  men  in  bottom  at  $1.75  14.00 


Cost  of  labor  for  225  yd $21.50 

This  gives  a  cost  of  labor  for  1  cu.  yd.  of  $0.095.  The  third 
or  backfill  crane  operates  a  1-cu.  yd.  orange-peel  bucket  and 
handles  500  cu.  yd.  of  material  in  10  hrs.  The  cost  of  labor  back- 
filling is  as  follows: 


COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND  DUMP  BUCKETS      567 

1  engineman     r^ $3.50 

1  fireman 2.00 

1  signalman      1.75 

Labor  cost  backfilling,  500  cu.  yd $  7.25 

Labor  cost  per  cu.   yd.  of  backfilling,   $0.0145. 

This  crane  when  not  backfilling,  pulls  timbers  and  sheeting. 
The  average  amount  of  coal  used  by  one  crane  in  a  day  is  1,200 
Ib.  Run-of-mine  coal  is  used  at  $4  per  ton.  About  160  gal.  of 
water  are  used  per  crane  per  day.  The  cranes  each  cost  $5,000 
new  and  their  annual  interest  and  depreciation  is  figured  by  the 
contractor  at  30%. 

The  average  wages  paid  upon  this  work  are  as  follows : 

Superintendent,   per  month    $135.00 

Street   foreman,   per   month    80.00 

Carpenter  foreman,   per  month   80.00 

Concrete   foreman,    per   month    80.00 

Timber   foreman,   ptr  month   v    80.00 

Team  foreman,  per  month   "    80.00 

Man  in  charge  of  all  form  work,  per  month   135.00 

Timekeeper,    per  month    50.00 

Water  boy,  per  day  1.00 

Stud  men,  per  day   2.00 

Carpenters,    per    day    2.50 

Concrete  men,  per  day  200 

Timbermen,    per   day    2.00 

Crane  engineers,   per  day   3.50 

Crane  firemen,  per  day    2.00 

Laborers,   per  day 1.75 

Blacksmith,   per   week    20.00 

Blacksmith's  helper,  per  week   ,.. ..  15.00 

Teamsters,    per   day    2.00 

Orange-Peel  Buckets.  These  are  made  in  two  forms  and  in  a 
great  variety  of  sizes.  The  bucket  with  four  segments  is  suitable 
for  excavating  loose  material  in  which  it  will  sink  of  its  own 
weight.  Where  the  material  will  not  permit  this,  the  orange- 
peel  does  not  fill  so  well  as  does  the  grab  bucket. 

The  second  type  of  orange-peel  bucket  is  made  with  three 
segments  and  is  most  suitable  for  excavating  where  rocks  and 
logs  have  to  be  handled.  It  will  grapple  and  hang  on  to  anything 
that  gets  between  its  jaws.  Buckets  of  this  type  are  made  up  to 
6  cu.  yd.  capacity,  and  strong  enough  to  handle  a  10-ton  rock. 
At  the  other  extreme  of  size,  four  segment  buckets  have  been 
made  small  enough  to  clean  out  12-in  pipes. 

Work  of  an  Orange-Peel  Bucket  at  Massena,  N.  Y.  The  ex- 
cavation for  the  foundations  of  power  house  was  described  in 
Engineering  ~News,  Dec.  15,  1898.  The  work  was  accomplished 
by  a  steam  shovel  working  in  the  pit,  and  a  land  dredge  with  an 
orange-peel  bucket  operating  from  the  bank.  Both  machines 
loaded  into  dump  cars  hauled  by  locomotives.  The  orange-peel 


568 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


excavator  dug  35  ft.  deep  in  very  homogeneous,  cheese-like,  clay. 
With  a  1-cu.  yd.  bucket  the  daily  output  in  10  hr.  was  600  cu. 
yd.  The  total  labor  cost  of  operation  was  $20,  giving  a  labor 
cost  of  3}£  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


Fig.    5.     Orange-Peel    Bucket   Made   by   the    Hayward    Company, 
50  Church  St.,  New  York. 

Cost  of  Excavating  Trench  with  Orange-Peel  Bucket.  In  En- 
gineering-Contracting, April,  1006,  a  detailed  description  is  given 
of  the  plant  and  methods  used  in  building  a  large  sewer  in  Chicago 
by  city  forces.  For  part  of  the  work  a  1  cu.  yd.  orange-peel 
bucket  was  used.  A  traveling  derrick,  on  rollers,  was  used.  It 
was  designed  to  swing  in  a  full  circle.  The  crew  was: 

Per  day 

1  engineraan     $  4.80 

1  fireman     2.50 

1  signal    man    3.25  s 

1  powder   man    3.25 

2  laborers  at  $3.25 6.50 

Total  per  day   $20.30 


COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND  DUMP  BUCKETS       569 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  the  orange-peel  bucket  excavated 
about  450  cu.  yd.  a  day,  all  earth  being  dumped  on  a  spoil  bank 
at  one  side. 

On  the  assumption  that  450  cu.  yd.  were  excavateJ  per  day, 
the  labor  cost  was  4.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  About  50  Ib.  of  dynamite 
and  %  ton  of  coal  were  used  each  8-hr.  day.  The  cost  of  the 
dynamite  was  $7.50  and  the  coal  cost  $3  per  ton,  making  the 
total  cost  for  dynamite  and  coal  $9.75.  The  total  cost  per  day 
for  excavating  thus  was  $30.05;  and  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was 
6.6  ct.,  exclusive  of  the  wear  and  tear  on  the  machine. 

In  this  excavation  the  swinging  derrick  with  the  orange-peel 
bucket  could  be  worked  to  better  advantage  than  a  steam  shovel, 
inasmuch  as  it  could  work  between  the  braces,  which  were  11  ft. 
centers.  The  bracing  was  placed  as  the  excavation  proceeded,  and 
when  the  trench  excavation  was  completed,  the  braces  were  all  in 
place.  By  the  use  of  the  derrick  the  excavated  material  could  be 
deposited  far  enough  from  the  trench  so  as  not  to  necessitate 
rehandling.  In  the  case  of  a  steam  shovel  it  would  have  been 
necessary  first  to  put  in  a  temporary  bracing,  and  a  permanent 
bracing  afterwards.  Also,  the  boom  of  a  steam  shovel  would  not 
be  long  enough  to  deposit  the  excavated  matter  the  necessary 
distance  from  the  trench. 

Cost  of  Excavating  Sand  in  Trench  with  an  Orange-Peel 
Bucket.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  15,  1908,  gives  the 
following.  In  the  construction  of  District  Sewer  No.  1  for  the 
town  of  Gary.  Ind.,  built  by  the  Green  &  Sons  Co.,  of  Chicago, 
the  preliminary  excavation  for  the  first  1,830  ft.  was  done  with 
a  Hayward  orange-peel  bucket  of  %  cu.  yd.  capacity.  The  bucket 


30' 0* 


Fig.  6.     Cross-Section  of  Cut. 

was  operated  by  a  25-hp.  hoisting  engine  and  a  separate  swinging 
engine.  The  machine  was  mounted  on  rollers  and  moved  forward 
with  its  own  power  by  means  of  a  "  dead  man  "  ahead. 

The  material  removed  consisted  of  fine  sand  of  the  kind  preva- 
lent throughout  the  Calumet  region,  the  last  3  or  4  ft.  of  excava- 
tion being  in  water.  The  cut  was  in  cross  section  as  shown  in 
Fig.  6. 

The  crew  consisted  of  one  engineman  at  $6  per  day,  one  fore- 
man at  $3.50  per  day  and  five  laborers  at  $1.50  per  day  who 
handled  planks  and  rollers,  built  up  runways  for  the  machine 


570  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

in  rough  ground,  and  smoothed  up  the  cut  and  left  a  smooth  shelf 
for  the  workmen  following  up  the  dipper.  This  makes  a  total 
labor  cost  of  $17  per  9-hr,  shift.  The  coal  consumption  averaged 
$5  per  day,  making  a  total  cost  per  shift  of  $22. 

The  work  was  begun  April  2  and  the  first  1,830  ft.  were  com- 
pleted May  21,  making  43  working  days.  The  machine  was  shut 
down  five  days  for  repairs,  and  there  was  a  night  crew  on  for 
13  additional  shifts.  This  makes  a  total  of  51  complete  shifts. 

51    shifts    at    $22     $1,022.00 

5  days'  extra  pay  for  engineer  and  fireman  (during  repairs) 47.50 

Cost  of  oil  and  extra  help  on  repairs,  about  65.00 

Total  $1,134.50 

The  total  number  of  yards  removed  was  21,250,  making  a  net 
cost  of  5.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Clam-Shell  Buckets.  These  are  also  called  grab  buckets.  They 
are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  special  designs  being 
offered  by  the  manufacturers  for  almost  every  service.  In  gen- 
eral, an  extra  line  besides  the  hoisting  line  is  required  to  manipu- 
late the  bucket.  However,  most  manufacturers  are  now  offering 
buckets  that  operate  on  a  single  line,  a  hand  line  being  used 
for  dumping. 

A  single  line  bucket  made  by  Edgar  E.  Brosius,  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  It  is  made  in  the  following  sizes  and 
weights : 

Size  Weight 

%  cu.  yd.  1,200  Ib. 
%  cu.  yd.                                                  .      2,600  Ib. 

1  cu.  yd.  3,000  Ib. 
1%  cu.  yd.  4,000  Ib. 

2  cu.  yd.  5.000  Ih. 

3  cu.  yd.  6,000  Ib. 

A  similar  grab  bucket  is  made  by  the  Brown  Hoisting  Ma- 
chinery Co.,  of  Cleveland,  O.  This  bucket  is  especially  useful 
where  frequent  changes  have  to  be  made  from  bucket  to  hook. 

Another  type  of  grab-bucket  is  handled  with  a  single  line  and 
is  equipped  with  a  motor  for  opening  and  closing.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  being  able  to  dump  its  load  gradually,  an  advan- 
tage not  possessed  by  other  single  line  grab  buckets. 

Grab-buckets  are  more  suitable  than  orange-peel  buckets  for 
excavating  hard  material.  The  edges  are  frequently  provided  with 
teeth,  and  the  scraping  action  of  the  bucket  in  closing,  together 
with  its  weight  and  the  great  force  that  can  be  exerted,  insure 
good  filling. 

The  Fogarty  Excavating  Bucket  requires  an  engine  with  two 
working  drums,  one  for  the  hoisting  line  and  one  for  the  closing 


COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND  DUMP  BUCKETS      571 

line.  Otherwise  it  can  be  used  on  any  type  of  crane  or  derrick 
car.  It  is  directly  attached  to  the  derrick  boom  instead  of  being 
suspended.  This  bucket  is  made  by  Rochester  Excavating  Ma- 
chinery Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Clamshell  Bucket  Excavation  on  Boston  Subway.  Engineering 
News-record,  June  7,  1917,  gives  the  following:  The  top  22  ft. 
of  a  timbered  cut  for  section  (J  of  the  Dorchester  tunnel  in  Boston 
has  been  taken  out  with  a  traveler  and  clamshell  bucket,  keep- 


OPENED 

Fig.  7.     Brosius  Single  Line  Grab  Bucket,  Closed  Position. 

ing  pace  with  two  ordinary  hoisting  rigs  removing  the  lower 
lift  and  requiring  only  a  small  crew  for  its  operation.  It  was 
possible  to  close  the  street,  and  the  traveler  moved  down  the 
middle  of  it  ahead  of  the  cut,  taking  out  section's  25  ft.  in  length 
at  a  time.  The  dirt  was  disposed  of  in  backfill  or  on  a  rented 
dump  by  industrial  cars  and  two  small  locomotives. 

A  large  A-frame  derrick  has  taken  out  the  greater  part  of  the 
excavation  in  sections  the  full  35-ft.  width  of  the  cut,  25  ft. 
long  and  22  ft.  deep.  Although  this  rig  is  equipped  with  a 
Fogarty  bucket,  it  does  not  have  the  extra  boom  generally  used 
to  bear  down  on  the  bucket  and  increase  its  digging  power.  This 


572  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

is  not  found  necessary,  and  the  derrick  is  rigged  with  a  three- 
drum  engine  and  swinging  gear  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

No  longitudinal  braces  are  used  in  the  upper  part  of  the  exca- 
vation, so  that  the  bucket  can  be  operated  between  the  cross- 
braces  freely.  These  are  10  x  12-in.  pine  timbers,  spaced  4  to  5 
ft.  apart  vertically  and  10  ft.  apart  horizontally.  The  sides  of 
the  cut  are  held  by  3-in.  sheeting  driven  by  hand  or  with  a  small 
air  hammer.  Poling  boards  are  used  on  part  of  the  westerly 
side  of  the  cut,  as  there  is  not  room  to  drive  the  sheeting  outside 
the  industrial  track. 

The  lower  part  of  the  cut  is  excavated  by  hand,  loaded  into 
ordinary  skips  and  taken  to  derricks,  which  dump  the  skips  into 


Fig.  8.     The  Fogarty  Excavating  Bucket.     Note  Crowding  Line 
for  Hard  Surface  Grading. 

cars.  During  the  time  covered  by  the  cost  data  given  herewith, 
two  of  these  derricks  would  fill  five  dump  cars  while  the  traveler 
was  filling  five  more.  The  ten  cars  were  then  hauled  to  the 
dump  or  to  the  backfill  by  a  locomotive.  The  dump,  which  was 
at  one  end  of  the  job,  was  leased,  and  the  industrial-railroad 
equipment  used  to  reach  it  and  the  backfill  comprised  about  3,000 
ft.  of  track,  25  Koppel  dump-cars  of  1-yd.  capacity  and  a  Koppel 
steam  locomotive,  in  addition  to  a  Plymouth  gasoline  engine. 

The  material  excavated  by  the  traveler  consists  of  12  ft.  of 
gravel  fill,  a  layer  of  peat  and  successive  layers  of  sand  and  clay. 
One  small  brick  sewer  encountered  and  a  larger  brick  intercept- 
ing sewer,  which  last  had  to  be  broken  up  with  sledges,  were 
readily  removed.  The  crew  "required  with  the  traveler  consists 
of  a  foreman,  an  engineman,  two  bracers  and  nine  laborers.  This 
gang  could  remove  an  average  of  65  yd.  of  material  in  an  8-hr. 


COST  WITH  GRAB  BUCKETS  AND  DUMP  BUCKETS      573 

shift.  Accurate  costs  kept  on  this  work  for  one  month  in  Janu- 
ary and  February,  1917,  indicate  a  direct  cost  of  $1.47  per  yd. 
for  excavating  the  material  and  placing  it  in  backfill,  which 
cost  slightly  more  than  carrying  it  to  the  dump,  on  account  of  the 
greater  labor  required  in  spreading. 

COST  OP  EXCAVATING  WITH  CLAMSHELL 

Rent  of  equipment,   fuel    $0.17 

Superintendent,    timekeeper,    foreman    12 

Labor,  engimer,  bracers   51 

Repairs   and    incidentals    - 03 

Insurance    . : 07 

Lumber   (bracing  and  sheeting)    12 


Pumping 

Hauling  equipment,  rent,  fuel 08 

Hauling,  labor,  insurance   09 

Lease  of  du  mp    06 

Dumping  and  spreading  in   backfill,   labor,   insurance..        .13 

Total  direct  cost  per  cu.  yd.  $1.47 

The  figures  for  rental  equipment  given  in  the  table  assume  the 
new  cost  of  the  entire  traveler  rig  as  $4,000,  on  which  basis  $42 
per  week  as  rent  for  this  equipment  is  charged  to  the  work 
continuously,  whether  the  equipment  is  idle  or  not.  The  esti- 
mated new  cost  of  the  hauling  equipment  is  $6,200,  and  $54  per 
week  rental  is  allowed  for  it.  Coal  is  figured  at  $6  per  ton, 
the  wages  of  an  engineman  at  $4  per  day,  bracers  at  $3.20  per 
day,  and  labor  at  $2.25  per  day  of  8  hr.  On  this  part  of  the 
work,  lumber  is  used  very  economically,  the  bracing  serving 
four  times  and  the  sheeting  twice.  Both  kinds  of  lumber  will 
have  a  large  salvage  value  at  the  end  of  the  job,  and  on  this 
account  $10  per  M  is  charged  for  the  lumber  each  time  it  is 
used. 

During  the  time  these  data  were  taken,  five  days  were  lost  on 
account  of  stormy  and  extremely  cold  weather,  and  one  day  on 
account  of  repairs  to  the  derrick.  The  costs,  of  course,  are 
increased  by  frost  and  cold  in  comparison  with  warm  weather 
costs  for  the  same  work.  Data  kept  during  February  and  March 
on  the  cost  of  taking  out  about  1,400  yd.  of  excavation  from  the 
lower  20  ft.  of  the  trench,  the  part  not  excavated  by  the  traveler, 
indicate  a  direct  charge  of  $2.39  per  yd.  for  handling  the  ma- 
terial in  the  old  way.  Although  bad  weather  interfered  con- 
siderably with  these  operations  and  the  amount  excavated  was 
scarcely  enough  to  give  average  figures,  the  result  at  least  indi- 
cates that  the  relative  cost  by  the  traveler  method  is  much  lower 
than  in  excavating  by  hand.  Three-quarters  of  the  whole  cost 
of  pumping  is  charged  to  the  lower  portion,  and  all  the  cost  of 
the  tongue-and-groove  sheeting  left  permanently  in  place. 


574  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

COST  OF  EXCAVATING  SECOND  LIFT  BY  HAND 

Rent  of  equipment,   fuel   $0.13 

Supervision    21 

Labor,    engineer,    bracers    92 

Air,   hammers,    repairs 13 

Pumping    23 

Insurance    11 

Lumber  left  in  place   27 

Haul      17 

Dumping     22 

' l.     Total  direct  cost  per  cu.  yd $2.39 

Bibliography.  "  Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  Richard  T. 
Dana. — "  Excavating  Machinery,"  A.  B.  McDaniel. — "  Cost  Data," 
H.  P.  Gillette. 

"  A  Truck  Mounting  for  Stiff-Legged  Derricks,"  Eng.  and  Con., 
Feb.  7,  1912. 


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CHAPTER  XIIJ, 
METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS 

Cableways  properly  include  only  those  means  of  haulage  wherein 
the  load  is  suspended  beneath  a  cable  by  means  of  a  carriage  whose 
grooved  wheels  run  on  top  of  the  cable.  Data  on  hauling  cars 
by  cables  will  be  found  in  Chapter  X. 

Cableway.  The  term  cableway  was  coined  in  order  to  indicate 
an  aerial  transportation  machine  in  which  the  single  load  was 
hoisted  as  well  as  transported  on  a  single  strand  of  cable.  The 


Fig.  1.     Standard  Cableway  Carriage. 

term  "  aerial  tramway "  applies  to  a  machine  in  which  the 
loads,  often  small  and  numerous,  are  hauled  along  a  fixed  track 
by  a  moving  traction  rope.  On  the  aerial  tramway  the  carrier 
may  be  arranged  to  pass  the  towers  or  other  supports,  and  this 
is  one  of  the  distinctive  points  of  difference  between  an  aerial 
tramway  and  a  cableway.  In  the  aerial  tramway  the  cables  are 
tightened  by  means  of  weights  or  similar  tension  device,  but  in 
the  case  of  the  coasting  or  gravity  cableway  no  tension  devices 
are  required. 

575 


576  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

A  cableway  consists  essentially  of  a  main  cable  suspended 
between  two  towers  or  anchorages,  serving  as  the  track  for  a 
trolley  carrying  the  load.  This  load  is  pulled  back  and  forth 
by  smaller  cables.  Where  the  track  cable  is  so  arranged  that  the 
slack  may  be  increased  or  diminished  at  the  will  of  the  operator, 
thereby  directly  raising  or  lowering  the  load,  the  machine  is 
termed  a  "  slack  cableway."  Similarly,  when  one  end  of  the 
cableway  can  be  raised  or  lowered  so  that  the  load  may  slide 
through  gravity  to  the  other  end,  the  machine  is  termed  a 
"  coasting  "  or  "  gravity  cableway."  When  the  loads  on  a  cable- 
way  are  all  to  be  carried  in  one  direction  it  will  often  pay  to 
have  the  dump  end  of  the  cableway  at  a  lower  point  than  the 
loading  end. 

Another  type  of  cableway  is  that  in  which  the  track  cable  is 
also  the  hauling  and  return  cable,  the  cable  being  continuous 
from  one  end  of  the  span  to  the  other  and  back  again.  The 
bucket  is  either  firmly  fastened  to  the  cable  or  held  in  place  on 
it  by  friction. 

The  Economic  Use  of  cableways  is  limited  by  the  following 
conditions :  ( 1 )  A  sufficient  quantity  of  work  to  pay  the  cost 
of  the  first  installation,  plus  the  cost  of  ensuing  removals  and  re- 
installations,  and  (2)  a  sufficient  quantity  of  work  within  the 
length  of  span  and  within  economical  reaching  distance  each 
side  of  the  cableway  to  repay  the  cost  of  one  installation  and 
removal.  These  conditions  are  often  fulfilled  on  trench  and 
canal  excavation  and  in  the  construction  of  dam  foundations. 

Cableway  Costs.  The  cost  of  a  cableway  depends  upon  the 
length  of  span,  height  and  type  of  towers,  and  the  quantity  and 
kind  of  power  required.  In  general,  a  cableway,  designed  to 
operate  in  earth  excavation  or  for  conveying  buckets,  costs  from 
$8  to  $15  per  ft.  of  span,  for  spans  of  400  to  800  ft.,  and  from 
$6  to  $12  per  ft.  of  span,  for  spans  of  1,000  to  2,000  ft. 

A  Duplex  Cableway  (two  complete  cables,  15  to  20  ft.  apart, 
on  common  towers)  will  cost  about  $11.50  per  ft.  of  span,  for 
spans  of  2,000  ft.,  when  the  towers  are  from  75  to  130  ft.  high. 

Cableway  Systems.  F.  T.  Rubidge,  in.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Jan.  8,  1908,  gives  the  following:  Mr.  Rubidge  defines 
an  inclined  cableway  as  one  having  sufficient  inclination  so  that 
the  power  required  to  hoist  the  load  is  less  than  that  required 
for  conveying.  This  enables  the  use  of  a  single  rope  for  both 
hoisting  and  conveying.  Where  the  inclination  of  the  cableway 
is  less  than  this,  it  is  classed  as  horizontal,  though  the. ends  of 
the  span  may  be  at  different  levels. 

Horizontal    Cableways.     In    this    system,    in    addition    to    the 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS         577 

cable  and  carriage  that  travels  upon  it,  there  must  be  provided 
independent  means  for  hoisting  and  conveying  the  load. 

In  the  case  where  the  motor  is  installed  upon  the  carriage,  the 
latter  is  propelled  by  gearing  to  the  sheaves  traveling  upon  the 
main  cable.  As  a  cable  with  both  ends  fixed  takes  the  approxi- 
mate form  of  an  ellipse,  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  carriage 
to  climb  the  steep  part  of  the  curve  at  either  end.  To  overcome 
this,  the  bents  or  towers  are  free  to  move  at  the  top  in  the 
direction  of  the  cable  and  they  are  so  weighted  that  the  main 
cable  is  under  constant  tension.  This  causes  the  carriage  to 
travel  an  approximately  uniform  grade.  This  device  is  called 
the  Balanced  Cable  Crane.  The  fact  that  the  cable  toust  sustain, 

.A. 


Fig.  2.     Balanced  Cable  Crane  Horizontal  Cableway. 

the  additional  weight  of  the  motor  and  motorman  is  a  disad- 
vantage, but  in  many  cases  it  is  offset  by  the  advantage  of  having 
the  operator  close  to  the  points  of  loading  and  dumping. 

Arrangement  of  Hoisting  and  Conveying  Ropes,  In  cases  where 
the  engine  or  motor  is  located  at  the  end  of  the  span,  ropes  in 
addition  to  the  main  cable  are  necessary,  the  one  for  hoisting,  the 
other  for  conveying.  When  an  orange-peel  or  other  self-filling 
bucket  is  used,  a  third  rope  and  an  extra  drum  on  the  engine 
must  be  provided. 

Figs.  3,  4  and  5  show  three  different  arrangements  of  hoisting 
and  conveying  ropes  which  have  been  adopted  by  the  Lidgerwood 
Mfg.  Co.,  the  Lambert  Hoisting  Engine  Co.,  and  the  Trenton 
Iron  Co.,  respectively. 

In  the  arrangement  adopted  by  the  Lidgerwood  Co.  the  load 
is  first  hoisted  to  the  desired  height.  During  conveying,  both 
hoisting  and  conveying  drums  must  be  in  operation,  and  of  the 


578 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


same  diameter  so  that  the  load  may  remain  at  a  constant  dis- 
tance from  the  cable. 

In  the  arrangement  used  by  the  Lambert  Co.,  the  engine  drums 
have  different  diameters,   the  larger   being  the  conveying  drum. 


Fig.  3.     Arrangement  of  Lidgerwood  Cableway. 


This  permits   simultaneous    hoisting   and   conveying,   and   a   con- 
veying speed  greater  than  the  hoisting  speed. 

The  arrangement  used  by  the  Trenton  Iron  Co.  was  devised 
to  obviate  the  necessity  of  using  carriers  to  prevent  sagging  of 
the  .hoisting  rope.  The  hoisting  rope  is  attached  to  an  endless 


fan  co We  1 


Pig.  4.     Arrangement  of  Lambert  Cableway. 


rope  at  the  point  A  by  means  of  a  specially  constructed  swivel 
connection.  The  endless  rope  is  passed  a  number  of  times  around 
an  elliptic-faced  drum,  to  give  sufficient  friction  for  hoisting  the 
load.  In  operation  both  hoisting  and  conveying  drums  are  in 
motion  during  conveying,  and  both  must  be  of  the  same  diameter. 


Fig.  5.     Arrangement  of  Trenton  Iron  Co/s  Cableway. 

Fall-Rope  Carriers.  The  economical  operation  of  a  cableway 
depends  in  no  small  measure  upon  the  carriers  employed.  Their 
function  is  to  prevent  excessive  tension  (due  to  sag)  in  the 
hoisting  rope,  so  that  when  the  load  is  detached  from  the  fall- 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS         570 

block,  the  latter,  while  free,  will  not  ascend  to  the  carriage. 
Even  with  the  use  of  carriers  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  weighted 
fall-block,  so  that  it  may  be  raised  or  lowered  by  the  engineman 
when  no  load  is  attached. 

The  following  are  styles  of  carriers  in  use: 

( 1 )  Chain-Connected  Carriers.  These  consist  of  a  supporting 
sheave  which  travels  upon  the  main  cable,  below  which,  in  the 
same  frame,  are  sheaves  for  the  support  of  other  necessary  ropes. 
The  side  plates  which  form  the  frame  for  the  sheaves  must  pro- 
ject beyond  them,  so  that  when  adjacent  carriers  strike  each 
other  the  sheaves  will  not  come  into  contact.  The  connected 


Fig.  6.     Lambert-Delaney  Carrier. 

carriers  are  attached  at  one  end  to  the  lower  and  at  the  other 
to  the  carriage.  When  the  carriage  is  close  to  the  head  tower 
( engine  end ) ,  the  carriers  are  all  in  contact  with  the  chains  hang- 
ing in  loops  below.  As  the  carriage  moves  toward  the  tail  tower 
the  carriers  are  spaced  along  the  cable  with  the  chains  hanging 
in  festoons  below. 

(2)  Button-Rope    Carriers.     With    this    carrier    an    additional 
rope  across  the  span  is  required.     It  is  fixed  at  one  end  and  kept 
at  a  constant  tension  by   a  weight  at  the  other.     At   intervals 
along  the  rope  are  affixed  "  buttons  "  with  a  gradation  of  diam- 
eters, the  smallest  being  the  first  from  the  head  tower.     The  car- 
riers are  provided  with  eyes  having  a  corresponding  gradation 
of  diameters,  slightly  smaller  than   the  buttons,  through  which 
the  button   rope  iS  threaded.     The  carriage   is  provided  with   a 
projecting  arm  or  "  horn,"  which  picks  up  the  carriers  as  each  is 
met  during  the  travel  of  carriage  toward  the  head  tower.     All 
the  carriers  are  riding  upon  the  arm  when   the  head  tower  is 
reached.     On  moving  away  from  the  head  tower,  the  first  button 
passes  through  the  eyes  of  all   the  carriers  but  the  last.     This 
one  is  snatched  from  the  arm  and  deposited  upon  the  cable.    .The 
second,  button  selects  the  next  carrier,  and  so  on. 

(3)  The  Lambert-Delaney  Carrier.     This  is  rather  an   ingeni- 
ous device,  depending  upon  the  fact  that  points  along  the  vertical 
diameter  of  a  horizontally  rolling  wheel  travel  at  different  ve- 
locities.    The  rolling  wheel  in  the  case  of  the  carrier  is  inverted, 


580  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

and  rolls  upon  the  under  side  of  the  main  cable.  The  conveying 
rope  is  the  rolling  force,  and  is  applied  at  different  distances  from 
the  center  of  the  rolling  sheave  to  obtain  the  required  variation 
in  velocity  of  travel.  Fig.  6  illustrates  the  construction.  It  will 
be  noticed  that,  in  the  quarter  speed  carrier,  a  yoke  with  set 
screw  is  used  to  increase  the  friction  between  the  rolling  sheave 
and  cable. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  above  types  of  car- 
riers are  as  follows: 

Chain-connected  Carriers.  Advantages:  (a)  Simplicity,  (b) 
Not  easily  deranged,  (c)  Positive  spacing.  Disadvantages: 

(a)  Extremely    heavy,      (b)    Considerable   wear,      (c)    Power    re- 
quired to  stretch  chains  as  carriage  nears  tail  tower. 

Button-rope       Carriers.     Advantages:      (a)    Extremely       light. 

(b)  Minimum  wear  to  both  carrier  and  cable,      (c)    Positive  spac- 
ing.    Disadvantages:      (a)   Maintenance  of  button  rope. 

Lambert- Delaney  Carriers.  Advantages:  (a)  Neither  rope 
nor  chains  required  for  spacing,  (b)  Weight  of  carriers  uni- 
formly distributed  at  all  times  between  carriage  and  towers,  (c) 
Moderate  weight.  Disadvantages:  (a)  Double  bending  of  con- 
veying rope  while  passing  through  carriers,  causing  short  life  of 
rope,  (b)  Variable  spacing  due  to  slip  between  rolling  sheaves 
and  cable,  (c)  Large  number  of  sheaves  to  maintain. 

The  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  5  is  'k  the  Laurent-Cherry  "  sys- 
tem, which  employs  no  carriers,  as  above  mentioned.  The  advan- 
tages are:  (a)  A  minimum  of  working  parts  not  easily  acces- 
sible, (b)  A  minimum  of  dead  weight  to  be  sustained  by  cable. 
The  disadvantages  are:  (a)  The  endless  hoisting  rope  is  sub- 
ject to  considerable  wear  owing  to  constant  slipping  on  elliptic- 
faced  drum,  (b)  When  hoisting  from  a  considerable  depth  below 
the  main  cable  and  conveying  toward  the  tail  tower,  there  is  a 
limit  to  the  distance  of  approach  to  the  tail  tower,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  connection  at  A,  Fig.  5,  cannot  pass  over  the  tail 
tower  sheave.  On  this  account  a  greater  span  is  necessary  under 
such  conditions  than  in  the  other  arrangements. 

The  Incline  Cableway.  It  is  obvious  that  when  the  inclination 
of  the  cable  is  such  that  greater  power  is  required  for  conveying 
than  for  hoisting,  the  carriage  will  remain  stationary  on  the 
cable  while  the  load  is  being  hoisted,  even  though  no  conveying 
or  endless  rope  is  used.  Should  the  load  be  hoisted  until  the  fall- 
block  comes  into  contact  with  the  carriage,  the  further  pull  on 
the  hoisting  rope  will  cause  the  carriage  with  the  load  to  move 
along  the  cable.  A  single  drum  engine  is,  therefore,  all  that  is 
necessary. 

The  simplest  form  of  incline  cableway  is  used  where  the  load- 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS         581 

ing  is  always  done  at  the  same  point,  also  the  unloading.  In 
this  case  a  stopping  block  is  clamped  to  the  main  cable  to  prevent 
the  carriage  running  below  the  point  of  loading,  and  a  self- 
engaging  latch  is  clamped  to  the  cable  at  the  unloading  point 
to  hold  the  carriage  in  position  while  the  load  is  being  lowered 
for  unloading. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  provide  means  for  loading  and  un- 
loading at  any  point,  an  endless  rope  is  used  as  in  the  horizontal 
cableway,  but  no  power  is  necessary  for  its  operation,  its  function 
being  merely  to  hold  the  carriage  at  any  desired  point.  This  is 
accomplished  by  passing  the  endless  rope  a  number  of  times 
around  an  elliptic-faced  drum  provided  with  brake  only. 

The  Aerial  Dump.  The  range  of  the  cableway  is  largely  in- 
creased by  the  possibility  of  dumping  the  contents  of  the  skip 
at  any  point  in  its  travel  by  the  manipulation  of  a  lever  at  the 
engine.  The  skip  employed  has  an  open  end,  so  that  tilting  is  all 
that  is  necessary  for  dumping.  The  skip  is  suspended  from  the 
hook  of  the  fall-block  by  chains  with  hook  ends  attached  to  the 
sides  and  ends  of  the  skip.  The  end  of  the  skip  is  also  attached 
to  another  fall-block  reeved  with  the  dump  line.  The  latter  neces- 
sitates two  additional  sheaves  below  the  cable  in  the  carriage, 
and  is  reeved  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  hoisting  rope.  In  the 
Lidgerwood  self-dumping  device  the  dump  line  is  wound  on  the 
hoisting  drum,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  dump  the  skip,  the  line 
is  shifted  by  a  suitable  mechanism  upon  an  increased  diameter  of 
drum.  This  causes  the  dump  line  to  be  drawn  in  at  a  higher 
rate  of  speed  than  the  hoisting  rope,  and  results  in  the  tilting  of 
the  skip  for  discharging  the  contents. 

In  the  Lambert  system  the  dump  line  is  attached  to  its  own 
drum  mounted  on  a  shaft  with  the  hoisting  drum,  in  close  con- 
tact with  the  latter  and  so  arranged  that  the  hoisting  drum, 
when  released  with  a  load,  can  make  only  a  half  revolution  while 
the  dump  line  drum  is  stationary.  During  hoisting,  the  hoisting 
drum  drives  the  dump  line  drum  and,  both  being  of  the  same 
diameter,  the  skip  remains  horizontal.  When  it  is  desired  to 
dump  the  skip,  the  brake  is  applied  to  the  dump  line  drum  and 
released  on  the  hoisting  drum. 

Lubrication.  The  fact  that  the  sheaves  in  the  carriers,  car- 
riage, and  tops  of  towers  are  not  easily  accessible  renders  self- 
lubricating  bushings  desirable,  and  they  are  generally  used.  Their 
use,  however,  does  not  mean  that  little  attention  is  required.  The 
carriage  and  hoisting  rope  especially  should  be  carefully  examined 
daily,  for,  while  the  apparatus  is  seldom  used  to  transport  men, 
the  load  is  generally  conveyed  above  them. 

Towers.     Either  tower  may  be  fixed  or  movable.     When  both 


582 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


are  movable  the  tracks  must  be  parallel.  The  parallel  track  ar- 
rangement was  used  extensively  in  the  excavating  of  the  Chicago 
drainage  canal.  A  common  arrangement  is  the  radial  cableway, 
where  one  tower  is  fixed  and  the  other  movable. 

Movable  towers  are  usually  mounted  on  standard  railroad 
wheels.  The  track  consists  of  six  or  seven  lines  of  rails,  and  rail 
braces  should  be  used  plentifully.  Power  for  moving  the  tower 
may  be  obtained  from  the  winch-head  on  the  cableway  engine,  or, 
if  the  tower  must  be  moved  often,  a  special  engine  is  provided. 
Movement  is  accomplished  by  block  and  tackle  between  the  engine 
and  anchorage  at  either  end  of  the  track.  Considerable  power  is 
necessary  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  friction  between 
flanges  of  wheels  and  rails. 

For  low  towers  in  fixed  positions  the  "  A  "  frame  is  commonly 
used,  but  the  head  tower  should  not  be  so  low,  or  the  engine 
so  close  to  it,  that  the  fleet  angle  of  the  ropes  becomes  excessive. 
In  some  cases,  especially  in  incline  cableways,  the  tail  tower 
may  be  dispensed  with  and  a  rock  anchorage  substituted.  High 
towers  are  common  where  height  is  desired  for  disposal  of  ma- 
terial beneath  the  cable,  and  in  very  low  spans  where  the  deflec- 
tion of  the  cable  is  necessarily  large.  They  are  usually  con- 
structed of  wood,  for  the  reason  that  the  cost  is  less  and  in  most 
cases  they  will  last  as  long  as  the  cableway  is  required.  The 
base  of  the  tower  is  usually  from  one-third  to  one-half  the  height. 
Steel  masts  are  sometimes  used  for  tail  towers.  They  require  at 
least  three  strong  and  well  anchored  guy  lines.  The  base  has  a 
ball  and  socket  joint  of  steel  castings,  and  the  customary  wood 
saddle  is  bolted  to  the  top  for  the  main  cable. 


Fig.  7.     Step  Socket  for  Main  Cable. 

Main  Cable.  The  essential  features  of  the  main  cable  are 
strength,  lightness,  flexibility,  and  a  surface  which  will  not  only 
receive  the  least  wear  but  impart  the  least  wear  to  the  sheaves 
rolling  upon  it.  The  standard  hoisting  rope  is  objectionable  from 
the  standpoint  last  mentioned.  Though  less  flexible  than  the 
hoisting  rope,  the  locked-wire  rope  is  generally  used  for  the  reason 
that  the  other  qualities  are  possessed  to  a  much  greater  degree. 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS 


583 


Fig.  7  shows  the  socket  used  on  the  locked-wire  rope.  There  are 
six  wedge  segments  in  each  cone,  with  the  exception  of  the 
smallest,  which  contains  four. 

Means  are  provided  for  taking  up  the  main  cable  when  the 
deflection  has  become  excessive,  due  to  stretching.  In  short  spans 
a  turnbuckle  is  inserted  in  the  sling  which  passes  around  the  an- 
chorage and  thence  through  a  sheave  attached  to  the  end  of 
the  cable.  For  long  spans,  special  double  or  triple  sheave  blocks 
are  used,  reeved  with  wire  rope.  The  take-up  is  usually  located 


Deadman  combh  of  concrete 
reinforced  wffh  65 fb.  steel  raib.  Light 
Wgafvanized iron  pipe  used  as  a 
form  to  span  the  irench* 


Fig.  8.     Concrete  Anchorage  for  Main  Cable. 

at  the  head  tower  end  so  that  the  engine  may  be  utilized  when 
taking  up  is  necessary. 

Anchorages.  The  tension  of  the  main  cable  is  usually  from  five 
to  six  times  the  load,  depending  upon  the  deflection.  Anchorages, 
secure  beyond  all  possible  doubt,  are  essential,  as  their  failure 
would  prove'  disastrous  to  the  cableway  and  imperil  the  lives  of 
men.  Since  it  is  impossible  to  calculate  the  resistance  offered 
by  the  earth  to  a  buried  anchorage,  it  is  usual  to  find  a  much 
stronger  anchorage  than  is  necessary.  The  usual  form  for  mod- 
erate tensions  —  say  up  to  30  tons  —  is  a  well  tarred  oak  log 
about  18  in.  in  diameter  and  16  ft.  long,  buried  to  a  depth  of  8  or 
10  ft.  If  longer  life  is  desired,  or  if  the  tension  is  greater,  a  con- 
crete anchorage  may  be  substituted.  A  form  which  has  been  suc- 
cessfully used  is  shown  in  Fig  8. 

A  Coasting  Cableway.  This  is  a  simple  device  of  the  nature 
of  a  cableway  in  which  a  line,  starting  at  a  point  about  on  a 
level  with  the  base  of  a  pile  driver  or  derrick  is  run  over  a 
sheave  at  the  top  of  the  leads  or  mast  and  down  to  the  engine 


584 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


drum.  A  snatch  block  travels  on  this  cable.  A  tag  rope  is 
fastened  to  this  block  and  may  be  controlled  by  snubbing  around 
a  post  or  a  winch  or  drum  on  the  engine.  Heavy  loads  can  be 
moved  easily  by  raising  or  lowering  one  or  both  of  the  lines,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  9. 

The  author  has  used  this  device  on  a  small  job  for  handling 
heavy  timbers  and  pile  caps.  A  floating  derrick  was  utilized  for 
the  same  purpose  in  the  construction  of  the  pile  foundation  for  a 
large  sewer  in  New  York  (see  Trans.  Am.  8oc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  31,  p. 
073 ) .  It  may  be  adapted  for  moving  earth. 


Fig.  9.     C'oasting  Conveyor. 

Parker  and  Flynn  used  an  inexpensive  cableway  for  construct- 
ing concrete  piers  at  Northumberland,  New  York.  This  device 
was  illustrated  by  them  in  Engineering  News,  June  20,  1J>02.  It 
consisted  of  a  55-ft.  guy  derrick,  without  boom,  placed  near  the 
edge  of  the  bank  at  the  side  of  the  river,  and  a  two-legged  bent 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  river.  The  cable  was  of  %-in.  steel 
and  was  stretched  from  a  dead  man  on  the  shore  about  150  ft. 
back  of  the  derrick,  past  and  just  crossing  the  derrick  to  the 
bent.  Under  the  top  of  the  bent  at  the  end  of  this  cable  hung 
two  weights  which  consisted  of  scale  pans  loaded  with  concrete. 
In  passing  over  the  bent  the  cableway  was  carried  on  a  16-in. 
block.  The  boom  fall  of  the  derrick  was  then  hooked  onto  the 
cable  at  the  foot  of  the  mast.  The  carriage  on  the  cable  con- 
sisted of  two  16-in.  cable-sheaves  with  iron  straps,  forming  a 
triangle,  and  carrying  a  chain  on  which  the  bucket  was  hooked. 
In  operation  the  bucket  was  hooked  to  the  carrier  on  shore,  a 
single  drum  hoisting  engine  wound  up  the  boom  fall  and  the  cable 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS 


585 


was  hoisted  until  it  had  a  pitch  down  toward  the  river  of  18  or 
20  ft.  ui  the  span  of  450  ft.  The  loaded  bucket  travelled  under 
gravity  away  from  the  shore.  After  the  bucket  had  been  dumped 
the  boom  fall  was  lowered  until  the  cableway  had  a  reversed 
pitch  of  18  or  20  ft.,  when  the  empty  bucket  returned  to  the  shore. 


Dtrritli.SSkhigh. 


Fig.  10.     A  Cableway  for  Conveying  Materials  in  Building  Con- 
crete Piers,  at  Northumberland,  N.  Y. 

The  speed  of  the  bucket  was  governed  by  the  slope  of  the  cable. 
When  the  cable  was  at  its  extreme  grade  the  bucket  would  run 
from  the  platform  to  the  bent  a  distance  of  450  ft.  in  35  seconds 
and  return  in  about  the  same  time.  This  device  might  be  em- 
ployed for  earth  excavation. 

A  Balanced  Cable  Crane.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Nov. 
13,  1907,  gives  the  following:  This  cableway  was  installed  at  a 
coal  storage  plant  at  Watertown,  N.  Y.  It  is  equipped  with 


Fig.   11.     Cableway  in  Which  Sag  in  Cable  is  Practically  Done 

Away  with  by  Oscillating  Towers. 

*"*  {I  I V  *f  *i /j  0  ^(Ti'i '  tM-ii  '  i*~  oh  OPO  $K\  rriiri^  4/lif*{n"  li  'MitJ'i  fi 
electric  motors  not  only  on  the  trolley  or  carriage,  but  also  on 
each  of  the  oscillating  towers.  In  this  manner  each  tower  can 
be  propelled  along  the  single  rail  track.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  two  towers  move  simultaneously.  Indeed,  one  tower  can 
travel  25  ft.  without  moving  the  other  tower.  The  towers  have  a 
traveling  speed  of  43  ft.  per  min.,  when  it  is  desired  to  shift  them. 


586  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  electric  load  carriage,  or  trolley,  handles  a  3-cu.  yd.  clam- 
shell bucket,  and  has  a  traveling  speed  of  1,500  ft.  per  min.  and  a 
hoisting  speed  of  80  ft.  per  min.,  with  a  00-hp.  motor. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  cableway  as  built  commands 
about  9,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  per  ft.  of  depth.  It  might  easily 
be  economical  equipment  to  use  on  an  excavating  job. 

A  Combination  Cableway  and  Derrick.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Feb.  24,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

Today  the  use  of  cableways  for  building  sewers  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing, as  is  also  the  use  of  portable  derricks.  With  both  ma- 
chines good  work  can  be  done  both  in  excavating  the  trench  and 
in  placing  materials  in  the  construction  of  the  sewers.  On  this 
page  we  illustrate  a  combination  cableway  and  derrick  designed 
for  spans  up  to  500  ft.,  that  promises  to  find  a  great  field  of 


Fig.  12.     Combination  Cableway  and  Derrick. 

usefulness  in  not  only  building  sewers  but  in  many  other  classes 
of  construction. 

The  general  plan  is  extremely  simple.  The  derrick  is  built  on 
a  car  with  a  hoisting  engine  and  boiler.  Over  the  A-frame 
for  the  derrick  is  erected  a  head  tower  for  the  cableway.  A  tail 
tower  is  erected  at  the  other  end  of  the  work  and  the  cableway 
strung  and  anchored  to  dead  men  as  shown.  In  moving  the  cable- 
way,  only  the  tail  tower  need  be  taken  down. 

It  is  possible  to  use  both  the  derrick  and  cableway  at  the  same 
time,  or  work  can  be  carried  on  with  either.  This  arrangement 
means  a  saving  in  time  in  carrying  on  work.  This  design  was 
gotten  up  by  the  New  York  Cableway  &  Engineering  Co.,  2  Rector 
St.,  New  York. 

Life  of  Main  Cable.  A  %-in.  wire  cable  used  on  an  incline  on 
the  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Canal  lasted  from  100  to  160  days, 
during  which  time  it  made  from  30,000  to  50,000  trips,  carrying 
from  50,000  to  80,000  cu.  yd.  of  solid  rock.  Assuming  the  rock 
to  weigh  4,300  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.  the  life  of  the  cable  was  from  108,000 
to  172,000  tons. 

A  Telpher  System.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  18,  1916, 
describes  a  method  of  disposing  of  subway  excavation  in  New 
York  City,  by  telpherage. 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS         587 


The  power  for  hoisting  and  trolleying  was  furnished  by  a 
60-hp.  250-volt  direct  current  motor.  A  Lidgerwood  2-drum 
hoist  was  used  for  hoisting  and  trolleying.  The  car  was  a  home- 
made affair,  composed  of  four  standard  cast  iron  wheels  8-in.  in 
diameter,  which  run  on  two  18-in.  I-beams.  These  wheels  sup- 
ported two  standard  cast  iron  sheaves,  16-in.  in  diameter,  through 
which  the  hoisting  cable  ran.  The  cables  were  arranged  as  shown 
in  Fig.  13.  Steel  buckets  and  skips  were  used  for  handling  ma- 
terial, the  former  holding  about  1  yd.,  the  latter  2  yd.  of  ma- 
terial. 

' 


/' "Cable  Trolle 


,/ 'Cable  Hoist 
Hoist Drums 


E.&C. 


Fig.  13.     Arrangement  of  Cables  for  Telpher  System. 

A  Skip  Dumping  Device.  This  was  developed  in  connection 
with  the  Ashokan  Reservoir  work  of  the  Catskill  Aqueduct  and 
is  described  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Nov.  1),  1910.  The 
cableway  used  was  of  the  Lidgerwood  type  and  was  equipped  with 
Locher  skip  dumping  mechanism. 

As  shown  in  Fig.  14  the  dump  line  and  the  hoisting  rope  are 
wound  on  the  same  drum  C  in  the  cableway  tower  and  all  their 
motions  coincide.  The  dump  rope,  at  the  tower,  runs  down 
through  a  fall  block  A,  then  up  over  the  sheave  B,  and  thence  to 
the  main  drum  C.  By  pulling  down  the  fall  block  A,  which  is 
suspended  in  the  loop  of  the  dump  line,  this  line  is  shortened, 
lifts  the  rear  of  the  skip  and  thus  dumps  it.  It  is  the  method 
of  pulling  down  this  fall  block  with  which  is  novel.  The  old 
method  was  by  a  cable  which  wound  upon  a  small  drum.  This 
method  worked  well,  but  was  slow.  The  new  method  consists 
in  pulling  down  the  fall  block  by  means  of  a  cable  which  is  fas- 
tened to  the  block  and  passes  from  there  through  a  stationary 
sheave  D  directly  below,  thence  through  a  sheave  E  fastened  to  the 
end  of  a  piston  rod,  operated  by  a  compressed  air  cylinder  about 
12  x  72  in.  in  size  and  thence  back  to  a  stationary  anchorage 
F  on  one  of  the  heavy  timbers  of  the  tower.  By  passing  the  cafile 
through  the  sheave  E  on  the  end  of  the  piston  the  distance  through 
which  the  piston  acts  is  only  one-half  the  distance  through  which 


588 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  fall  block  is  moved.     The  piston  is  operated  by  compressed 
air  which  is  used  for  operating  all  the  machines  in  the  work. 

Drag  Line  Cableway  Excavators.  These  machines  consist  of  a 
bucket  carried  on  an  over-head  or  track  cable  and  a  drag  or  load 
line.  The  machine  is  operated  and  controlled,  as  a  rule,  by  a 
double-drum  hoisting  engine.  One  end  of  the  track  cable  is  se- 
curely fastened  to  a  suitable  anchorage,  and  the  other  end  is 
supported  by  a  tower,  in  the  case  of  a  slack  or  gravity  cableway. 


Fig.  14.     Skip  Dumping  Device  for  Cableways. 


The  track  cable  can  be  pulled  taut  or  slackened  by  means  of  a 
set  of  buck  lines,  leading  to  a  drum  on  the  engine.  The  drag 
line  leads  from  the  bucket  over  a  sheave  on  the  tower  to  the 
buck  drum  on  the  engine. 

In  operation,  the  bucket  is  lowered  into  the  excavation  by 
slacking  the  cables,  and  is  then  drawn  forward  until  tilled.  While 
the  bucket  is  loading,  the  track  cable  remains  flat.  As  soon  as 
the  bucket  is  loaded,  the  operator  gradually  tightens  the  cable 
and  at  the  same  time  hauls  in  the  load  by  the  drag  line,  so  that 
the  bucket  is  lifted  and  pulled  to  the  dumping  point  simultan- 
eously. The  empty  bucket  returns  to  the  loading  point  by  gravity, 
the  operators  simply  release  the  friction  of  the  load-line  drum. 

The  foregoing  explanation  applies  to  a  flat  cableway,  in  which 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS         589 

the  empty  bucket  is  lowered  by  gravity.  In  some  installations  it 
is  desirable  to  have  the  loaded  buckets  operated  by  gravity. 

The  capacity  of  a  cableway  excavator  depends  on  many  factors, 
among  which  may  be  included  the  working  span  and  depth,  the 
available  power,  the  nature  of  the  material,  and  whether  it  is 
dry  or  wet,  as  well  as  the  efficiency  of  the  labor.  Mr.  W.  H. 
Wilmn,  in  Engineering  Record,  June  5,  1915,  states  that  a  1-yd. 
machine,  working  either  wet  or  dry  gravel,  on  an  average  span 
of  500  ft.,  and  to  a  depth  of  about  35  ft.,  has  easily  averaged  35 
cu.  yd.  of  material  per  hour  excavated,  and  carried  to  the  top  of 
a  plant  60  ft.  high.  A  1^-yd.  machine,  operated  by  a  10  x  12-in. 
engine,  under  similar  conditions,  has  averaged  50  cu.  yd.  per  hr. 
Under  ordinary  working  conditions,  taking  into  consideration  all 
the  delays,  a  1-yd.  machine  should  average  from  200  to  250  cu. 
yd.,  and  a  1^-yd.  machine  350  to  400  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Under  favorable  conditions,  and  on  usual  spans  of  400  and  500 
ft.,  a  load  line  should  have  a  life  of  about  20,000  cu.  yd.,  and  a 
tension  line  should  give  greater  service,  averaging  about  25,000 
cu.  yd.  The  track  cable  should  average  about  50,000  cu.  yd. 

Figs.  15  and  16  shows  various  arrangements  of  cableway  ex- 
cavators made  by  J.  C.  Buckbee  and  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

A  Cableway  Scraper  Excavator.  Engineering  and  Contracting 
gives  the  following  in  the  issue  of  Apr.  23,  1913. 

A  new  modification  in  cableway  scraper  excavators  is  illustrated 
by  the  accompanying  sketches.  This  excavator  will  work  under 
water  as  well  as  in  dry  pits  and  has  been  quite  widely  employed 
in  stripping,  in  gravel  pits  and  in  other  loose  soil  excavation. 
The  records  given  later  indicate  its  economy  of  operation. 

In  general  the  plant  consists  of  a  track-cable  on  which  runs 
a  carriage  operated  by  a  hauling  rope  and  carrying  suspended 
a  scraper  bucket.  The  track  cable  has  an  adjustable  attachment 
at  one  end  to  a  mast  and  is  at  the  other  end  fastened  by  a  bridle 
hitch  to  two  anchors.  By  means  of  this  adjustable  mast  con- 
nection, the  track  cable  can  be  slacked  to  lower  the  bucket  into 
the  pit  to  dig,  and  then  made  taut  to  raise  the  loaded  bucket 
out  of  the  pit  and  provide  a  track  cableway  for  hauling  the  load 
to  the  pit  bank  to  be  discharged.  The  line  pf  £he  track  cable, 
being  from  the  mast  top  on  one  side  to  the  bridle  hitch  at  ground 
level  on  the  other  side  of  the  pit,  is  inclined,  so  that  the  bucket 
returns  by  gravity  when  the  hauling  rope  is  slacked.  In  brief, 
then,  the  operation  is  as  follows:  The  bucket  being  at  the  pit 
side  farthest  from  the  mast,  the  track  cable  is  slacked  to  lower  the 
bucket  to  the  pit  bottom.  A  pull  on  the  hauling  rope  draws  the 
bucket  ahead  and  it  scrapes  up  a  load.  The  track  cable  is  then 
hoisted  taut  and  raises  the  bucket  out  of  the  pit.  The  loaded 


590 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

t*J|  *i  Hsbiui 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS 


501 


502 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


bucket  is  then  hauled  up  the  track  cable  to  the  dumping   point 

where  it  is  dumped  automatically.     The  bucket  then  returns  by 

gravity  to  its  first  position  of  readiness  to  excavate  another  load. 

From  this  general  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  the  essential 


Shorfunk  ~. 
C/io/n 


Bridle  Cable 
Thimble  5/ieove 


Bridie  Frame 


Fig.   17.     Bridle  Hitch  for  Tail  of  Track  Cable.     Cableway 
Scraper  Excavator. 

,  Tension  Block 

-  Tension  Coble 


Tension  Block 


Track 
Cable 


Fig.  18.     Mast  Top  and  Sheave  Assembly  Cableway  Scraper 
.  Excavator. 

structural  and  operating  parts  of  the  excavator  are  the  adjustable 
attachments  at  the  mast  head,  the  bridle  hitch  at  the  opposite 
end  of  the  track  cable  and  the  bucket  and  carriage  and  their  op- 
erating lines.  The  bridle  hitch  is  simple  and  is  completely  ex- 
plained by  Fig.  17.  Fig.  18  shows  the  mast  head  attachment 


COST  WITH  CA13LEWAVS  AND  CONVEYORS 


593 


which  is  explained  as  follows:  From  the  rear  drum  of  a  double 
drum  hoist  at  the  mast  bottom  a  tension  line  runs  to  the  mast  top 
and  is  fastened  to  the  track  cable  block  A,  Fig.  18,  after  being 
rove  as  shown  through  blocks  B  and  C.  Block  C  is  fastened  in  a 
fixed  vertical  position  to  a  collar  ring  which  is  free  to  revolve 
around  the  mast,  but  the  other  blocks  have  ordinary  swivel 
connections.  The  tension  line,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  employed 
to  make  the  track  cable  alternately  slack  and  taut. 

Tt  ruing  now  to  the  bucket  hauling  and  dumping  operations,  it 
is  noted,  first,  that  from  the  front  drum  of  the  engine  a  line  runs 


Fig.   19.     Carriage  and  Bucket  and  Operating  Attachments 
Cableway  Scraper  Excavator. 


to  block  D  on  the  mast,  Fig.  18,  and  thence  to  the  dump  block 
to  which  the  bucket  pull  chain  is  attached  as  shown  by  Fig.  19. 
This  line,  called  the  load  cable,  hauls  the  bucket  on  its  carriage 
along  the  track  cable.  Fig.  19  shows  the  bucket  and  carriage  and 
their  various  cable  and  chain  attachments.  The  purpose  of  all 
these  parts  is  clear  from  the  drawing  except  possibly  that  of  the 
dump  chain.  In  traveling  along  the  track  cable  the  carriage 
and  the  traveler  block  keep  in  the  relative  positions  shown  until 
the  dumping  point  is  approached.  Then  the  traveler  block  is  ar- 
rested by  a  stop  on  the  track  cable,  but  the  carriage  and  bucket 
continue  on  until  a  loop  is  taken  up  in  the  dump  chain  sufficient 


594  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

to  elevate  the  rear  end  of  the  bucket  and  dump  the  load.  The 
relative  adjustment  of  the  bridle  and  push  chains  determines 
the  digging  angle  of  the  bucket. 

A  number  of  this  type  of  cableway  scraper  excavators  are  in 
use.  The  following  figures  are  furnished  of  the  cost  of  operation 
of  one  plant  which  is  installed  at  a  gravel  pit: 

Engineman     $3.00 

Fireman     2.00 

\>/z  tons  coal  3.50 

Oil.    waste,  etc 0.50 


Total    $9.00 

This  cost  is  for  a  10-hr,  day.  A  1-cu.  yd.  bucket  is  used  and 
about  300  cu.  yd.  per  day  are  handled.  On  this  basis  the  cost 
is  3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  not  including  overhead  expenses,  shifting, 
etc.  The  machine  is  known  as  the  Shearer  &  Mayer  Patented 
Dragline  Cableway  Excavator.  It  is  sold  by  Sauerman  Bros., 
Chicago,  111. 

The  Cost  of  a  Tower  Scraper  Excavator.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Oct.  26,  1910,  gives  the  following:  This  cableway 
rig  was  used  to  operate  a  48-cu.  ft.  bucket  on  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal  construction.  The  greater  part  of  the  cost  of 
this  plant  is  in  the  hoisting  engine  and  scraper  bucket,  both  of 
which  would  have  considerable  salvage  value. 

The  total  cost  of  the  plant  was: 


ft,  B.  M.  lumber  at  $38  per  M $    193.04 

360  ft.  B.  M.  white  oak  at  $45  per  M 16.20 

540  Ib.  iron  bolts  and  nuts  at  6  ct 32.40 

120ft.  %-in.   wire  rope  backstays    13.20 

2  %-in.   turnbiickles    ' .80 

1  headblack   sheave   and  bearing   10.00 

1  hauling  sheave  and  bearing   4.00 

18*4x10'  Lidgerwood  double  drum  hoisting  engine   1,089.00 

1  scraper  bucket,  complete  with 'cutting  edge,  sheaves,  etc 300.00 

Labor  erecting  based  on  condition  in  Northern  New  York,  carpen- 
ters at  $?.50  per  8-hr,  day  '200.00 

Total       $1,858.64 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  operating  cost  of  the  plant, 
also  furnished  by  the  Atlantic,  Gulf  &  Pacific  Co.:  . 

Wire    rope    $160.00 

20  tons  coal  at  $4  80.00 

Oil,  waste  and  repairs  15.00 

Total   per   month    $255.00 

To  this   is   to   be   added   the   labor   cost.     Each   shift   requires 
the  following  force: 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS          595 

1  foreman  at  37%  ct.  per  hr : $  3.00 

1  engineman  at  37%  ct.  per  hr 3.00 

1  fireman  at  22  ct.  per  hr. l.<6 

1  signal  man  at  25  ct.  per  hr 2.00 

5  laborers  at  20  ct.  per  hr - 8.00 

And  an  additional 

4  laborers  at  20  ct.  per  hr 6-40 

Total  lator  per  day   •" $24.16 


Fig.  20.     Operation  of  Field  Tower  Excavator. 

Assuming  26  working  days  and  two  shifts  per  day,  the  labor 
cost  for  one  month  is  $1,256.32  which,  added  to  $255  given  above, 
makes  a  total  cost  for  operation  of  $1,511.32.  Assuming  interest 
on  plant  at  %%  per  month  we  have  an  additional  $9.30,  making 
the  grand  total  $1,520.02. 

Costs  with  a  Scraper  Bucket  Cableway.  Detailed  description 
and  illustrations  are  given  in  Engineering  Record,  Dec.  22,  1894, 
of  a  cableway  handling  a  scraper-bucket  at  Niagara  Falls,  Ontario. 
The  plant  consisted  of  an  overhead  Lidgerwood  cableway  sys- 
tem carried  on  towers  operated  by  a  simple  do  Jble-drum  8  x  10-in. 
engine  and  a  boiler,  and  carrying  a  scraper-bucket  for  digging, 
lifting,  carrying,  and  loading  sand. 

The  operating  expense  per  day,  with  an  output  of  400  cu.  yd., 
was  as  follows: 

Per  day 

1  engineman    $2.50 

1  fireman     1.50 

1  bucket-man     1.75 

1  breaking  down  man   1.50 

1  foreman    2.50 

%  ton  of 'coal  (swept  from  cars)    0.00 

Total   operating  expense    $9.75 


506 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Cableway  Operation  in  Cecila  Slough.     Through  the  courtesy 
of  Lt.  W.  H.  Bixby  Corps  of  Engineers  U.  S.  Army,  I  am  en- 


i  i  *--£: 

j  Ar«3pr 

t- 


Fig.  21.     Details  of  Tower  for  Field  Tower  Excavator. 


abled  to  publish  the  following  report,  submitted  to  him  by  Joseph 
Wright,  on  the  operation  of  a  cableway  in  Cecila  Slough,  111., 
from  Oct.  10  to  Dec.  20,  1904. 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS          597 

This  period  was  chosen  because  it  is  thought  to  be  more 
nearly  representative  of  what  might  be  expected  of  such  a  plant 
working  in  soft  material  under  normal  conditions,  provided  that 
allowance  be  made  for  extraordinary  breakages  and  renewals  men- 
tioned below: 

Span  of  cableway  625  ft. 

Average  length  of  haul   200  ft. 

Distance  advanced  each  day  by  cableway  about  70  ft. 

Material   excavated    Peat 

Capacity  of  dippers  used,  l1/^  cu.  yd Nominal 

Actual  average  dipper  load,  1-77/100  cu.  yd.  place  measure. 

Total  operating  cost,  Oct.  10  to  Dec.  20   $11,546 

Total   yardage    131,414  cu.  yd. 

Operating  cost  per  yd 8.78  ct. 

The   operating  cost  consists   of 

Total  cost  of  labor   $7,261 

Repairs,   renewals,   lubricating  oil,   kerosene  oil  for  Wells 

lights,    \vaste,    etc $3,528 

Coal    $757 

The  above  figures  were  taken  from  my  books.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  item  for  repairs,  oil,  etc.,  is  quite  large.  The  item  in- 
cludes $1,350  worth  of  new  cables,  whereas  only  about  one-third 
of  it  should  be  properly  charged  to  the  operating  cost  for  this 
period.  The  kerosene  oil  bill  for  lights  was  about  $293,  or  about 
$126  per  month.  This,  of  course,  is  a  proper  charge  if  operated 
24  hr.  per  day  as  was  the  case. 

Running  over  the  journals  and  cutting  out  such  items  as  should 
not  have  been  charged  to  operating  cost  during  this  period,  but 
which  should  have  been  carried  as  unexpended  to  a  later  period, 
I  find  an  aggregate  of  $1,793,  which  should  be  properly  deducted 
from  the  "  repair  "  item  above.  Making  this  deduction  reduced 
the  "  total  operating  cost "  to  $9,753,  and  the  "  operating  cost 
per  yard  "  to  7.42  ct. 

It  is  only  fair  to  state  in  this  connection  that  during  the 
period  of  operating  for  which  cost  data  are  submitted,  the  towers 
were  moving  over  very  soft  ground.  This  made  the  track  work 
expensive,  and  was  the  cause  of  a  number  of  extraordinary  break- 
ages. Then,  too,  3  crank  shafts  of  the  cableway  engines  were 
broken  and  renewed  during  this  period,  due  to  the  engines  having 
been  provided  with  unsuitable  foundations  when  installed.  The 
cost  of  the  new  shafts  has  been  included  in  *the  deduction  made 
above,  but  the  cost  of  the  delay  occasioned  has  not.  The  engines 
were  taken  up  and  re-bedded  during  the  winter  of  1904  and  1905, 
and  since  have  given  no  trouble  by  breaking  shafts  or  heating  of 
journals. 

Numerous  other  improvements,  renewals,  etc.,  were  made  at 
the  same  time,  among  which  was  the  substitution  of  2-in.  patent 
locked  main  cables  for  the  old  2^4-in.  cables.  This  change  alone 


598  HANDBOOK  OF  EAUTH  EXCAVATION 

resulted  in  the  saving  of  $180  per  month  on  carriage  sheaves  dur- 
ing the  season  of  1905  as  compared  with  the  period  chosen. 

The  number  of  buckets  handled  each  day  was  registered  by 
the  bell  boys. 

The  cost  given  includes  the  cost  of  a  large  force  of  ditchers 
employed  during  the  entire  year,  and  the  extra  expense  entailed  by 
the  necessity  of  having  to  move  across  the  slough  four  times 
instead  of  once.  The  material  was  so  unstable  it  was  necessary 
partially  to  excavate  the  cut  in  passing  over  it  the  first  time, 
ditch  it,  let  it  dry,  and  then  pass  over  it  again,  repeating  the 
process  until  the  cut  was  excavated  to  grade.  Then  there  was 
the  cost  of  lengthening  the  span  from  525  ft.  to  625  ft.  and  many 
other  things,  which,  while  properly  charged  in  our  records,  it  is 
unfair  to  charge  to  the  cableway  when  compared  with  other  ex- 
cavating machines. 

During  the  period  for  which  data  are  submitted  in  this  re- 
port, the  cableway  was  passing  through  the  slough  the  first  time 
and  the  cut  was  being  excavated  from  8  to  10  ft.  deep.  The  rate 
of  track  laying  was  about  70  ft.  per  day.  Had  the  cut  been 
deeper  the  output  would,  of  course,  have  been  somewhat  larger, 
and  the  labor  account  on  track  work  materially  smaller. 

The  operating  force  required,  and  the  wages  paid  were  as 
follows : 

1  engineman $125.  per  mo. 

who  had  charge  of  the  machinery,    and  who 

slept  on  the  ground,  took  his  turn  at  the 
operating  levers  for  eight  hours  each  day, 
and  who  was  subject  to  call  at  any  time  in 
case  of  a  breakdown. 

5  enginemen    (S-hr.   day)    $  4.00  per  day 

6  firemen    (2  for  each  shift)    2.50 

3  riggers  (1  for  each  shift)    2.00 

3  pumpmen    (1    for  each  shift)    1.60 

2  light  tenders   (1  for  each  night  shift)    1.60 

6  signal  men   (2  for  each  shift)   ..-. 45.00 


1  foreman    (day  shift  only)    75.00 

12    to  16  laborers   (day  shift  only)    1.60 

2  and  sometimes  3  teams   (day  shift  only)    3.50 


day 


The  above  list  constituted  the  operating  force,  but  in  addition 
a  part  of  the  salaries  of  Junior  engineer  ($130),  Surveyman 
($60),  Timekeeper  ($60),  Locomotive  engineer  ($90)  and  Fire- 
man ($60),  Blacksmith  ($2.50)  and  locomotive  rental  were  ap- 
portioned to  the  work. 

Nothing  was  allowed  for  interest  and  depreciation,  but  the 
plant  <?ost  complete  and  in  operating,  $28,580,  and  a  proper  charge 
for  depreciation  could  be  arrived  at  when  the  yardage  to  be 
handled  on  a  particular  job  is  known. 

A  Record  of  Cableway  Efficiency.     Engineering  and  Contract- 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS         599 

ing,  Aug.  10,  1010,  says  that  a  letter  of  endorsement  recently 
given  by  a  higli  official  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  to  the 
operator  who  had  charge  of  the  eight  Lidgerwood  Cableways  used 
hi  building  the  Gatun  Locks  during  the  preceding  eleven  months 
contains  incidentally  a  remarkable  record  of  efficiency  of  the  cable- 
ways.  This  passage  reads  as  follows:  "These  cableways  so 
far  as  delays  from  breakage  or  repairs  were  concerned,  while 
working  12}£  hours  per  day,  have  been  kept  up  to  an  efficiency 
of  99  per  cent."  That  is  to  say,  that  during  this  whole  period 
only  \%  of  time  was  lost  on  account  of  making  repairs.  The 
cableways  referred  to  are  eight  of  thirteen  designed  and  built  by 
the  Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co.  for  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 
These  eight  cableways  are  for  building  the  locks  and  are  used 
for  placing  the  concrete  and  reinforcement  and  also  for  handling 
forms.  They  are  travelling  cableways  of  800  ft.  span,  operated 
electrically.  They  are  handling  on  every  working  day  more  than 
3,000  cu.  yd.  of  concrete. 

Cableway  and  Grab  Bucket.  The  following  is  from  a  paper 
by  E.  H.  Baldwin  in  Engineering  Xeics,  Jan.  14,  1915.  In  ex- 
cavating the  foundation  of  Elephant  Butte  Dam  near  Engle,  New 
M5xico,  three  cableways,  each  1,400  ft.  long  and  of  45-ton  ca- 
pacity, located  60  ft.  apart,  were  used  to  operate  3-cu.  yd.  clam 
shell  buckets.  The  cableway  engines  were  300  hp.,  with  a  hoist- 
ing speed  of  200  ft.  per  min.,  and  a  travelling  speed  of  800  ft. 
per  min.  The  height  of  the  cables  above  the  deepest  part  of  the 
excavation  was  350  ft. 

The  material  was  sand  and  gravel.  At  first  it  was  picked  up  by 
the  buckets  without  "  tagging,"  but  it  soon  became  necessary  to 
pull  the  buckets  to  side  points  by  tag  lines  operated  by  2  or  3 
men.  This  method  consumed  much  time  and  several  2-drum 
electric  hoists  were  substituted  for  the  hand  work.  Shortly 
after  shale  and  limestone  were  reached,  skips  were  substituted  for 
the  buckets,  but  in  loose  material  the  buckets  worked  efficiently. 
The  loading  time  was  short  as  compared  with  the  travelling  time, 
so  full  buckets  were  insisted  upon. 

The  best  output  was  1,817  cu.  yd.  for  3  cables  in  3  shifts  of  8 
hr.  each,  722  cu.  yd.  for  3  cables  1  shift,  and  288  cu.  yd.  for  1 
bucket  1  shift. 

A  Derrick  Trolley.  Engineering  News,  Jan.  27,  1916,  gives  the 
following : 

In  digging  the  lock  pit  for  the  Sabine-Neches  guard  lock  in 
Texas,  caving  banks  necessitated  considerably  more  excavation 
than  had  been  expected.  The  dumping  area  proved  insufficient, 
and  the  weight  of  the  deposited  material  caused  further  sliding 
of  the  banks.  As  the  amount  of  material  to  be  excavated  was  not 


000  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

sufficient  to  justify  the  purchase  and  erection  of  a  cableway 
or  additional  derricks,  the  derrick  on  the  job  was  rigged  with  a 
trolley  line,  as  illustrated  in  the  sketches. 

The  rigging  of  the  load  line  is  the  same  as  for  ordinary 
hoisting  (see  Fig.  22).  The  trolley  line  is  carried  on  the  middle 
drum  and  runs  through  a  sheave  in  the  bottom  of  the  mast, 
thence  through  a  sheave  in  the  end  of  the  boom,  then  around  the 
bottom  of  a  sheave  in  the  steel  block,  and  the  end  of  the  line 
is  made  fast  to  the  top  of  a  ginpole.  The  boom  line  is  carried 
on  the  front  drum,  and  is  rigged  the  same  as  for  ordinary 
derrick  work.  All  lines  are  of  %-in.  wire  rope. 

The  material  box  is  a  1-yd.  open-end  skip.  The  ginpole,  or  tail 
tower,  26  ft.  high,  is  of  yellow-pine  piles,  old  hoisting  rope 
being  used  for  guys. 

This  trolley-line  arrangement  has  been  operated  for  a  distance 
of  300  ft.  with  a  12-ft.  drop.  Experience  shows  that  a  load  of 
at  least  2,500  Ib.  is  necessary  to  operate  the  trolley  on  this  flat 
slope.  In  very  soft,  wet  ground,  with  a  gang  consisting  of  a 
foreman  and  five  men  filling  the  skips,  a  foreman,  a  hoisting  en- 
gineer, and  a  laborer  to  dump  the  boxes,  137  skips  were  moved  in 
8  hr.  In  harder  digging,  where  it  was  necessary  to  load  the 
skips  with  shovels  instead  of  by  bailing,  70  skips  were  averaged 
in  the  same  period. 

Excavation  Cost  with  Cableway,  Hennepin  Canal,  111.  The 
Lidgerwood  Mfg.  C'o.  furnishes  the  following  data: 

The  Hennepin  Canal  at  one  point  has  a  bottom  width  of  about 
52  ft.,  side  slopes  of  2  to  1,  depth  of  water  7  ft.,  and  with  a  space 
from  100  to  125  ft.  left  between  the  edge  of  the  cutting  and  the 
spoil  bank  on  account  of  the  extremely  soft  peat  formation.  The 
stability  of  the  berms  required  material  to  be  spoiled  at  this  dis- 
tance from  the  canal,  making  the  average  haul  over  200  ft.  The 
li^-yd.  buckets  while  handling  peat  averaged  1.77  cu.  yd.  per 
trip;  50  trips  per  hr.  were  frequently  made  by  each  bucket,  and 
70  per  hr.  was  recorded  for  a  single  bucket. 

From  Oct.  10  to  Dec.  20,  1904,  which  time  included  60  working 
days,  a  total  of  131,414  cu.  yd.  were  excavated,  the  complete  plant 
working  three  8-hr,  shifts  per  day.  This  output  was  secured  at 
a  total  cost  of  7.42  ct.  per  cubic  yard,  including  the  total  cost  for 
labor,  fuel,  supplies,  and  a  proper  proportion  of  the  repairs,  as 
well  as  a  charge  against  the  cableways  of  $9.80  per  day  for  the 
general  expense  of  office,  engineering,  and  superintendence  not 
directly  chargeable  to  the  cableway.  The  actual  labor  force  per 
day  of  24  hr.  for  the  cableways  amounted  to  $97.66,  covering  6 
enginemen,  6  firemen,  3  riggers,  3  pump  men,  2  light  tenders,  6 
signal  men,  and  a  track  gang  comprising  15  laborers,  2  teams,  and 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS 


601 


a  foreman.     Six  and  one-half  tons  of  coal  were  required  per  day  of 
24  hr.     The  cost  of  7.42  ct.  per  yard  also  includes  the  lights  for 


Emm 

Line—7 


Fig.  22.     Progressive  Operations  of  Derrick-Trolley  in  Lifting 
and  Transporting  Skip  to  Dump. 


night  work,  as  well  as  coal,  supplies,  and  labor  for  the  locomo- 
tive and  train  service,  which  should  not  be  directly  charged  to 


602 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


cableway  operation,  as  it  was  required  for  general  service  pur- 
poses, handling  supplies  and  men. 

The  excavation  during  the  above  period  averaged  8  to  10  ft. 
in  depth.  The  banks  were  extremely  soft,  rendering  the  mainten- 
ance of  the  cableway  tracks  extremely  expensive.  In  fact,  no 
other  form  of  excavator  could  have  been  used,  the  soil  being  too 
soft  to  sustain  a  steam  shovel,  the  cableway  also  having  the  great 
advantage  of  spoiling  the  necessary  distance  away  from  the  ex- 


Fig.  23.  Lidgerwood  Duplex  Travelling  Tower  on  Hennepin 
Canal.  Height  57  ft.  Forms  Head  Support  for  One  Cableway; 
Tail  Support  for  the  Other;  Cables,  18  ft.,  Center  to  Center. 

cavation.     For  one  period  of  10  days  the  cableway  operating  cost 
was  only  5.9  ct.  per  yard. 

Drag-Line  Cableway  for  Dredging.  According  to  Engineering 
Record,  Feb.  17,  1915,  in  dredging  a  200-ft.  channel  of  the  Wis- 
consin River  at  Rothschild,  Wis.,  to  a  depth  of  8  ft.  for  a  dis- 
tance of  1  mi.,  801  cu.  yd.  of  sand  and  gravel  were  removed  in 
a  10-hr,  day  by  a  2-cu.  yd.  Shearer  &  Mayer  bucket,  which  op- 
erated on  a  drag-line  cableway  having  a  span  of  480  ft.  The 
average  daily  excavation  was  500  cu.  yd.  The  engine  and  boiler 
used  in  operating  the  bucket  were  mounted  on  a  movable,  self- 
supporting  tower,  60  ft.  high.  The  tail  end  of  the  cableway  was 
anchored  to  a  bridle  cable,  which,  in  turn,  was  anchored  to  clusters 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS 


603 


of  piles,  driven  20  ft.  into  the  bed  of  the  river.  In  order  to  keep 
the  drag-line  cableway  at  right  angles  for  different  positions  of 
the  tower  while  working  between  two  clusters  of  piles,  the  cable 
arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  24  was  adopted.  The  plant  was 
operated  day  and  night,  light  being  furnished  by  a  local  power 
company.  The  maximum  number  of  bucket  trips  totaled  53  per 
hr.  For  future  operation  the  tower  is  being  mounted  on  wheels 
instead  of  rollers. 


Cluster 
of  Pile's 


Fig.  24.     Sliding  Anchorage  of  Track  Cable. 

Drag-Line  Cableway  on  Levee  Work.  Engineering  News,  Sept. 
10,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

A  cable  drag-scraper  was  used  on  Mississippi  Levee  work  during 
1914.  The  machinery  comprised  a  drag-scraper  bucket,  hung  on  a 
cable  between  two  towers.  One  tower  was  a  braced  structure  of 
considerable  height  located  back  of  the  levee,  and  the  other  was 
a  single  low  A-frame  (with  counterweights  for  balancing  the 
cable)  located  about  500  ft.  riverward.  The  buckets  picked  up 
the  earth  from  the  marl  pit  between  the  towers  and  dragged  it 
along  the  levee  where  it  was  dumped.  The  empty  and  full 
buckets  sliding  over  the  levee  served  to  compact  the  fill.  The 
outfit  used  at  Scanlons'  Landing,  Memphis,  Tenn.,  moved  about 
1,200  cu.  yd.  per  day  at  a  saving  of  about  30%  over  the  team 
scraper  method  usually  employed.  A  4.5-cu.  yd.  bucket  was  used 
and  deposited  layers  18  to  24  in.  thick.  The  round  trip  of  the 
bucket  averaged  about  2  min. 

Further  data  on  the  use  of  excavators  of  this  type  will  be 
found  in  the  chapter  on  levees. 

Other  Data  on  Cableways.  In  Gillette's  "  Rock  Excavation " 
will  be  found  further  information  on  the  methods  and  costs  of 
handling  material  with  cableways. 

Belt  Conveyors.     The  essential  parts  of  a  belt  conveyor  are: 


604  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

(l),the  belt  that  carries  the  material,  (2)  the  runners  upon 
which  it  travels,  and  (3)  the  driving  drum.  Generally  the  belt 
is  of  canvas,  covered  with  rubber,  thicker  at  the  center  than  at 
the  sides.  Upper  runners  carry  the  loaded  belt  and  usually  con- 
sist of  three  wheels  set  so  as  to  form  the  belt  into  a  trough. 
Belt  conveyors  find  their  most  important  use  as  accessories  to 
other  machines,  as,  for  example,  on  dredges,  trench  excavators,  and 
the  like. 

For  a  more  complete  discussion  of  belt  conveyor  transportation 
see  the  "  Handbook  of  Mechanical  and  Electrical  Cost  Data,"  by 
Gillette  and  Dana. 

Capacity  of  Belt  Conveyors.  R.  W.  Dull,  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Sept.  29,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

Diagrams  25  and  26  are  based  on  good  feeding  conditions.  If 
good  feeding  conditions  are  not  obtainable,  allowance  must  be 
made  on  the  chart.  This  is  a  condition  which  varies  so  much 
we  can  not  set  down  any  rigid  rule,  but  must  leave  it  to  the 
judgment  of  the  user  of  the  chart  to  make  proper  allowance. 
Variation  as  great  as  50%  is  likely  and  certainly  many  where 
75%  of  chart  rating  is  advisable. 

Material  with  large  lumps,  on  an  inclined  conveyor,  will  be 
apt  to  roll  back  some,  so  the  capacity  allowance  should  be  lib- 
eral, and  the  speed  should  be  reduced  slightly,  if  the  conveyor  is 
carrying  material  down  an  incline,  as  the  motion  of  the  belt 
will  start  the  lumps  rolling  down.  These  lumps  may  possibly 
jump  out  of  the  trough  of  the  belt. 

Conveyors  going  up  an  incline  and  fed  uniformly,  can  usually 
go  up  an  angle  whose  tangent  is  greater  than  the  co-efficient 
of  friction  of  material  on  the  belt,  because  the  material  forms  a 
back  stop  all  the  way  up  the  incline.  But  if  the  feed  is  inter- 
mittent, the  material  is  apt  to  get  started  down  the  incline  and 
the  motion  of  the  belt  will  have  no  influence  on  the  motion 
of  the  material. 

Conveyors  should  be  fed  so  that  the  material  is  delivered  in 
the  direction  of  motion  of  the  belt  and  with  the  same  velocity 
as  the  belt  is  moving,  if  possible. 

Life  of  Belt  Conveyor.  Assume  150  days  life  (6  months  of 
25  days).  This  is  1,500  hr.  (working  10  hr.  per  day).  24-in. 
belt  cost  $6  to  $9  per  lin.  ft.  of  conveyor  in  1914  for  belt  above 
(capacity  125  tons  per  hr.).  Assuming  an  average  load  of  70 
tons  per  hr.  the  belt  will  carry  105,000  tons.  Belt  for  100  ft. 
of  conveyor  will  cost  $600-$900.  Thus  the  cost  of  belting  for 
moving  material  is,  %-l  ct.  per  ton  per  100  ft.,  or  37-55  ct.  per 
ton  mile. 

Excavating  a  Cellar  with  Scrapers  and  a  Belt  Conveyor.     A 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAY8  AND  CONVEYORS 


605 


large  cellar  excavation  19  ft.  deep,  was  dug  in  New  York  in 
Dec.  and  Jan.,  1899-1900,  by  wheel  scrapers  loading  onto  a  belt 
conveyor.  An  open  trench  about  7  ft.  deep  was  excavated  across 
the  site  to  the  river  front.  In  this  trench  was  a  belt  conveyor 


2     4     6     18   2O  22  24  26  £6      O      2 


WIDTH  Or 


Fig.  25.    Diagram  for  Obtaining  Width  of  Belts.     Recommended 
Speed  Given   on  the   Curves. 


606 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Fig.  26.     Diagram  for 


Obtaining  Required  Hp.  to  Run  Belt 
Conveyor. 


30  in.  wide  and  about  250  ft.  long.  Across  the  trench  were  three 
bridges  with  3  x  3-ft.  openings  or  traps,  and  over  these  the  scrapers 
were  hauled  and  dumped.  The  material  was  lifted  20  ft.  by  the 
belt  conveyor  and  dumped  into  barges.  About  1,200  cu.  yd.  per 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS         607 

9.5-hr,  day  were  thus  delivered  by  a  force  of  about  75  men,  two 
2-horse  plows  and  twelve  2-horse  wheelers. 

Power  was  furnished  by  a  small  horizontal  engine. 

The  material  was  a  mixture  of  earth  and  rubbish,  containing 
many  stones  weighing  over  100  Ib. 

A 'long  Belt  Conveyor.  In  1908  a  belt  conveyor  2,000  ft.  long 
was  built  for  conveying  shale  from  a  quarry  to  a  cement  plant 
in  the  South.  As  described  by  Mr.  E.  C.  Soper  before  the  Amer- 
ican Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  it  consists  of  a  24-in.,  S-ply 
belt  in  two  sections,  one  section  being  1,000  ft.  between  centers 
and  the  other  1,100  ft.  The  belt  is  Hat  and  carried  by  rollers, 
the  top  rollers  being  4  ft.  apart  and  the  return  idlers  12  ft.  apart. 
Guide  rollers  about  40  ft.  apart  were  placed  on  the  upper  and 
lower  belts.  The  contraction  and  expansion  due  to  the  exposure 
to  the  weather  are  taken  up  by  tension  carriages  at  each  belt. 
All  loads  are  carried  down  hill  and  more  power  is  required  to 
operate  the  belt  empty  than  loaded.  The  power  is  furnished  by 
two  10-hp.  engines. 

TABLE  I.    COST  OF  COMPLETED  BELTS  INCLUDING  ELECTRICAL 
MOTORS,  TRESTLING,  ETC. 

Total  cost 

Lumber     $    496.34 

Belt     5,361.52 

Castings    1,435.77 

Electrical  equipment,   including  two  10-hp.  motors..         637.11 

Miscellaneous  nails,  bolts,   screws,  iron,  etc 193.20 

Labor     962.20 

Total  2,080  ft.  at  $4.37   $9,106.16 

Note:  Length  of  first  section,  center  to  center,  998  ft.; 
second  section,  1.082  ft;  total  2,080  ft.;  take-up  15  ft.  Cost 
of  casting  includes  machine  work,  etc. 

TABLE   II.    COST  TO  OPERATE  AND  MAINTAIN  BELT  CONVEYOR 

Per  10-hr. 
Power :  day  Per  ton 

10  hp.  at  0.4  ct.  per  hp.-hr $0.40 

Labor : 


Boy   oiling,    etc.,   $0.75 0.75 

Taking  up  slack  once  in  7  days,  2  men,  3  hr. 0.17 

Total  labor   $0.92  $0.0046 

Supplies : 
Belt  lacing,  waste,  resin,  etc $0.20  $0.0010 

Total     $1.52  $0.0076 

Oil  (no  charge,  using  waste  oil  from  large  crushers.) 

Interest : 
Interest,    depreciation,    renewals,    10%   on   investment   of 

9,200    $2.52  $0.0126 


Grand   total    $4.04  $0.0202 


608 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Tables  I  and  II  give  the  cost  of  installation  and  of  operation. 
The  cost  per  unit  of  operation  is  based  upon  a  capacity  of  200 
tons  conveyed  in  10  hr.  Doubling  the  output  (which  seems  prac- 
tical) will  reduce  the  operating  cost  to  1  ct.  per  ton.  * 


Fig.  27.     Plan  and  Profile  of  Goose  Creek  Dam,  Showing  Location 
of  Conveyors. 


Conveying  and  Spreading  at  the  Twin  Falls-Oakley  Project. 
This  work  is  described  in  Engineering  Xews,  March  13,  1913,  as 
follows: 

Conveyors.  The  land  adjacent  to  the  dam  site  is  very  rough, 
having  many  deep  gulches.  To  have .  moved  the  material  com- 
posing the  dam  by  rail  would  have  required  miles  of  contour 
track  laying.  The  location  of  a  suitable  borrow  pit,  as  regards 
elevation,  would  have  meant  impossible  grades  for  dinkey  trains 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS          609 

if  bridges  were  biult  across  the  gulches.  This  led  to  the  adoption 
of  the  conveyor  system,  as  shown  in  the  general  plan,  Fig.  27. 
The  three  units  are  (A)  a  level  conveyor  920  ft.  long;  (B)  a 
680-ft.  conveyor  on  a  16%  grade;  (C)  a  250-ft.  conveyor  on  a 
3.5%  grade.  These  conveyors  are  built  on  trestles  whose  max- 
imum height  (Conveyor  B)  is  68  ft.  at  Mill  Gulch. 

In  general,  the  bents  have  two  posts,  are  on  24-ft.  centers,  and 
the  stringers  are  on  42-in.  centers.  The  head  drive  and  tail-drum 
frames  are  anchored  in  concrete  which  is  set  on  solid  rock.  The 
belts  are  of  rubber,  36  in.  wide  and  six-ply. 

When  the  dirt  becomes  wet  in  rainy  weather  it  is  very  hard  to 
handle  it  in  the  chutes  at  the  dam.  To  avoid  this  difficulty  as 
much  as  possible,  and  as  a  protection  for  the  belts  against  the 
sun  and  wind,  the  conveyors  were  housed. 

To  take  up  the  slack  in  the  belts,  which  in  the  case  of  long 
belts  is  an  important  consideration,  two  types  of  idlers  were 
used,  one  of  the  gravity  type,  the  other  of  the  "  S  "  type.  Both 
were  efficient,  but  the  latter  has  an  advantage  where  there  is 
little  underneath  clearance.  The  belts  are  run  on  a  speed  of  450 
ft.  per  min.  and  easily  handled  750  4-yd.  cars  in  a  10-hr,  shift. 
This  amount  could  have  been  increased  25%  by  speeding  up  the 
belts  and  loading  heavier.  The  maximum  output  for  both  shifts 
was  made  in  September,  1912,  when  105,000  cu.  yd.,  measured 
in  place,  were  conveyed.  The  average  output  for  the  season  was 
about  95,000  cu.  yd.  per  month.  The  night  shift  handles  about 
90%  of  what  the  day  shift  does. 

Power  and  Equipment  for  Conveyors.  Conveyor  A  is  driven 
by  a  40-hp.,  2,200-volt,  60-cycle,  3-phase,  type  F.H.,  WTestinghouse 
induction  motor;  Conveyor  B,  by  a  75-hp.  motor  of  the  same  type 
as  the  Conveyor  A  machine,  and  Conveyor  C  by  a  30-hp.  motor, 
also  the  same  type  as  the  Conveyor  A  machine.  Running  under 
no  load  the  conveyor  system  requires  about  50  kw.,  and  when 
under  full  load  from  100  to  125  kw.  The  variation  is  caused 
chiefly  by  the  run-of-pit  material,  which  at  times  has  a  great  deal 
of  gravel  in  it,  and  again  may  be  all  earth.  The  motors  are 
started  in  succession,  beginning  with  Conveyor  A,  a  signal  sys- 
tem being  used  by  the  motormen  to  communicate  with  each 
other.  In  this  way  the  starting  torque  does  not  "exceed  150  kw.  or 
200  hp. 

Current  is  brought  from  a  hydro-electric  plant  on  the  Snake 
River,  a  3%-mile  private  transmission  line  being  built-  from  Oak- 
ley to  the  dam  by  the  Construction  Co. 

Feed  Hopper.  A  feed  hopper  of  300  cu.  yd.  capacity  is  built 
over  the  end  of  Conveyor  C  ( see  Fig.  28 ).  It  has  three  com- 
partments, with  individual  openings,  so  that  different  kinds  of 


610 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


pit  material  may  be  kept  separated  and  conveyed  to  the  dam  as 
needed.  The  coarser  material  is  used  on  the  downstream  side 
and  the  more  select  in  the  trenches  and  on  the  upper  toe.  A 
trestle  alongside  the  hopper  carries  the  dirt  trains  out  on  it  so 
that  they  can  dump  into  the  hopper. 

A  grid  of  parallel  bars,  5  in.  c.  'to  c.,  with  a  slope  of  4  to  1 
down  from  the  track,  covers  the  hopper.  The  bars  are  %  x  4  in. 
in  section  and  24  ft.  long.  This  grid  separates  all  large  rock  and 
lumps  of  cemented  gravel  which  cannot  be  broken  up,  and  they  are 
wasted  on  a  near-by  dump.  As  many  as  18  men  have  been  used 


Elevation     of     Lpad'irvi     Hopper 

Fig.  28.     Details  of  Loading  Hopper. 

here  when  the  large  cemented  lumps  came,  but  ordinarily  two  or 
three  men  could  keep  the  bars  clear. 

The  openings  under  the  hopper  are  1  ft.  by  4  ft.  wide,  with  no 
doors.  Feed  belts,  8  ft.  wide  of  30-oz.  canvas,  revolving  under 
these  openings,  catch  the  material  and  drop  it  onto  the  con- 
veyor belt.  These  three  belts,  which  are  independent  of  each 
other,  are  operated  by  chain  drives  and  friction  clutches  from  a 
line  shaft  which  extends  to  the  tail  drum  of  Conveyor  C. 

Storage  Bin.  On  the  east  cliff,  under  the  head  drive  of  Con- 
veyor A,  and  on  the  center  line  of  the  dam,  a  storage  bin.  is 
built  with  two  chutes  leading  from  it.  This  bin  has  a  capacity 
of  200  yd.  and  was  designed  to  provide  for  the  fluctuation  in  the 
conveyor  haul.  The  two  chutes  are  built  on  trestles  with  a  slope 
of  47.5°  and  have  a  section  of  20x22  in.  They  are  covered 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS         611 

with  doors  and  lined  on  the  bottom;  one  with  crescent-shaped  iron 
castings  and  the  other  with  4-in.  cottonwood  blocks,  set  on  end. 
Both  chutes  were  satisfactory  except  that  when  the  material  got 
wet  it  would  cake  against  the  sides  and  bottom  and  the  entire 
section  of  the  chutes  would  gradually  choke  up.  At  such  times 
it  required  from  two  to  six  men  to  clean  out  one  chute  while  the 
other  was  being  used.  Because  of  this  caking,  which  continued 
to  a  certain  extent  throughout  the  entire  season,  it  was  found 
that  neither  the  iron  nor  cottonwood  block  linings  wore  down  to 
any  appreciable  extent. 

A  portable  hopper,  with  a  capacity  of  eight  wagon  loads,  was 
placed  under  the  lower  end  of  the  chutes,  which  are  parallel  and 
5  ft.  apart.  The  dump  wagons  come  under  the  hopper  and  are 
loaded.  When  running  steadily  four  1.5-yd.  dump  wagons  are 
loaded  per  min.,  one  man  operating  the  feed  door  of  the 
hopper.  Another  man  operates  the  chute  gates,  which  are  up 
under  the  storage  bin,  keeping  the  portable  hopper  full.  At  first 
the  gates  were  placed  at  the  lower  end  of  the  chutes  and  wagons 
loaded  directly  from  them,  but  this  proved  very  unsatisfactory, 
as  the  material  would  pack  and  choke  in  the  chutes  when  the 
gates  were  closed.  The  material  would  not  run  smoothly,  but 
moved  in  sections,  one  section  making  a  heavy  impact  against  the 
section  below  when  it  suddenly  became  released  and  slid  down. 
As  the  fill  of  the  dam  rises,  the  chutes  are  cut  off  and  the  loading 
hopper  raised. 

Belt  Conveyor  on  the  Lahontan  Dam.  In  the  construction  of 
the  Lahontan  Dam  on  the  Truckee-Carson  Irrigation  Project,  Ne- 
vada, a  Stephens-Adamson  belt  conveyor  was  used  for  placing  the 
entire  quantity  of  embankment  material,  amounting  to  about 
700,000  cu.  yd.  The  construction  of  the  dam  is  described  by  D. 
W.  Cole,  Project  Manager  of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service,  in 
Engineering  News,  Apr.  22,  1915. 

The  embankment  itself  was  composed  of  twd  portions;  the  up- 
stream portion  was  a  prepared  mixture  of  gravel  and  a  volcanic 
ash  or  silt  in  nearly  equal  parts,  wetted  and  rolled  and  thus 
forming  a  fair  cement.  This  mixture  was  found  by  careful  and 
repeated  experiments  to  approach  the  greatest  density  and  water 
tightness.  The  downstream  portion  of  the  embankment  was  built 
of  "  pit-run  "  gravel  to  afford  a  ready  escape  to  the  water  perco- 
lating through  the  upstream  "  water-tight "  section.  The  belt 
conveyor  system  had  a  peculiar  advantage  not  only  in  reducing 
the  cost  of  delivery,  but  in  securing  a  perfect  blending  of  the 
embankment  material. 

The  power  for  the  work  was  supplied  by  a  branch  of  the 
Truckee  River,  diverted  into  a  canal  of  the  main  channel  at  Reno, 


612  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Nevada,  60  miles  away.  The  canal  is  used  for  irrigation  purposes 
and  empties  into  the  Carson  River  at  Lahontan,  a  point  below 
the  dam  site.  Here  there  was  sufficient  drop  of  water  in  passing 
through  a  large  penstock  to  operate  two  1,600-hp.  turbine  wheels. 
These  wheels  were  direct  connected  to  generators  and  furnished 
all  the  power  required. 

In  a  letter  to  the  author  Mr.  Cole  gives  the  following  data 
relative  to  the  earth  handling  plant :  "  The  borrow  pit  was  sit- 
uated from  ^4  to  ^  mile  from  the  dam.  Material  was  loaded 
onto  4-yd.  dump  cars  by  electric  excavators.  Seven-car  trains 
were  hauled  by  14-ton  Porter  locomotives  over  36-in.  gage  endless 
track,  the  cars  being  dumped  into  bins  of  about  500  cu.  yd.  ca- 
pacity. Under  these  bins  a  36-in.  by  110-in.  belt  conveyor  was 
loaded  by  automatic  feeders  for  delivering  measured  quantities  of 
"  silt "  and  "  gravel  "  for  composing  the  impermeable  embank- 
ment mixture.  The  36-in.  belt  delivered  these  materials  onto 
the  30-in.  conveyor  extending  925  ft.  from  the  storage  bins  to 
about  the  middle  of  the  embankment.  The  total  quantity  of 
material  handled  in  this  manner  was  612,000  cu.  yd. 

The  cost  of  this  conveyor  system  "A"  was  as  follows:   > 

Conveyor   "  A  " — 

30  m.x925   in.   conveyor    $8,022.00 

36  in.  x  110  in.  conveyor   1,497.00 

Automatic   feeders    1,243.00 


Total     $12,043.73 


Labor  and  superintendence  erecting  supports,  bins,  etc.  $  5,067.41 

Materials,  lumber   3,732.12 

Materials,    miscellaneous    

Supplies   and   miscellaneous    1,072.59 

Labor,  installing  machinery,  etc 1,878.20 

Overhead    charges    2,369.09 

Total  for  Conveyor  "  A  "    $26,372.76 

,-iiii:ii'»v    ••:   in  a;  l-xr&T%  To  Tin 
Results  of  operation  were  as  follows: 

Cost  per  cu.  yd. 

Operation  of  Conveyor  "  A "  Total                of  earth 

Labor  —  conveyor  operation    $  9,857.27              $0.016 

Supplies  —  miscellaneous     718.96                 0.001 

Power  plant  operation 3,200.54 

Repair,  plant  operation   1,269.87 

Depreciation     23,062.88 

Total     $38,109.52  $0.062 

The  main  conveyor  was  driven  by  100-hp.  motor  installed  mid- 
way of  its  length. 

The  feeders  and  cross  conveyor  were  driven  by  a  20-hp.  motor. 


COST  WITH  CABLEWAYS  AND  CONVEYORS          613 

Electric  current  was  generated  at  the  site  of  the  work  by  utilizing 
the  drop  of  the  main  canal,  and  the  total  cost  of  production  was 
about  1  ct.  per  kilowatt  hour. 

Common  labor  was  paid  30  ct.  per  hr.  and  mechanics  ranged 
from  $3  to  $5  per  day.  Work  was  carried  on  in  one  8-hr,  shift 
daily  extending  over  two  years  with  intermissions  of  a  few  weeks 
during  the  coldest  weather. 

The  conclusion  is  that  the  work  was  done  at  least  as  cheaply 
and  probably  at  less  cost  than  with  the  borrow  pit  tracks  ex- 
tending out  over  the  dam  on  high  trestles.  Certainly  the  reg- 
ularity and  uniformity  of  distributing  the  material  together  with 
the  perfection  of  mixing  the  materials  in  the  desired  proportions 
were  far  better  achieved  than  would  have  been  possible  by  dump- 
ing cars  from  any  considerable  elevation.  The  reliability  and 
freedom  from  all  mishaps  with  the  belt  conveyor  were  most  sat- 
isfactory. The  capacity  was  abundant  and  the  output  was  lim- 
ited only  by  the  ability  of  the  borrow  pit  crew  to  feed  the  belt 
at  one  end  and  the  ability  of  the  distribution  force  to  place 
the  material  in  the  dam  at  the  other  end.  Sometimes  one  and 
sometimes  the  other  of  these  considerations  governed  the  rate  of 
progress  which  was  never  limited  by  the  conveyor. 

A  Bucket  Elevator  Plant.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June 
10,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

The  bucket  elevator  was  110  ft.  long  between  centers,  and  had  a 
5-ft.  "  lap-over  "  at  the  top  so  as  to  discharge  the  material  into 
the  center  of  a  bin. 

The  elevator  was  operated  at  a  speed  of  250  ft.  per  min.,  with 
buckets  spaced  20  in.  apart.  The  material  was  discharged  from 
dump  cars  into  a  "  boot "  at  the  foot  of  the  elevator.  Each 
bucket  had  a  capacity  of  15  lb.,  and,  at  the  rate  of  150  buckets 
per  min.,  the  capacity  was  60  cu.  yd.  per  hr. 

The  speed  of  250  ft.  per  min.  was  noteworthy,  and  was  due  to 
the  special  design  of  the  link  chain. 

This  particular  plant  was  one  installed  for  removing  the  exca- 
vated material  from  the  North  River  Tunnel,  built  by  the  Hudson 
River  Railroad  Co.  The  installation  is  one  of  several  made  for 
the  same  company  by  the  Link  Chain  Belt  Co.  of  New  York  City. 

Bucket  Conveyor  for  Backfilling  Retaining  Wall.  W.  F. 
Schaphorst  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  16,  1916,  gives 
the  following: 

A  large  river  wall  was  very  recently  completed  in  Cedar  Rapids, 
Iowa.  This  wall  was  of  concrete  and  was  26  ft.  high  and  designed 
to  protect  abutting  property  from  the  seasonal  floods  of  the  Red 
Cedar  River.  When  the  footings  were  built  the  mud  excavated 
from  the  site  was  piled  in  front,  forming  an  earth  cofferdam. 


G14  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

After  the  wall  had  been  completed  this  same  mud  was  used  as 
backfill. 

The  problem  of  moving  the  mud  from  in  front  of  the  wall  to 
its  desired  position  behind  it  was  solved  by  the  construction  of 
a  novel  and  effective  ladder  conveyor.  The  buckets  of  this  con- 
veyor were  wide  strips  of  metal  which  slid  up  a  plank  at  an 
angle  of  about  60°  with  the  plank  and  emptied  as  they  passed 
over  the  sprocket  at  the  top.  A  gang  of  men  at  the  bottom  shov- 
eled the  mud  into  the  buckets. 

Bibliography.  "  Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  by  Richard 
T.  Dana.  "  Cost  Data,"  Halbert  P.  Gillette.  "  Mechanical  and 
Electrical  Cost  Data,"  Gillette  and  Dana. 

"  The  Britts  Landing  Quarry,"  R.  D.  Seymour,  Jour.  W.  Soc. 
C.  E.,  Vol.  2,  p.  286.  "  The  Bates  Belt  Conveyor  on  the  Chicago 
Canal,"  E.  B.  Shana-ble,  Jr.,  Jour.  Assoc.  Eng.  Soc.,  Vol.  14,  p. 
469.  "  Cableways,"  Spencer  Miller,  Trans.  Am.  Hoc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  31, 
p.  377. 

"  The  Capacity,  Power  Consumption  and  Other  Details  of  Belt 
Conveyors  for  Handling  Materials,"  George  F.  Zimmer,  Cassiers 
Magazine,  August,  1909.  "  Methods  of  Excavating  Foundations 
and  of  Handling  Materials  by  Cableway  in  Constructing  a  Rein- 
forced Concrete  Arch  Bridge,"  Eng.  and  Con.,  June  30,  1909. 
"  Characteristics  of  Wire  Rope  Tramways  with  Some  Figures 
on  Cost  of  Operation,"  W.  S.  Gemmert,  Eng.  and  Con.,  April  29, 
1908. 

miff    •!.•«<]  \.r;    i»r.L    ',o    5'i'H]--    y  -';  .:    ]. :•!!•; 


CHAPTER  XIV 
METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS 

Dragline  or  Power  Scrapers.  These  are  scraper  buckets  pulled 
by  a  cable.  If  the  scraper  is  bottomless  it  is  not  raised  from 
the  ground  when  loaded.  Dragline  scraper  buckets  having  bot- 
toms are  so  rigged  that  they  can  be  hoisted  after  they  are  filled. 

Bottomless  Power  Scrapers.  These  range  in  size  from  %  to  7 
cu.  yd.  capacity.  The  sizes,  weights,  and  prices  of  the  Sauerman 
power  scraper  are  given  in  Table  I. 

TABLE   I.    SAUERMAN  POWER   SCRAPER 

Approx;mate 

Capacities                      Dimensions  Weights  prices  prior 

cu.  yd.                                 ft.                                     Ib.  to  1916 

%  3.25  x  3.5  x  1.3                         1,600  $250 

%  4.5    x  3.5  x  1.5                         1,900  300 

1  4.5    x  3.5x2                            2,300  350 
1%  5.5    x4     x2.3                         3,000  425 

2  5.5    x  4.5x2.3                         3,500  600 

These  machines  consist  of  two  heavy  side  plates  and  a  back 
plate,  with  a  renewable  cutter  edge  fastened  on  a  runner  frame 
pivotally  and  adjustably  connected  to  the  back  plate.  When  the 
scraper  is  pulled  forward  the  runner  frame  and  cutter  edge 
are  tilted  to  the  digging  position.  When  the  empty  scraper  is 
pulled  back  this  runner  edge  and  cutter  frame  is  pulled  flat,  thus 
forming  a  sled  for  the  scraper.  The  load  is  not  dumped  but  is 
left  at  the  point  where  the  scraper  starts  back.  This  is  a  desir- 
able feature  in  sticky  material.  These  machines  require  a  35  to 
80-hp.  engine,  %  to  1-in.  haul  back  lines  and  1  to  l^-in.  pull  lines. 

Early  Power  Scrapers.  First  on  the  Chicago  Canal  and  later  on 
the  Massena  Canal  (Engineering  News,  Aug.  15,  1805,  and  Dec. 
15,  1898),  a  power  drag  scraper  was  used.  The  scraper  held  3 
cu.  yd.  of  loose  earth  when  not  heaped  and  had  a  cutting  edge 
7  ft.  wide. 


Fig.  1.     Power  Scraper  on  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 

It  was  operated  by  cables  (Fig.  1)  running  to  a  12}4xl5-in. 
engine.  The  towers  at  Massena  were  mounted  on  trucks  and 
were  720  ft.  apart.  Cable  A  was  used  to  dump  the  scraper.  The 
scraper  worked  there  in  soft  clay,  cutting  a  deep  swath;  then 
it  was  moved  over  to  cut  another  swath  leaving  a  ridge  of  earth 
between  the  two  for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the  scraper.  Its 

615 


616 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


output  in  this  soft  clay  was  said  to  be  800  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day, 
but  the  actual  records  on  the  Chicago  Canal  showed  only  250 
cu.  yd.  daily  output.  Mr.  Charles  Vivian  was  the  designer  and 
contractor  in  both  cases.  The  scraper  did  not  work  satisfactorily 
in  hard  material,  nor  in  very  wet  material,  nor  in  fro/en  material. 
On  the  Erie  Canal  deepening  (1897)  small  power  operated 
scrapers  were  used  on  one  contract  to  drag  muck  and  earth  over 
to  a  steam  shovel  which  loaded  it  into  cars.  The  engine  was 
mounted  on  trucks.  A  horizontal  wooden  boom  50  ft.  long,  with 
a  sheave  for  the  tail  rope  at  the  end  of  the  boom,  was  fastened 
to  the  engine  truck  platform.  One  or  two  men  attended  to 


-400' 
Sketch    Showing    Method   of    Stripping. 

Fig.  2.     Layout  of  Plant  for  Stripping  Overburden  with  Bottom- 
less Bucket. 


loading  and  dumping  the  drag  scraper  which  they  could  readily 
do  as  it  was  small.  The  hoisting  engine  thus  merely  pulled  the 
scraper  back  and  forth. 

On  the  Suwanee  Canal  (Engineering  News,  Feb.  20,  1896),  a 
power-driven  bucket-scraper  was  used,  the  Trenton  Iron  Co.,  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.,  being  the  manufacturers.  Instead  of  towers,  two 
masts  provided  with  guy  lines  were  used.  After  the  bucket- 
scraper  was  loaded  by  a  cable  from  the  engine,  another  cable  lifted 
it,  and  it  traveled  on  a  trolley  conveyor  to  the  dump,  very  much 
as  buckets  travel  in  the  Carson-Lidgerwood  cable  trench  machine. 
It  is  said  that  200  cu.  yd.  of  earth  were  moved  daily  for  6  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  with  this  device. 

Overburden  Stripping  with  Bottomless  Bucket.  At  the  plant 
of  the  Diamond  Sand  and  Gravel  Co.  at  Bedford,  O.,  a  1-cu.  yd. 
Sauerman  bottomless  scraper,  operated  by  a  60-hp.  electric  hoist, 
was  used  to  remove  the  overburden  from  a  deposit  of  gravel,  the 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      617 

material  removed  being  deposited  in  a  ravine  on  one  side  of  the 
gravel  deposit.  The  hoist  is  a  type  specially  designed  for  scra'per 
work,  the  rear  drum  operating  the  "  pull-back "  cable  having  a 
speed  three  times  as  great  as  the  front  drum.  The  machine  re- 
quires one  operator  and  a  rigger  stationed  at  the  guide  blocks  to 
make  the  necessary  shifts  in  the  line  of  operation.  This  outfit 
installed  represents  an  investment  of  about  $5,000. 

The  top  soil  of  the  hill  is  largely  clay  and  runs  from  nothing 
to  6  ft.  in  depth.  Hard  "  shoulders  "  of  clay,  when  encountered, 
are  removed  by  "  sawing "  the  scraper  back  and  forth  over  the 
obstruction.  A  day's  output  will  fluctuate  between  200  and  300 
yd.,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  material. 

Cost  with  a  Bagley  Scraper  on  Road  Construction.  In  En- 
gineering News,  Dec.  17,  1914,  F.  W.  Harris  gives  data  on  the 
use  of  the  Bagley  power  scraper  on  mountain  road  construction. 
He  states  that  it  is  a  most  successful  machine  when  used  in 
connection  with  a  logging  donkey  engine.  The  right  of  way  is 
first  cleared  of  logs,  etc.,  by  the  donkey  engine  operating  a  cable. 
The  scraper  is  then  attached  to  the  same  line.  With  plenty  of 
fuel  and  water  and  a  short  haul  not  exceeding  400  ft.,  a  scraper 
should  remove  at  least  400  cu.  yd.  of  earth  per  day.  In  light 
earth  and  gravel  cuts  with  a  200-ft.  haul  a  2.5-cu.  yd.  scraper 
will  push  another  0.5  cu.  yd.  of  material  ahead,  and  should  easily 
move  1,000  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  These  scrapers  are  unsuccessful, 
however,  in  mucking  out  blasted  rock.  They  will  handle  all 
kinds  of  loose  earth,  gravel,  and  boulders  from  1  cu.  ft.  to  0.5 
cu.  yd.,  but  the  material  must  be  loose.  Wherever  the  iill  is  of 
considerable  q  antity,  the  haul  short,  and  the  material  sandy  or 
gravel,  scraper  work  should  cost  about  7  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  On 
general  road  work,  where  time  is  lost  in  moving  up,  splicing  lines, 
removing  large  boulders,  etc.,  the  average  cost  will  run  from  15 
to  20  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  to  which  must  be  added  from  3  to  5  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  for  finishing  as  the  scraper  leaves  the  Work  in  a  rough 
shape. 

On  certain  work  two  scrapers  were  in  use,  each  having  a  capa- 
city of  2.5  cu.  yd.  One  donkey  engine  was  11  by  13  in.  in  size, 
and  the  other  101/4  by  10%  in.  The  wire  cables  had  the  following 
dimensions:  main  line  1%  in.  and  haul-back  line  ~/8  in. 

The  10-hr,  daily  cost  of  a  road  gang  was  as  follows : 

Foreman    $  6.00 

Engineman     3.50 

Fireman     ; 2.75 

Hook  tender    4.50 

Pumpman     3.00 

Two  rigging  men  @  $3   6.00 


Total  labor  on  scraper   $25.75 


618 


HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


One  team  hauling  fuel  or  two  men  cutting  on  right  of  way...  $  6  00 

Fuel     10.00 

Use  of  donkey  engine  including  depreciation,  cable  costs,  etc.  10.00 

Two  teams  and  teamsters  for  finishing  @  $6  12.00 

Four  laborers,  finishing   @   $2.50 ' 10.00 


Total   daily   cost 


$73.75 


Assuming  400  cu.  yd.  for  an  average  day's  work,  the  cost  will 
be  $0.185  per  cu.  yd. 

A  Power  Scraper  for  Handling  Mud.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Sept.  11,  1910,  gives  the  following:  In  excavating  the 
Long  Island  open  cut  and  tunnel  approaches  to  the  new  Penn- 
sylvania R.  R.  East  River  tunnels  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
overlying  swamp  mud  unsuitable  for  embankment  was  wasted 
over  an  adjacent  area  of  swamp  land.  As  this  swamp  area  was 


••a"  to  sheave  at  dea  Jinan 


First  Position 

"a '•  to  sheave  at  deadaan 


Rope  "It"  to  Jiuifl  on  e 


Second  Position 
Fig.  3.     Rigging  for  Scraper  Bucket. 

of  such  a  character  that  spoil  car  tracks  could  not  be  laid  or 
maintained  on  it,  use  was  made  of  drag  line  scrapers  to  dis- 
tribute the  spoil.  On  one  side  of  the  swamp  area  two  travelers 
were  mounted  so  as  to  run  back  and  forth  along  the  edge  of 
the  swamp.  A  double  drum  hoisting  engine  mounted  on  each 
traveler  operated  a  scraper  rigged  as  in  Fig.  3.  Referring  to  the 
drawing,  the  scraper  was  pulled  forward  by  the  rope  a  which 
passed  through  a  sheave  attached  to  a  deadman  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  swamp  from  the  traveler,  while  the  rope  6  was  allowed 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       619 

to  run  loose  as  shown  by  the  upper  sketch  of  the  drawing  until 
it  was  desired  to  dump  the  scraper.  Thj^  was  accomplished  by 
clamping  the  lower  drum  operating  rope  a,  and  pulling  the  rope  6 
until  the  scraper  was  in  the  position  shown  in  the  lower  portion 
of  the  drawing  when  a  slight  pull  on  the  rope  a  with  rope  6 
slacked  a  corresponding  amount  completed  the  turn.  The  scraper 
was  pulled  back  to  the  starting  point  by  the  rope  6. 

A  Bottomless  Scraper  for  Loose  Material.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  May  15,  1912,  gives  the  following:  Fig.  4  is  a  type 
much  used  in  the  Joplin,  Missouri,  mining  district  for  loading 
mine  tailings  into  cars.  It  should  prove  useful  for  handling 


Fig.  4.     Bottomless  Drag  Scraper  for  Loose  Materials. 

loose  material  of  other  kinds.  This  scraper  has  no  bottom  and 
thus  handles  the  material  by  pushing  it  ahead  of  it.  It  is  oper- 
ated by  means  of  tail  and  head  ropes  from  a  two  drum  engine. 
The  scraper  illustrated  is  5  ft.  2  in.  long  3X£  ft.  wide  in  front  and 
4  in.  wider  at  the  rear,  and  is  14  in.  deep. 

A  Power  Scraper  and  Wagon  Loader.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Dec.  9,  1914,  gives  the  following:  The  machine  con- 
sists of  an  inclined  runway  mounted  on  a  truck,  together  with 
a  drag  scraper.  The  scraper  is  hauled  back  into  the  excava- 
tion 100  to  500  ft.  for  its  load,  which  it  carries  up  the  runway 
of  the  incline  and  dumps  automatically  into  a  hopper  at  the  top 
to  be  loaded  into  wagons.  The  scraper  is  dragged  by  a  continuous 
drag  line  running  over  a  pulley  at  the  top  of  the  machine  and 
another  pulley  anchored  at  any  convenient  point  in  the  excava- 
tion. Power  is  supplied  by  ,a  gasoline  engine,  or  an  electric 
motor.  The  hopper  from  which  the  wagons  are  loaded  has  a  capa- 
city of  1^  cu.  yd.  and  the  gate,  placed  6  ft.  above  the  ground,  may 
be  operated  by  the  engineman.  A  125-gal.  water  tank  is  mounted 


620 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


on  the  truck.  The  front  wheels  under  the  machine  are  in  pairs, 
permitting  easy  rotation  of  the  apparatus  to  load  from  any 
position  of  the  excavation. 

The  outfit  is  manufactured  in  three  sizes  of  6,  10  and  20  cu.  ft. 
scraper  capacity  and  has  a  rated  output  at  100-ft.  haul  of  15, 
25  and  40  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  for  each  size,  respectively.  The  maxi- 
mum heights  vary  from  14  ft.  to  16  ft.;  length  from  20  ft.  to  22 
ft.;  widths  from  5}£  ft.  to  8  ft.;  and  shipping  weights  from 
7,000  Ib.  to  12,100  Ib.  Engines  vary  from  10  to  25  hp.  Scraper 
speed  may  be  varied  from  150  to  350  ft.  per  min.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions  a  cost  of  4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  excavating  and 
loading  is  claimed  for  their  machines. 

The  apparatus  is  manufactured  and  sold  by  the  Insley  Mfg.  Co., 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 


Fig.  5.     Power  Scraper  and  Wagon  Loader. 

Portable  Derrick  Excavator.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Oct.  14,  1914,  gives  the  following:  This  excavator  (Fig.  6)  will 
handle  -a  %-cu.  yd.  bucket  on  a  20  to  22-ft.  boom  with  a  range  of 
hoist  up  to  12  ft.  Except  the  boom,  which  is  wood,  the  con- 
struction is  steel  and  steel  outriggers  are  provided.  Where  con- 
ditions do  not  permit  the  use  of  outriggers,  guy  ropes  can  be 
substituted.  The  machine  is  transported  by  team  and  pole,  neck- 
yoke  and  single  and  double  trees  -are  provided.  The  engine  is 
vertical,  double  cylinder  and  geared  giving  a  rope  pull  of  4,200 
Ib.  at  a  speed  of  100  ft.  per  min.  All  other  parts  including  wire 
rope,  blocks  and  fittings  are  the  manufacturers'  standard  except 
the  digging  bucket  which  may  be  any  make  preferred  by  the 
purchaser.  The  machine  has  a  digging  capacity  of  20  cu.  yd.  per 
hr.  and  in  actual  work  has  shown  much  higher  records.  The 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      621 


022  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

cost  of  the  machine  is  under  $2,000.  It  is  made  by  the  John  F. 
Byers  Machine  Co.,  of  Ravenna,  Ohio. 

A  similar  machine  made  by  the  Economy  Excavator  Co.,  Iowa 
Falls,  Iowa,  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

Cableway  Scraper  for  Sidehill  Work.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Oct.  9,  1907,  gives  the  following:  The  arrangement 
illustrated  in  Fig.  7  was  used  in  removing  part  of  a  hill  face 
that  caused  a  skew  pressure  on  a  tunnel  being  constructed 
through  a  hillside.  As  shown,  the  device  consisted  of  a  timber 
tower,  about  50  ft.  high,  to  which  was  attached  a  suspension 
cable  of  1^-in.  wire  rope,  secured  at  the  uphill  end  to  a  movable 
holdfast,  which  allowed  swinging  the  cable  laterally  with  the 


Fig.   7.     Cableway  Scraper  for  Sidehill  Work. 

tower  as  the  center.  A  boiler  plate  scraper  pan,  6  ft.  wide,  was 
suspended  from  a  traveling  block  on  the  cable.  Up  and  down 
haul  lines  were  attached  to  the  scraper  by  a  bridle  arrangement, 
and  led  to  the  drums  of  a  hoisting  engine  placed  at  the  foot  of 
the  tower.  The  suspension  cable  was  also  led  to  one  drum  of 
the  hoist  by  suitable  blocks.  This  allowed  the  cable  with  travel- 
ing block  and  scraper  to  be  raised  or  lowered  by  winding  on  or 
off  the  drum;  and  consequently  the  feed  of  the  scraper  was  under 
control  as  it  descended  the  hill. 

The  material  was  a  gravel  face,  the  work  being  done  during 
the  winter  months,  with  temperature  far  below  zero,  and  the  hill 
face  deeply  frozen.  Before  the  scraping  was  begun  a  V-shaped 
gulley  for  the  scraper  to  run  in  was  made  by  blasting  out  stumps 
and  frozen  earth,  after  which  the  sides  were  picked  down  to 
furnish  loose  material  to  the  scraper.  At  the  tower  the  scraper 
emptied  into  a  plank  chute  6  ft.  wide,  with  sides  1  ft.  high.  The 
chute  was  placed  at  an  inclination  1^  to  1,  which  was  enough, 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      f>23 

except  when  the  gravel  was  wet  from  snow  or  rain,  and  then  the 
fine  sand  clogged  and  had  to  be  removed  with  pick  and  shovel. 
When  the  earth  piled  up  at  the  mouth  of  the  chute,  a  new  chute 
higher  up  or  slightly  to  one  side,  was  constructed.  Beside  filling 
itself,  the  scraper  would  often  push  down  a  large  mass  of  gravel, 
thus  sometimes  carrying  down  from  4  to  6  cu.  yd.  per  trip.  The 
gravel  wore  out  the  bottom  planking  of  the  chute,  two  sets  of 
3-in.  plank  being  used  up.  About  30,000  cu.  yd.  were  excavated 
at  a  cost  of  30  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  this  cost  including  running  hoist, 
rigging  scraper  and  material  and  labor  in  building  the  chute. 

Leveling-  Ground  with  Power  Scraper.  James  C.  Bennett,  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec.  4,  1912,  gives  the  following: 
Gold  dredging  has  in  years  past  left  considerable  areas  of  ground 
within  the  city  limits  of  Oroville,  Cal.,  in  an  unsightly  condition. 
More  recently  the  city  has  demanded  in  new  work  that  the 
dredges  restore  the  "  worked  "  ground  to  a  surface  approximat- 
ing the  original.  At  the  outset  of  the  work  of  restoration,  at- 
tempts were  made  to  use  horse-drawn  scrapers.  Owing  to  the 
character  of  the  material,  however,  the  costs  proved  prohibitive, 
and  a  more  economical  method  was  sought.  The  "  boats,"  as 
they  are  called  locally,  deposit  the  gravel,  sand,  and  clay  in 
irregular  piles  varying  in  height  from  8  or  10  to  25  and  30  ft. 
above  the  original  surface  level.  The  deposited  gravel  contains 
rocks  ranging  in  size  from  sand  to  20  or  24  in.  in  diameter,  and 
in  some  places,  a  considerable  quantity  of  clay  and  sand.  This 
makes  a  material  that  is  very  difficult  to  handle  economically, 
as  it  is  hard  to  fill  a  scraper  to  anything  like  its  capacity.  In 
using  horses,  the  work  was  found  to  be  very  severe  on  the  stock, 
and  a  team  was  rendered  unfit  for  service  after  a  very  short 
time. 

The  equipment  that  is  described  was  developed  by  one  of  the 
dredging  companies,  and  has  been  used  in  leveling  an  extensive 
area.  Until  a  short  time  ago,  however,  it  was* never  used  where 
there  was  any  necessity  for  working  to  grade,  so  that  little  or 
nothing  was  known  of  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  material  handled. 
Consequently,  when  the  writer  attempted  recently  to  learn  what 
should  be  a  reasonable  price  at  which  to  contract  for  a  job  of 
making  a  fill  for  a  street  grade,  filling  a  large  water  hole  to  a 
grade  above  that  of  standing  water,  and  raising  a  part  of  the 
ground  to  a  grade  suitable  for  building  lots,  the  only  data  that 
could  be  obtained  were  some  records  of  costs  per  acre — ranging 
from  $175  to  $200.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  these  gave  no  con- 
sideration to  the  yardage  involved,  so  that  the  information  was  of 
little  value. 

Finally,  the  contractors  and  the  writer  agreed  on  a  lump  sum 


624  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

for  the  job,  based  on  an  estimate  of  the  time  required  to  do 
the  work.  Sufficient  record  of  previous  work  was. -available  to 
afford  reliable  information  as  to  the  daily  expense  of  such  \\wrk, 
so  that  such  an  estimate  was  mutually  looked  upon  as  the  most 
satisfactory.  The  estimated  time  for  the  completion  of  the  job 
was  75  days,  which  should  cover  repairs,  setting  deadmen,  mov- 
ing lines  and  blocks,  and  moving  the  machine  from  one  position 
to  another.  The  elapsed  time  between  start  and  finish  of  the 
work  was  82  working  days.  Of  this,  G2  days  were  occupied  in 
actual  scraping,  10  days  in  moving  lines  and  winch,  and  making 
repairs,  and  there  were  10  working  days  in  which  no  work  was 
done  for  reasons  not  attributable  to  the  work  in  question.  The 
time  devoted  to  actual  scraping  during  the  62  days  averaged 
7  hr.  per  day. 

Close  record  was  kept  of  the  number  of  loads  hauled,  and,  at 
intervals,  the  loads  were  measured.  It  is  believed  that  1^4  cu.  yd. 
is  very  nearly  a  correct  average  load.  The  total  number  of  yards 
moved,  based  on  the  number  of  trips  hauled,  was  15,300.  The 
regular  crew  consisted  of  a  winchman  and  two  helpers.  Had  this 
work  been  done  in  conjunction  with  some  other,  it  would  have 
been  unnecessary  to  retain  both  helpers  continuously  on  the  job, 
since  but  one  is  needed  during  the  time  that  the  scraping  is  in 
progress.  His  work  is  to  watch  at  close  range  and  direct,  by 
signal,  the  loading  of  the  scraper.  The  second  helper  is  required 
principally  in  moving  blocks  and  lines  from  one  deadman  to 
another. 

A  little  study  of  the  job  prior  to  starting  the  work  of  scraping 
materially  lessened  the  lost  time,  since  nearly  all  of  the  deadmen 
were  set  before  the  filling  was  begun.  Thus  it  was  only  neces- 
sary to  stop  the  work  for  such  length  of  time  as  was  required 
actually  to  move  the  lines  from  one  block  anchorage  to  another. 
During  the  execution  of  the  work  the  winch  itself  was  moved 
twice,  that  is,  it  occupied  three  positions  including  the  one  in 
which  work  was  started.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
work  the  hauling  line  was  run  through  one  block  only,  while  the 
back  line  ran  through  three  most  of  the  time.  The  costs  of  the 
job  were  as  follows: 

:i-jj  -jiHiili:   .-•>.!' jn i;  .r-jvf '  ,i:J;;m 

1  winchman    $       5.00 

2  helpers,    at  $2.50   5.00 

1  horse  (for  moving  lines,  etc.)    1.00 

133.33  kw.  hr.,  at  2%  ct 3.00 

Total   per    day    $     14.00 

Total  Cost: 

72   days,    at  $14    $1.008.00 

Repairs  (materials  only,  labor  being  included  above)  35.00 


METHODS  AND  COST-  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      625 

4-horse   team,    man   arid   scraper,    resurfacing   street 

grade,   1   day 10.00 

600  ft.  second  hand,   l^-in.  hauling  line  54.00 

600  ft.  second  hand,   %-in.  back  line   30.00 

Depreciation    at    10%    120.00 


Total  cost  for  the  job   $1,257.00 

From  the  foregoing  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  the  unit  cost 
for  the  job  was  8.2  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

In  the  above  statement  of  costs  there  are  one  or  two  items 
that  involve  a  slightly  heavier  charge  against  the  job  than  is 
strictly  just.  The  depreciation  charge  is  probably  a  little  high, 
since,  aside  from  the  scraper  itself,  there  is  not  a  particularly 
heavy  wear  and  tear  on  the  equipment.  The  full  cost  of  the 
ropes  is  included,  although  the  same  ropes  would  probably  have 
served  for  the  handling  of  an  additional  2,000  or  3,000  cu.  yd.  of 
material.  The  second-hand  ropes  were  secured  from  mines  where 
they  had  been  discarded  as  hoisting  ropes  in  compliance  with 
state  mining  laws  which  limit  the  service  of  such  ropes  to  a  com- 
paratively short  time  owing  to  the  extent  to  which  human  life 
is  dependent  upon  its  reliability.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  work 
the  following  figures  were  derived: 

Average  length  of  haul,  ft 175 

Average  day's  duty,  cu.  yd 247 

Average  hourly  duty,  cu.  yd 35.2 

Largest  day's  duty,  cu.  yd 425 

A  50-hp.  constant  speed  motor  was  belted  to  the  first  of  two 
pinion  shafts,  and  was  kept  running  continuously  while  scraping 
was  in  progress,  thus  reducing  the  time  of  reversing  the  travel  to 
a  minimum.  In  the  preparation  for  the  job  a  temporary  power 
line  of  4,000  or  5,000  volts  was  run  to  the  edge  of  the  work, 
where  the  transformers  were  set  on  the  ground.  From  the 
secondary  side  of  the  transformers  a  440-volt  current  was  carried 
to  the  motor  by  means  of  an  armored  three-conductor  cable. 
This  cable  was  a  piece  of  discarded  gold  dredge  equipment.  By 
this  arrangement,  it  was  possible  to  move  the  winch  with  its 
own  power  from  one  part  of  the  work  to  another,  and  still  leave 
the  transformers  undisturbed.  At  first  thought,  the  charge  for 
electric  power  —  2^4  ct.  per  kw.  hr. —  seems  high,  but  in  view 
of  the  erection  of  the  temporary  pole  line  by  the  power  company 
and  delivering  the  current  to  the  transformers  at  whatever  point 
on  the  work  the  contractors  selected,  it  will  be  found  a  very 
reasonable  charge. 

The  speeds  of  both  hauling  and  back  lines  were  approximately 
130  ft.  per  min.  This  proved  a  very  satisfactory  speed  for  the 
hauling  line,  though  in  other  material  a  rate  of  150  ft.  could 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


undoubtedly  be  used  to  excellent  advantage.  For  the  back  line 
the  speed  of  130  ft.  was  slow,  and  should  have  been  increased  to 
not  less  than  150  ft.  per  min.,  while  it  is  quite  possible  that  175 
ft.  would  have  given  good  results. 

The  scraper,  12  ft.  long  over  all,  was  built  of  good,  sound,  2-in. 
planks,  secured  to  steel  end  plates,  and  the  whole  thoroughly 
strapped  with  }£x3-in.  bar  steel.  A  bail  iron  was  attached  to 
each  end  plate,  and  carried  on  around  the  back  as  a  reinforce- 
ment. At  the  outset  some  experimenting  was  required  before  the 
bail  irons  were  set  at  the  angle  that  gave  the  best  results  in 
filling  the  scraper.  During  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  angle 


1  ^--Approximate  Angle  of 
Digging  Pifth 

EnqbContg- 
Fig.  8.     Wooden  Scraper  for  Leveling  Ground. 

was  changed  once  or  twice  owing  to  varying  conditions  of  ground 
and  material.  The  back  line  was  attached  by  means  of  short 
bail  irons  projecting  to  the  rear  of  the  scraper.  Here  again  some 
experimenting  was  necessary  before  the  irons  were  set  at  the 
angle  that  would  unload  the  scraper  to  the  best  advantage.  Dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  work  it  was  only  necessary  to  reverse 
the  rope  travel  with  a  light  jerk  to  discharge  the  load,  as  the 
rear  bail  irons  were  so  set  that  the  scraper  was  tipped  fairly 
well  forward  so  that  it  was  easily  withdrawn  from  under  the 
load.  On  some  of  the  work,  however,  there  was  so  much  wet 
and  very  sticky  clay  that  quite  a  hard  jerk  was  necessary  to 
clear  the  scraper  of  its  load.  In  this  the  operator  soon  became 
so  skilled  that  very  little  time  was  lost  on  this  account. 

Canal  Work  with  a  Power  Scraper.     This  device  was  designed 
by  James  R.  Hall,  for  work  on  the  Swanee   Canal,  Ga.,  and   is 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       627 

described  in  Engineering  News,  Feb.  20,  1896.  It  consisted  of 
two  guyed  masts,  supporting  a  1%-in.  carrier  cable  of  200  ft. 
span,  on  which  a  2-wheeled  carriage  traveled.  Power  was  sup- 
plied by  a  double-cylinder,  three-drum  hoisting  engine.  The 
scraper  is  a  rectangular  bucket  with  the  lips  fitted  with  cutting 
edges.  The  haul  or  load  rope  led  directly  from  the  bucket-bail 
through  a  sheave  at  the  top  of  the  head  mast  to  a  drum  on  the 
engine.  The  hoisting  rope  led  from  the  bail  of  the  bucket  through 
a  sheave  on  the  cableway  carriage  to  a  second  drum.  This  rope 
was  also  used  to  pull  the  carriage  and  bucket,  back  from  the 
spoil  bank.  A  third  rope,  the  out-haul  or  pull-back  rope,  led 
from  the  bottom  of  the  bucket  through  a  sheave  on  the  cable 
carriage,  thence  through  a  sheave  on  the  tail  mast,  and  back  to 
the  engine. 

The  crew  required  consisted  of  an  engineman,  a  fireman,  a 
helper,  and  one  signal  and  general  utility  man,  besides  two  men 
who  prepared  anchorages,  set  masts,  etc.  The  daily  operating 
cost,  including  fuel  and  oil,  was  $12.  The  output  was  250, to  300 
cu.  yd.  per  hr.  day.  The  total  unit  operating  cost  was  about 
6  ct.  Shifting  required  1  to  1%  hr.,  and  out  of  11  hr.,  3  were 
consumed  in  moving,  oiling,  repairing,  etc. 

Loading  Wheelscrapers  with  an  Engine.  In  Engineering  News, 
June  23,  1904,  G.  H.  Dunlop  described  the  method  used  in  exca- 
vating a  canal  in  Australia.  The  cutting  was  in  clay,  and  was 
40  ft.  wide,  42  ft.  deep,  with  side  slopes  of  1  to  1.  The  material 
was  excavated  by  wheelscrapers,  holding  16  cu.  ft.,  drawn  by 
two  horses.  Instead  of  using  a  snatch  team,  an  engine  was 
placed  on  the  bank  and,  by  means  of  a  %-in.  cable,  assisted  in 
loading.  This  rope  was  attached  and  detached  from  the  scraper 
poles  by  a  laborer.  A  pony  ridden  by  a  boy  dragged  the  rope 
from  place  to  place  as  required. 

On  another  piece  of  work  where  the  cut  was  shallow  and  the 
bottom  width  was  117  ft.,  the  engine  was  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
the  cut.  The  depth  of  cutting  was  regulated  by  a  gage  wheel 
under  the  rear  end  of  the  pole.  In  deep  parts  of  the  cut  the 
pole  was  removed  and  replaced  by  a  third  wheel.  The  scraper 
was  loaded  by  the  engine,  and  then  hauled  out  of  the  cut  by  a 
long  rope  attached  to  horses  traveling  on  the  bank. 

Power  Scraper  Work  in  Oregon.  C.  G.  Newton,  in  Engineer- 
ing News,  Oct.  20,  1904,  gives  the  following:  A  power  scraper 
was  used  to  excavate  gravel  under  several  feet  of  water  in  the 
bed  of  the  Grande  Ronde  River,  Oregon.  It  dragged  the  ma- 
terial 200  ft.  up  an  apron  and  dumped  it  on  cars.  A  30-yd.  car 
was  loaded  in  16  min.,  and  another  car  moved  up  to  its  place  in 
12  min.  The  cost  was  7  to  8  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


628       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

At  Portland,  Oregon,  hard,  stiff,  blue  clay,  and  a  covering  of 
1  ft.  of  silt  was  excavated  from  Guild's  Lake.  The  material  was 
hauled  from  400  to  700  ft.  and  dumped  over  a  bulkhead  4.5  ft. 
high  at  the  rate  of  600  to  800  cu.  yd.  per  day.  The  cost  was 
14  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  cost  of  moving  dirt,  sand  or  gravel  under  average  condi- 
tions with  a  400-ft.  haul,  for  street  grading  work,  was  as  fol- 
lows per  10-hr,  day: 

Donkey   engine $2,250 

4%  yd.  Hammond  scraper   500 

Lines     500 

Blocks     150 

Miscellaneous    300 


Total   plant    $3,700 

Interest,   8%  on  $3,700  -=-  270  days   $  0.81 

Depreciation    9.20 

1  engineman    3.00 

1  foreman     3.50 

1  fireman     2.50 

1  ton  coal   5.50 

1  coal   tender    2.50 

Oil  supplies   1.00 

Repairs  to  lines,  etc 2.50 

Total  per  day,  405  cu.  yd.  at  7.35  ct $30.51 

Power  Scraper  Work  in  Alaska.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Feb.  26,  1908,  gives  the  following:  In  the  Klondike,  steam 
scrapers  are  often  used  in  handling  tailings  from  the  creek-min- 
ing operations.  The  ordinary  power  scraper  outfit  used  in  opera- 
tions on  tailings  consists  of  a  scraper  of  from  ^  to  ^  cu.  yd. 
capacity,  operated  by  a  double  drum,  2-cylinder  hoist,  of  25  to 
30  hp.  This  outfit  handles  on  an  average  250  cu.  yd.  «of  loose 
material  in  24  hr.  at  an  average  cost  of  49  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  In 
explanation  of  this  high  cost  it  may  be  stated  that  the  wages  of 
laborers  are  about  $5  per  day  with  board,  or  $8  without  board; 
that  bituminous  coal  at  Nome  costs  $17  per  short  ton,  and  that 
spruce  wood  for  fuel  costs  about  $12  per  cord. 

The  scrapers  drag  the  material  from  the  pit  to  the  dump,  a 
horizontal  distance  of  from  100  to  300  ft.,  and  a  vertical  distance 
of  20  to  50  ft.  The  gang  employed  usually  consists  of  threex 
to  four  men  —  a  fireman,  a  hoistman  and  either  one  or  two  men 
to  fill,  guide  and  dump  the  scraper.  The  form  and  rigging  up 
of  the  scrapers  and  the  system  of  sheaves  and  drawback  usually 
employed  are  shown  in  Fig.  9.  Toothed  scrapers  are  not  always 
used,  but  are  preferred. 

An  adaptation  of  one  of  these  plants  was  used  in  stripping 
loam  in  excavating  for  a  reservoir  at  Portland,  Ore.  In  this  case 
a  bottomless  scraper  was  used.  The  scraper  had  a  theoretical 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      629 

capacity  of  6  cu.  yd.,  but  actually  handled  about  3  yd.  In  the 
work  in  seven  10-hr,  days,  stripping  to  4  ft.  in  depth,  400  cu.  yd. 
per  shift  were  handled  by  the  outfit.  Furrows  300  ft.  long 
were  made  by  the  scraper.  A  60-hp.  boiler  was  used  but  only 
one  cord  of  wood,  at  $2,  was  burned  per  day.  A  double  drum 
hoist,  provided  with  10  x  12-in.  cylinders  and  geared  6  to  1,  was 


Fig.  9.     Arrangement  in  Power  Scraper  Work. 

used.  The  gang  consisted  of  a  winchman,  a  fireman,  and  two 
scraper  men,  at  $2.50  per  day.  Under  these  considerations  the 
operations  were  said  to  cost  about  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Loading  Scrapers  by  Power.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Sept.  18,  1012,  gives  the  following:  In  excavating  for  a  small 
artificial  lake  for  the  site  of  a  residence  at  Libertyville,  111.,  the 
contractors  used  four-wheel  Maney  scrapers  and  loaded  them  by 
power  from  a  stationary  engine. 


630  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  lake  is  about  400  ft.  in  diameter,  and  the  material  exca- 
vated consists  of  a  very  hard  brick  clay.  At  the  start  snatch 
teams  were  employed  to  aid  in  loading  the  scrapers,  but  they 
were  replaced  by  a  10-hp.  double-drum  engine.  The  engine  is 
located  on  the  bank  of  the  lake  pit  (Fig.  10)  and  a  ^-in.  steel 
cable  is  run  from  each  drum  to  a  double  sheave  block  about  50 
ft.  from  the  engine  and  through  this  block  to  any  point  in  the 
pit.  A  small  hook  on  the  end  of  the  cable  is  attached  to  the 
tongue  of  the  scraper  and  pulls  it  along  over  the  plowed  ground 
until  it  takes  its  load.  Another  team  and  scraper  then  follows 
and  is  loaded  in  the  same  way.  This  continues  until  the  end 
of  the  pit  is  reached.  The  cable  is  then  pulled  back  to  the  far 
end  of  the  pit  by  the  last  scraper  loaded,  while  the  scraper  is  on 
its  way  to  the  dump.  The  two  cables  are  operated  by  one  man 
at  the  engine,  and  sometimes  both  cables  are  used  at  one  time. 

The  scraper  consists  of  a  scoop  of  29  cu.  ft.  capacity,  suspended 
on  a  four-wheel  steel  wagon  frame. 

A  record  of  the  work  done  during  the  month  of  July,  1912,  is 
given  below.  The  length  of  the  haul  varied  from  200  ft.  to  as 
much  as  1,200  ft.,  the  average  being  400  or  500  ft. 

With  210  hr.  of  foreman  time,  788  hr.  common  labor,  and 
1,794  hr.  of  team  and  driver,  the  output  was  6,686  loads. 

These  data  give  the  following  units  of  output : 

6,686  loads  at  29  cu.  ft.  equal,  cu.  yd 5,386 

Average  cu.  yd.  per  team  hr 3 

Average  cu.  yd.  per  scraper  hr 3.92 

Average  cu.  yd.  per  scraper  per  day   35.3 

Average  cu.  yd.  per  day   '.  256.5 

It  will  be  noted  that  two  teams  are  required  for  plowing  on  this 
work,  and  as  many  as  four  teams  were  used  in  very  hard 
places.  In  the  figures,  however,  the  number  of  scrapers  at 
work  may  be  considered  as  two  less  than  the  number  of  teams. 

Figuring  the  foreman  at  $3  per  day,  the  laborers  at  $2.25,  the 
driver  and  team  at  $5,  the  cost  of  the  work  may  be  estimated 
as  follows: 

Per  day 
1  foreman    $3.00 

1  dumpman    , -. 2.25 

2  pitmen 4.50 

1  engineman 2.75 

9  teams  and  men  and  7  scrapers  ....,..,.'.........,......      45.00 

Total  labor  per  day   $57.50 

Cost  of  labor  for  255  cu.  yd.  (output  of  7  scrapers) 

per  cu.   yd ......     $0.226 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  material  is  hauled  about 
500  ft.  on  the  average  and  that  it  was  very  hard  to  dig.  When 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       631 

the  top  soil  was  removed,  the  contractor  estimated  that  the 
cost  was  only  about  10  ct.  In  the  top  soil  work  the  digging  was 
very  easy  and  the  haul  was  short. 


Stalls  for 
Teams 


Engine 
.Room 


Fig.   10.     Sketch  Showing  Manner  of  Loading  Scrapers  Using 
Hoisting  Engine  and  Cable. 

Basement  Excavation  by  Power  Scraper.  Engineering  Record 
Aug.  8,  1914,  gives  the  following:  Excavating  the  basement  fpr 
the  new  office  building  of  the  Occidental  Realty  Company,  in 


Devotion 


i  >   -j'lruU;  Hrti^iK'  ^m-ym'-' 
Fig.    11.     Arrangement   of   Cables   and  Plant   for  Scraper-Bucket 
Basement  Excavation. 


the  business  center  of  Indianapolis,  was  carried  out  by  using  a 
power  scraper  which  handled  12,000  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  in  18  days 
from  an  area  of  70  x  200  ft.  As  installed  the  equipment  consisted 


632  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  a  Sauerman  %-yd.  scraper  with  pull  and  tail  ropes,  a  three- 
drum,  75-lip.  Thomas  electric  hoist,  receiving  hopper,  two  Link- 
Belt  bucket  elevators  and  two  loading  bins  located  as  shown  in 
the  drawing. 

As  operated  in  this  excavation  a  head-and-tail  block  served  as 
a  guide  for  the  tail  cable  leading  from  the  rear  drum  of  the 
hoist  to  the  rear  of  the  excavator.  The  .pull  cable  led  from  the 
front  drum  through  a  head  guide  block  to  the  front  of  the 
bucket. 

Forty-two  teams  were  employed  to  haul  the  material  away. 
Labor  and  other  expenses  amounted  approximately  to  $20  per 
day,  the  output  being  nearly  700  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Dragline  Scrapers  on  Chicago  Canal.  On  the  Calumet-Sag 
channel  of  the  Chicago  drainage  canal  several  drag-line  machines 
were  employed.  On  Sec.  2,  in  glacial  drift  during  1912,  a  Bucy- 
rus  dragline  machine,  equipped  with  an  85-ft.  boom  and  with 
2.5-yd.  Page  and  Bucyrus  buckets,  averaged  about  50,000  cu.  yd. 
per  month,  working  one  shift  of  10  hr.  The  average  force  em- 
ployed was  10  men.  On  Sec.  4,  a  Marion  self-propelling  drag- 
line excavator,  with  a  100-ft.  boom,  and  a  3.5-yd.  bucket  for 
glacial  drift  and  a  6-yd.  bucket  for  peat  and  light  material, 
excavated  an  average  of  60,000  cu.  yd.  per  month,  working  two 
10-hr,  shifts  daily.  The  average  force  employed  was  12  men 
per  shift. 

Armstrong  Dragline  in  Montana.  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Sept.  2,  1908,  gives  the  following:  This  machine  consists 
of  an  upper  platform  rotated  upon  a  lower  frame.  The  frame 
is  supported  on  skids  and  travels  over  rollers.  A  long  boom  and 
the  power  plant  are  carried  on  the  upper  platform.  The  scraper 
bucket  of  1.5  cu.  yd.  capacity  is  pulled  toward  the  machine.  The 
machine  travels  under  its  own  power  away  from  the  cut.  These 
machines  are  made  of  wood  or  of  steel.  The  machinery  and  iron 
work  of  the  frame  cost  $4,500,  and  the  lumber  and  erection  labor 
about  $1,000  more;  a  steel  machine  complete  costs  about  $9,000. 

The  working  weight  is  45  to  50  tons,  and  the  maximum  capa- 
city varies  from  50  to  100  cu.  yd.  per  hr. 

The  cost  of  operating  a  machine  of  this  type,  with  a  48  by  96-in. 
vertical  boiler,  an  8  by  12-in.  hoisting  engine,  and  a  5  by  8-in. 
swinging  engine  during  October,  1908,  on  the  Huntley  Reclama- 
tion Project,  Montana,  is  given  in  Table  I.  A  2.5-cu.  yd.  bucket 
was  generally  used.  The  cut  was  16  to  19.5  ft.  deep,  12  to  15  ft. 
consisting  of  well  compacted  sandy  soil,  and  the  remainder  of 
coarse  gravel  and  sand  saturated  with  water.  The  work  during 
the  month  was  difficult,  the  machine  handling  about  70%  of 
its  normal  output.  Two  8-hr,  shifts  were  worked. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       633 


TABLE   I.    COST  OF   EXCAVATION   WITH   ARMSTRONG  DRAGLINE 
EXCAVATOR 


Superintendent   (a    $125    $  41.67 

2  dipper  men  (a    $130  171.17 

2  dipper  tenders   (a    $95   125.08 

2  firemen    (a    $85    111.92 

2  groundmen    (fi    $100    131.67 

Team  and  driver  hauling  supplies  @  $4  43.50 

Laborers    (a    $2    21.75 


Working    Repair 
time          time 
$    6.26 
30.33 
22.17 
19.83 
23.34 
2.50 
1.25 


Total  labor  cost,   16,000  cvi.  yd. 
Labor  cost  per  cu.  yd 


$646.76 
$4.04 


$105.68 
$0.67 


Lost 
time 
$  8.33 
34.67 
25.33 
22.67 


$117.67 
$0.74 


Total 

time 

$  56.26 

236.17 

172.58 

154.42 

181.68 

46.00 

23.00 

$870.11 
$5.45 


$135.00 
2.20 
6.25 
0.90 
2.50 


Supplies : 

60  tons   coal  at  $2.25    

10  gal.  kerosene  at  22  ct 

25  gal.  gasoline  at  25  ct 

10  Ib.  grease  at  9  ct 

10  Ib.   graphite   at   25  ct 

20  gal.  engine  oil  at  31  ct 6.20 

25  gal.  cyl.  oil  at  44.5  ct 11.13 

Total  at  1.03  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  supplies  $164.18 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd.  $6.48 

Walking  Traction  for  a  Dragline  Excavator.  John  W.  Page, 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  19,  1911,  gives  the  follow- 
ing: The  excavator  (Fig.  12)  is  mounted  upon  a  turntable, 
which  in  turn  is  mounted  on  a  platform  consisting  of  I-beams. 
This  platform  is  about  twice  as  long  as  the  turntable  platform 
is  wide.  The  turntable  platform  is  arranged  to  roll  upon  it  from 
-one  end  to  the  other.  The  whole  is  supported  on  two  "  boats  " 
or  wooden  skids.  In  moving,  the  machine  is  run  to  one  end  of 
the  beam  platform,  thus  removing  the  weight  of  the  machine 
from  the  "  boat "  at  the  opposite  end.  This  "  boat "  is  then 
slipped  ahead  by  means  of  cables  operated  by  the  main  engine. 
Then  the  machine  is  run  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  beam  plat- 
form and  the  opposite  "  boat "  is  slipped  "forward.  The  opera- 
tion gives  the  machine  a  zigzag  walking  motion,  advancing  it 
about  7}£  ft.  each  time. 

A  Caterpillar  Traction  Dragline  Excavator.  A  machine  made 
by  the  Stockton  Iron  Works,  Stockton,  Cal.,  is  described  in  En- 
gineering Record,  Dec.  12,  1914,  by  W.  W.  Patch.  It  is  equipped 
with  both  a  clam-shell  and  a  dragline  bucket,  and  weighs  with 
either  bucket  about  20  tons.  Its  power  is  derived  from  a  20-hp. 
heavy-duty  upright  gasolene  engine,  operated  with  distillate. 
When  traveling  along  the  road  in  high  gear  the  machine  makes 
about  •%  mi.  per  hr.  Under  these  conditions  the  jack  arms  are 
removed  and  are  carried  upon  the  deck,  thus  giving  a  maximum 
width  of  15  ft.  6  in.  At  the  intersections  of  60-ft.  roads  turns 


G;M  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  90°  can  be  made  readily.  As  the  distance  between  the  two 
axles  is  over  19  ft.  there  are  seldom  any  highway  stringer  bridges 
which  are  subjected  to  a  span  load  exceeding  about  12  tons.  The 
form  pf  bucket  bail  is  similar  to  that  used  in  the  Page  drag 
scraper. 

Both  clam-shell   and  dragline  buckets  were  provided,  but  the 
dragline  bucket  was  used  almost  exclusively. 


Fig.  12.     Walking  Attachment  for  Dragline  Excavator. 

When  operating  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  this  ma- 
chine, with  a  crew  of  four  men,  has  excavated  400  cu.  yd.  in  a 
day  of  8  hr.  While  for  a  period  of  seven  months  (Apr.  to  Oct., 
1913)  the  average  performance  has  been  at  the  rate  of  40  cu.  yd. 
per  hr.,  even  when  time  lost  on  account  of  repairs  and  moving 
from  place  to  place  is  included.  This  work  was  in  southern 
Oregon.  If  blasting  is  required,  or  if  the  ground  is  so  soft  as 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      635 


mfsniV/*    enriViKirt    uj(T: 


630  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

to  require  planking  beneath  the  wheels  of  the  machine,  then  the 
crew  is  increased  to  a  total  of  six  men.  A  detailed  statement  of 
the  cost  of  operating  the  machine  for  a  continuous  period  of 
seven  months  during  this  second  season  is  given  below.  This 
statement  contains  a  liberal  allowance  of  $1,194  for  depreciation 
of  the  plant.  The  total  cost  was  $6,655  for  56,000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  per 
cu.  yd. 

Labor,   men   $0.0476 

Labor,    horses    0089 

Explosives     0058 

Fuel,    gasoline    0052 

Supplies   (grease,  oil,  lumber,  etc.)   C094 

Depreciation,    machine    0213 

General  expenses    0127 

Miscellaneous    0018 

Repairs    0061 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.1188 

The  work  comprised  deepening  an  old  ditch  which  carried 
drainage  water  constantly.  The  old  section  was  about  2  ft. 
deep,  4  ft.  wide,  and  had  1.5  to  1  side  slopes.  The  new  section 
was  5  ft.  deep,  5  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom  and  had  1.5  to  1  side 
slopes.  The  ditch  was  about  4  miles  long,  and  for  approximately 
one-half  of  its  length  the  bottom  2  ft.  was  in  indurated  materials 
which  required  blasting  before  it  could  be  excavated. 

The  crew  comprised  from  4  to  6  men  and  2  horses  at  the 
following  wages:  Machine  operator,  $130  per  month;  gas-engine 
man,  $80  per  month;  powder-man,  $3  per  day;  2  laborers,  each 
$2.48  per  day;  2  horses,  each  $1.25  per  day.  A  day's  work  com- 
prised 8  hr.  on  the  job. 

Jacobs  Gruided-Line  Excavator.  In  the  use  of  the  ordinary 
drag-line  bucket  excavator,  difficulty  is  often  experienced  in 
guiding  the  bucket  when  stiff  material  is  encountered.  This  diffi- 
culty is  especially  noticeable  when  the  bucket,  in  cutting  the 
sloping  banks  of  an  open  ditch,  passes  from  stiff  to  loose  ma- 
terial. Recently  an  excavator  has  been  put  upon  the  market 
designed  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  This  new  machine  is  the 
Jacobs  Guided-Drag-Line-Bucket-Excavator,  manufactured  by  the 
Jacobs  Engineering  Co.,  of  Ottawa,  111. 

This  excavator  consists  of  a  steel-framed  platform  made  up  of 
standard  structural  steel  shapes,  which  are  joined  with  fitting 
bolts.  This  upper  platform  revolves  on  a  circular  track,  which 
rests  on  a  lower  steel-framed  platform.  The  machinery  consists 
of  a  three-drum  hoist  with  steel  gearing  and  the  whole  mounted 
on  a  heavy  cast-iron  base,  which  is  bolted  to  the  upper  platform. 
The  machine  swinging  drums  are  operated  by  a  double-cone 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      637 

friction  and  are  connected  to  the  drum  shaft  of  the  hoisting  en- 
gine by  a  sprocket  and  bushed  chain. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  the  machine  is  the  guide  boom,  which 
consists  of  a  steel  girder  shaped  like  a  figure  J,  with  the  hook 
end  hanging  vertically  from  a  straight  boom.  Both  booms  are 
pivoted  at  the  front  end  of  the  upper  platform.  The  bucket, 
which  is  a  rectangular  steel  box,  open  at  the  end  toward  the 
machine,  is  attached  to  a  trolley  which  travels  on  the  guide 
uoom,  having  two  double-flanged  wheels  riding  on  the  upper  flange 
and  a  third  wheel  bearing  against  the  lower  flange  to  keep  the 
bucket  from  kicking  upward.  In  making  the  cut,  the  bucket  is 
hauled  inward  by  a  cable  leading  directly  from  the  trolley  to  the 
engine.  For  dumping,  it  is  hauled  outward  by  the  back-haul 
cable,  which  leads  from  the  trolley  to  the  head  of  the  main 
boom  and  back  to  the  engine.  The  bucket  is  dumped  by  con- 
tinuing its  travel  to  the  vertical  end  of  the  guide  boom,  the 
boom  being  first  swung  around  to  the  position  at  which  the  load 
is  to  be  deposited. 

The  machine  is  self-propelling  and  travels  on  a  track,  which  is 
made  in  sections  and  is  moved  by  the  machine  itself. 

This  machine  has  been  used  for  the  construction  of  open  ditches, 
tile  ditches  and  back  tilling  same,  levees,  roads  and  highways, 
etc. 

This  excavator  is  built  in  various  sizes,  from  one  having  a 
%-yd.  bucket  and  25-ft.  boom  to  one  with  a  1^-yd.  bucket  and  a 
40-ft.  boom.  The  cost  of  the  machines  varies  from  $3,500  to 
$6,000,  depending  on  the  length  of  the  boom  and  the  capacity  of 
the  bucket. 

At  Dixon,  Illinois,  one  of  these  machines  constructed  an  open 
drainage  ditch,  having  a  22-ft.  bottom,  a  depth  varying  from  4  ft. 
to  6  ft.  and  iy2  to  1  side  slopes.  The  machine  used  had  a  40-ft. 
boom,  a  li^-yd.  bucket  and  was  operated  by  a  7-in.  x  10-in.  double 
cylinder,  3-drum  hoisting  engine,  with  swinging  drums  sprocket 
driven  from  the  front  drum  of  the  hoisting  engine.  The  weight 
of  the  machine  was  about  23  tons,  which  included  one  ton  of  coal 
and  300  gal.  of  water.  The  average  excavation  for  a  10-hr, 
day  was  600  cu.  yd.  at  the  following  cost: 

Operator    $  4.00 

Fireman     2.50 

Trackman     2.00 

Coal 5.00 

Oil  and  waste    < 1.00 

Water     1.00 


I  1  7  I  .  ! 


$15.50 
Interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  10,00 

Total  per  day  $25.50 


638  HANDBOOK  0#  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

For  600  cu.  yd.  this  makes  a  cost  of  4.25  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  material  excavated  was  4-ft.  of  gumbo  and  the  substratum 
yellow  clay.  The  yardage  averaged  150  cu.  yd.  per  station  of 
100  ft. 

The  labor  employed  consisted  of  an  operator  at  $125  per  month, 
a  fireman  at  $2  per  day,  two  trackmen  at  $1.75  per  day,  and  a 
cook  at  $40  per  month.  The  men  were  furnished  \vith  free  board 
and  lodging.  Following  is  a  tabulated  list  of  expenses  for  10.5 
days. 

Labor    $117.62 

Coal     20.60 

Coal  hauling   25.00 

Repairs     8.45 

Camp  supplies   9.72 

Cook's   wages    16.06 

Traveling  and  livery    32.55 

Insurance     7.14 

Miscellaneous 7.14 


Total,  10.5  days  at  $22.30  $234.28 

Coal  was  hauled  8  miles  from  a  railroad  siding  at  a  cost  of 
8  ct.  per  hundred-weight  and  part  of  the  time  at  a  cost  of  $5 
per  load.  The  item  of  "  camp  supplies "  does  not  include  some 
supplies  used,  which  were  on  hand  and  not  purchased  during  the 
month.  "  Traveling  and  livery  "  include  a  special  trip  to  inspect 
work  and  attend  commissioners'  meeting.  The  output  averaged 
220  cu.  yd.  per  day  at  a  cost  of  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  foregoing  data  are  from  "  Excavating  Machinery "  by 
A.  B.  McDaniel. 

A  Locomotive  Crane  Used  as  a  Dragline  Excavator.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  May  10,  1911,  gives  data  on  the  use  of  a 
locomotive  crane  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  This 
crane  was  bought  to  use  for  concreting,  and  while  waiting  for 
concreting  to  begin  was  rigged  as  a  dragline  excavator.  It  dug 
a  channel  60  ft.  wide  on  top,  and  20  wide  on  the  bottom,  with  an 
average  depth  of  cut  of  9  to  10.5  ft.  and  a  length  of  2,600  ft. 

The  crane  began  on  April  14  and,  in  the  12  working  days  of  the 
month,  excavated  about  6,000  cu.  yd.,  according  to  the  state 
engineers'  estimate.  There  were  two  crews  employed,  each  work- 
ing 8  hr.,  and  comprised  as  follows: 

1  engineman  at  $100  per  month. 
1  fireman  at  $50  per  month. 
4  laborers  at  $1.60  per  day. 

The  average  cost  of  moving  dirt  has  been  about  9^  ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

The  crane  is  a  standard  Brownhoist  crane  with  50  ft.  of  boom 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       639 

built  to  handle  3  tons  at  a  48  ft.  radius,  with  12,000  Ib.  of  ballast 
in  the  buck  frame. 

Dredging  Gravel  with  a  Weeks'  Bucket.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Feb.  5,  1913,  gives  the  following.  (See  also  Apr. 
26,  1911.)  Gravel  for  building  purposes  for  the  city  of  Van- 
couver, B.  C.,  is  obtained  in  part  from  submerged  deposits,  one 
of  which  lies  at  the  mouth  of  Indian  River  at  the  head  of  the 
North  Arm  of  Burrard  Inlet.  To  obtain  the  gravel  from  this 
place  over  which  the  tidal  range  is  about  12  ft.,  a  Weeks  patented 
bucket  has  been  used  in  various  ways  since  the  spring  of  1910. 


14.     Gravel   Dredging    and    Washing    Scow   Equipped    with 
Weeks  Two  Line  Bucket. 


First  Plant.  The  first  method  of  operating  the  bucket  was  from 
a  skid  A-frame  mounting  a  swinging  boom,  on  a  scow.  The 
bucket  with  its  load  is  lifted  and  swung  over  the  scow  to  be 
emptied  and  returned  to  its  loading  place  by  means  of  a  %-in. 
back-haul  line  passing  from  the  hoisting  engine  over  a  sheave  sup- 
ported by  a  float  suitably  anchored.  The  bucket  has  a  capacity 
of  24  cu.  ft.,  and  35  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  per  hr.  is  loaded  when  the 
distance  the  bucket  transports  its  load  is  not  over  200  ft. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  tendency  with  this  shovel  wher- 
ever installed  has  been  to  make  it  a  transporter  of  material  as 
well  as  an  excavator,  with  the  inevitable  result  of  reduced  capa- 
city and  increased  wear. 

The  operating  crew  consists  of  a  foreman,  engine  runner,  fire- 
man and  laborer,  the  principal  duty  of  the  latter  being  to  spring 
the  latch  on -the  bucket  which  causes  it  to  dump  its  load. 

An  8^4  x  10-in.  double  drum  hoisting  engine  burning   1^>  tons 


G40  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  coal  per  10-hr,  day,  when  working  steadily,  supplies  the  power. 
Through  the  top  of  the  A-frame,  a  heavy  link  passes,  at  the  rear 
end  of  which  the  backstays  are  fastened,  and  from  the  front  end 
the  boom  hangs  by  means  of  a  special  shackle,  the  pin  of  which 
is  enclosed  by  a  couple  of  wearing  sleeves.  These  sleeves  are 
made  of  pipe  and  take  the  wear  due  to  the  swing  of  the  boom. 
If  kept  well  greased  this  wear  is  very  small.  At  the  point  of 
the  boom  is  a  three-armed  forging,  the  arms  of  which  are  set  at 
equal  angles.  To  the  top  arm  is  fastened  the  boom  line  of 
fixed  length,  and  to  one  of  the  lower  arms  is  hung  a  sheave  for 
the  %-in.  main  line  to  the  bucket.  At  the  base  of  the  boom  is 
bolted  a  heavy  bent  plate,  the  long  end  of  which  fastens  to  the 
boom.  The  short  end  pivots  between  two  angles  riveted  to  a 
heavy  plate  which  is  bolted  to  the  bottom  of  the  A-frame.  When 
the  load  comes  upon  the  end  of  the  boom,  its  tendency,  by  reason 
of  the  eccentrically  suspended  load,  is  to  swing  toward  the  side 
on  which  the  main  line  sheave  is  hung,  and  this  tendency  is  in- 
creased as  the  scow  tips.  A  fair  leader  for  the  main  line,  hung 
in  the  A-frame,  prevents  this  tendency  from  being  excessive. 
With  this  arrangement  of  boom  and  tackle,  no  swinging  gear  is 
necessary.  The  sweep  of  the  loaded  bucket  over  the  scow  is  regu- 
lated to  a  nicety  by  the  engine  runner  paying  out  the  back  haul. 
The  daily  cost  of  operating  is  as  follows: 

1  foreman     $  4.75 

1  engine  runner    4.50 

1  fireman     3.00 

1  laborer    2.75 

1V2  tons  coal  at  $8  12.00 

Wear  and  tear,  depreciation,   etc 3.00 

300  cu.  yd.  at  10  ct $30.00 

Second  Plant.  Later  a  larger,  but  in  every  way  similar,  dredge 
was  installed,  and  the  original  rig  mounted  for  a  time  on  pile 
bents  instead  of  a  scow.  The  object  of  this  change  was  to 
facilitate  washing  and  storing  the  gravel,  which  was  done  with  a 
special  type  of  washer,  and  the  washed  gravel  elevated  into 
bunkers.  "  Owing  to  a  desire  to  reclaim  all  the  gravel  possible 
from  the  fixed  location  of  the  dredge,  the  distance  which  the 
bucket  hauled  its  load  was  made  nearly  300  ft.,  which  was  too 
great  to  attain  a  large  output.  The  depth  of  the  pit  to  which 
dredging  was  carried  was  about  60  ft.  below  low  tide.  From 
225  to  240  trips  of  the  1%-cu.  yd.  bucket  was  all  that  could  be 
averaged  in  10  hr.  Considerable  time  was  lost,  due  to  clogging 
of  the  washer  by  over-feeding.  About  40  cu.  yd.  could  be  dredged 
per  hr.,  washer' permitting.  The  same  crew  was  used  as  on  the 
floating  dredge,  but  the  daily  consumption  of  coal  was  greater  by 


METHODS  AND  COST  YVT1H  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      641 


642  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION  Uu< 

half  a  ton.  The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was  9  ct.,  including  all  expenses. 
Improved  Plant.  Wishing  to  reduce  the  length  of  haul,  with 
its  attendant  wear  and  diminished  output,  a  new  method  of  oper- 
ating has  been  devised,  so  that  now  the  bucket  digs  under  the 
scow  (Fig.  14)  upon  which  the  washer  also  is  mounted.  An  in- 
clined trolley  track  projects  beyond  the  front  of  the  scow  upon 
which  runs  a  trolley  car  carrying  a  large  sheave  over  which  passes 
the  main-haul  lines.  The  trolley  is  locked  at  the  lower  limit  of  its 


; 


Fig.  16.     Page  Scraper  Bucket. 


run  while  the  bucket  is  diggingj  and  is  unlocked  by  the  bucket 
striking  the  releasing  leversl  Upon  being  unlocked,  the  trolley 
runs  up  the  inclined  track,  the  bucket  being  hung  meanwhile 
from  the  trolley  car  by  two  hooks  upon  which  it  adjusts  itself 
automatically  and  which  prevent  it  from  lowering  or  twisting. 
Arrived  at  the  upper  limit  of  its  travel,  the  bucket  dumps  into 
a  hopper,  whence  the  gravel  is  conveyed  by  a  belt  to  the  washer. 
The  bucket  and  trolley  are -then  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the 
incline,  and  the  bucket  returned  to  its  loading  position  by  the 
back  haul  which  passes  over  sheaves  at  the  back  of  the  dredge. 
Springs  in  tension  absorb  the  shock  of  the  descending  trolley 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      643 


car.  The  scow  is  held  by  adjustable  anchor  lines  passing  over 
the  front  corners  and  the  middle  of  the  stern. 

The  bucket  now  in  use  holds  1^  cu.  yd.  and  averages  50  sec. 
per  trip.  Owing  to  a  lack  of  sufficient  scows  for  loading,  no 
positive  statement  of  its  daily  capacity  can  be  made  at  this 
time,  but  it  is  known  to  be  much  faster  than  either  of  the  other 
methods  of  operating.  At  present,  the  same  crew  as  before 
operates  the  dredge,  including  the  washer;  but  later,  when  the 
output  becomes  larger,  an  additional  man  may  be  required  to 
assist  in  spotting  scows. 

The  Weeks  bucket  is  made  by  the  Moran  Co.,  of  Seattle,  Wash. 

Dragline  Excavator  Buckets.  They  are  of  various  shapes  and 
are  arranged  either  to  tilt  forward  or  rearward  in  dumping.  The 
Page  scraper  bucket  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  16.  It  is  dumped  for- 
ward by  holding  the  hoist  line  and  slackening  the  pull  line.' 


PAGE  SCRAPER  BUCKETS 


Width  of 

Capacity 

cutting  edge 

Weight 

cu.  yd. 

in. 

Ib. 

% 

36 

1,450-2,200 

1 

45 

1,500-3,500 

1% 

45-48 

1,700-4,000 

1% 

2 

48 
51 

2,000-4,500 
3,000-6,000 

5T 

2% 

57 

5,850-7,000 

3 

60 

6,550-7,500 

3% 

60 

7,000-8,000 

4 

60 

8,600 

4% 

66 

9,100 

List 
prices, 

1916 

$    495-    575 
546-    800 
573-    8<5 
610-   9^8 
750-1,0*4 
1,036-1,250 
1,180-1,407 
1,313-1,563 
1,688 
1,813 
1,938 


EMjKMta 


Fig.  17.     The  Holcomb  Bucket. 

The  Monighan  2-line  drag  bucket  is  somewhat  like  the  Page 
bucket.  The  Iverson  is  similar  in  form  but  is  dumped  by  a  third 
or  latch  line.  The  Hayward  and  Wenks  buckets  are  dumped  for- 


644 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      645 

ward  by  pulling  on  the  tail  or  hoist  line,  but  the  latter  may  be 
dumped  backward  by  hauling1  on  the  pull  line  and  slackening 
the  tail  line.  The  Browning  bucket  is  dumped  by  a  third  line. 
In  all,  except  the  Iverson  and  Browning  buckets,  the  drag  line 
must  be  held  against  the  lift  line  to  prevent  dumping. 

The  Sauerman  drag  line  excavators  are  operated  by  one  pull- 
line  and  a  slack  cableway.  The  bucket  is  drawn  in  one  direc- 
tion by  the  pull-line  and  allowed  to  slide  in  the  other  direction 
along  the  tightened  cableway  under  the  influence  of  gravity. 
It  is  dumped  (either  forward  or  backward  according  to  the 
type)  by  encountering  a  stop  on  the  cableway  line.  The  prices  of 
these  machines  depend  upon  the  length  of  span,  size  of  bucket, 
and  local  conditions.  A  %-yd.  excavator  of  500-ft.  span  cost 
about  $2,200  in  1916,  and  a  1^-yd.  machine  about  $4,200,  in- 
cluding cables,  buckets,  hoist  and  boiler,  but  not  anchors,  mast 
or  tower  timbers.  The  capacities  vary  from  10  to  80  cu.  yd.  per 
hr.,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  bucket,  kind  of  material,  and 
other  conditions.  With  an  average  haul  of  300  ft.,  about  35 
cu.  yd.  per  hr.  per  cu.  yd.  of  bucket  capacity  will  be  averaged. 
About  30  hp.  per  cu.  yd.  of  bucket  capacity  is  required. 

The  Dunbar  Dragline  Bucket.  This  is  described  in  Engineering 
News-Record,  July  8,  1918.  The  bucket  will  take  a  load  in  travel- 
ing its  own  length,  and  then  can  be  hoisted  at  once  instead  of 
being  pulled  to  the  bank  of  the  drag  line.  The  end  gate  holds 
the  load,  but  at  the  same  time  allows  water  to  escape.  Experi- 
ence showed  that  the  cables  lasted  longer  and  the  machine  con- 
sumed less  coal  than  when  an  ordinary  bucket  was  used. 

These  buckets  were  designed  by  H.  T.  Dunbar,  president  of  the 
Dunbar  &  Sullivan  Dredging  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  They  were  made 
at  the  company's  machine  shops  on  the  work  at  Waterford,  N.  Y. 
They  are  of  3-yd.  capacity. 


tringers 


Fig.    19.     Planking   for    Dragline    Excavation    Work    Over    Soft 

Ground. 


Planking  for  Dragline  Work  Over  Soft  Ground.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Dec.  16,  1914,  gives  the  following:  The  sketch 
(Fig.  19)  shows  a  method  of  planking  for  dragline  excavation 
work  for  drainage  ditch  near  Viro,  Fla.  The  ground  consists  of  a 
top  layer  of  vegetable  fiber  on  which  a  man  can  stand  in  most 


646          HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATIOK 

places,  but  which  will  not  carry  a  team.  A  C-ft.  bar  can  be 
shoved  down  its  whole  length  with  one  hand.  On  6  x  6-in.  string- 
ers laid  parallel  to  the  direction  of  movement  are  laid  platforms 
of  3  x  12-in.  x  12-ft.  planks  set  close,  and  at  the  center  of  each 
platform  is  laid  a  roller  track  of  three  6  x  12-in.  x  14-ft.  timbers 
set  close.  These  track  timbers  are  staggered  to  distribute  the 
load  to  the  plank.  The  stringers  are  pressed  down  into  the 
ground  by  the  weight  of  the  excavator  and  apparently  so  confined 
the  material  as  to  prevent  it  from  squashing  out  sideways  under 
the  ends  of  the  planks.  The  stringers  have  to  be  dug  out  to  be 
shifted  ahead,  but  the  planks  can  be  easily  picked  up.  Four  pit- 
men pile  the  plank  in  bundles  behind  the  machine  which,  with  a 
chain  hooked  to  the  bucket,  picks  up  the  bundles  and  swings 
them  ahead  for  the  pitmen  to  relay.  The  four  pitmen,  with  the 
use  of  the  machine  as  described,  pick  up  and  relay  the  stringers, 
plank  and  track  timbers  as  fast  as  the  machine  can  work. 

'  ' 


Machine  should  go  in  fhisairecnon  ••-- — *%v 

•l'U-8olt}  i    t$ xiy Machine  Bolts (CYskHeads> 


Ends  of  bottom  planks  are  shown  by  dotted  linels 
Top  Timber  S'x  »6"x  2<f-0'  Heart  Pine.  Bottom  Timbers  2£x.\6'xZO'-Q' Heart  Pine 

Cross  Ties  6'x6'x8''0"  $td:R.R.Tfes  E.&.C. 

Fig.  2Q.     Sectional  Platform  Tracks  for  Dragline  Excavators. 

Sectional  Track  for  Dragline  Excavator.  Another  form  of 
plank  track  is  illustrated  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb. 
17,  1915.  The  section  is  24  ft.  in  length  over  all.  Ten  of  these 
sections  are  used,  five  under  each  side  of  the  machine,  giving  a 
track  of  about  100  ft.  in  length.  Each  section  consists  of  three 
5  x  16-in.  x  20-ft.  stringers  laid  side  by  side,  thus  forming  a  roller 
bed  4  ft.  wide.  Under  these  are  placed  ten  6  x  8-in.  x  8-ft.  stand- 
ard railway  cross-ties,  spaced  2  ft.  apart,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20. 
Under  these  are  three  2^  x  16-in.  x  20-ft.  flooring  planks,  to  serve 
as  a  stiffener,  to  elevate  the  roller  bed  and  to  keep  the  mud  from 
forcing  itself  up  between  the  ties.  These  three  sets  of  timbers 
are  bolted  together  by  thirty  %  x  13-in.  machine  bolts  with  heads 
countersunk  below  the  surface  of  the  top  timbers.  Four  1-in. 
U-bolts  in  the  ties  serve  for  hooking'the  swinging  chains. 

These  sections  may  be  swung  ahead  and  placed  in  \%  min. 
each.  The  machine  has  been  moved  2,600  ft.  in  10  hr. 

Channon   Excavator   in   Wet    Gravel   Pit.     According  to   En- 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      647 

gineering  News,  March  21,  1907,  near  Liberty  Center,  Ind.,  a 
35-ton  1.5-yd.  bucket,  Channon  excavator  was  used  for  stripping 
and  excavating  gravel  from  under  water  and  loading  it  on  stand- 
ard railroad  cars.  The  boom  was  50  ft.  long.  The  pit  was  25 
to  30  ft.  deep,  15  to  25  ft.  being  in  water.  The  overburden  was 
heavy  clay,  of  a  nature  difficult  of  plowing  by  four  horses.  A 

Heavy  Hook  from  fc'x 
~     -IO-0'toend  of  Cable 


Fig.  21.     Method  of  Hitching  in  Swinging  ALead  Sectional 
Platform  Track. 

.~J«-ruJ  ;.»M^-ji}«l   I.ftK  ')h»Hv.  !<>  '»<ij«;»'"iJ 

train  of  7  cars,  each  of  26.5  cu.  yd.  capacity,  was  usually  loaded 
in  60  to  75  min.     About  40  to  60  cars  were  loaded  daily.          .,y^ 

Dragline  Excavator  on  Sewer  Work.  Engineering  and  Con* 
tracting,  Sept.  8,  1908,  states  that  a  Page  and  Schnable  drag 
scraper  bucket  was  used  in  excavating  the  first  6  or  8  ft.  of  a 
sewer  trench  in  sand  at  Gary,  Ind.  The  bucket  was  of  2  cu.  yd. 
capacity,  being  operated  on  a  58-ft.  boom  with  the  usual  cable 
and  chain  attachments.  The  derrick  house  worked  away  from 
the  excavation.  The  machine  was  not  used  to  its  full  capacity, 
but  excavated  about  60  ft.  of  trench  per  day,  just  enough  to  keep 


648  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ahead  of  the  other  forces  which  were  arranged  to  complete  60 
lin.  ft.  of  sewer  per  9-hr.  day.  The  average  swing  made  by  the 
bucket  was  90°.  In  turning  the  bucket  in  its  various  operations, 
it  was  found  that  the  average  time  for  each  motion  of  the  bucket 
was  as  follows: 

Swinging    from    embankment    5  sec. 

Lowering  to  trench 5  sec. 

Digging    15  sec. 

Hoisting  full  bucket    5  sec. 

Swinging  to  embankment   5  sec. 

Dumping     5  sec. 

Total  average  time 40  sec. 

Thus  30%   of  the  time  of  operation   is   consumed   in   digging. 

From  400  to  600  cu.  yd.  per  day,  place  measurement,  were  ex- 
cavated, the  material  being  dumped  on  the  side  of  the  trench. 
The  best  day's  work,  850  cu.  yd.,  was  accomplished  in  5  hr.  dig- 
ging time. 

On  this  work  it  was  found  that  the  bucket  dumped  better 
if  enough  water  was  kept  in  the  pit  to  make  the  material  a 
little  sloppy. 

Dragline  Excavator  Work  on  the  N.  Y.  Barge  Canal.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Mar.  23,  1910,  gives  the  following: 

The  material  moved  was  10%  mud  and  90%  hard  material. 
The  dragline  excavator  was  operated  by  three  8-hr,  shifts,  each 
shift  consisting  of:  1  operator,  1  fireman,  1  foreman  and  4  pit 
laborers.  From  March  25  to  April  14,  1909,  inclusive,  the  fol- 
lowing work  was  done. 

The  machine  worked  21  days,  advanced  1,635  ft.  and  excavated 
19,725  cu.  yd.  or  940  cu.  yd.  per  24-hr,  day.  The  best  work  was 
1,467  cu.  yd.  for  the  three  shifts  of  Apr.  2.  All  repairs  which 
could  be  postponed  were  made  during'  the  shift  from  8  P.  M.  to 
4  A.  M.  Out  of  the  69  hr.  lost  time,  46  hr.  were  for  broken  shafts. 
These  were  broken  on  the  dragline  drum  and  were  chiefly  the 
fault  of  the  operators.  The  remaining  23  hr.  lost  time  were 
because  of  cable  and  bucket  breaks. 

Dragline  Work  on  Chicago  Channel.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Aug.  4,  1909,  gives  the  following:  Section  1  of  the 
North  Shore  Channel  of  the  sanitary  district  of  Chicago  includes 
3,350  ft.  of  channel  excavation,  40  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  80  ft. 
wide  at  the  top,  with  an  ultimate  depth  of  water  13.5  ft.  Part 
of  this  section  was  done  by  the  day  labor  system,  as  the  district 
owned  a  steam  shovel,  dump  car,  and  locomotive  plant;  also 
because  by  doing  itself  certain  portions  of  the  work,  where  inter- 
ference with  property  rights  was  greatest,  the  district  could 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      640 

avoid  trouble  with  adjacent  property  owners;  and  because  a  long 
haul  was  necessary,  and  all  spoil  had  to  be  removed  from  the 
right  of  way. 

The  top-soil  on  both  these  sections  was  excavated  with  team 
and  drag  scrapers.  In  this  way  47,000  cu.  yd.  were  removed 
from  Section  4,  and  21,000  cu.  yd.  were  removed  from  Section  5. 
The  balance  of  the  cut  was  made  with  Heyworth-Newman  ex- 
cavators, one  machine  working  on  each  section.  These  machines 
are  designed  and  operated  by  Jas.  0.  Heyworth,  who  has  patented 
the  machine  and  bucket  and  is  manufacturing  them. 

These  sections  were  in  dry  excavation,  all  material  being  stiff 
blue  clay.  \Yorking  continuously  on  Section  4,  from  Sept.,  1908, 
to  Dec.,  1900,  one  scraper  excavated  499,000  cu.  yd.  in  16  months, 
or  31,191  cu.  yd.  per  month;  the  best  month  being  52,163  cu.  yd. 
in  March,  and  the  worst  being  15,517  cu.  yd.  in  December. 

On  Section  5,  during  6  months  from  May  to  October,  the  average 
output  was  nearly  30,000  cu.-  yd.  per  month;  but  during  Novem- 
ber only  1,000  cu.  yd.  were  moved,  and  16,000  in  December.  Hence 
the  8-month  average  was  25,214  cu.  yd. 

An  estimate  of  the  cost  of  labor  for  one  machine  is  as  follows: 
No  consideration  is  taken  of  interest  on  contractors'  bond,  in- 
surance, or  of  general  office  expense.  The  work  was  divided  into 
three  shifts  of  8  hr.  each  for  the  operators,  and  two  shifts  of 
12  hr.  each  for  the  balance  of  the  crew.  The  work  was  carried 
on  6  days  a  week  or  25  days  a  month.  The  figures  were  ob- 
tained by  the  editor  while  going  over  the  work  and  are  given 
according  to  the  information  furnished  him.  He  believes,  how- 
ever, that  the  crew  given  for  each  machine  is  too  large.  It 
would  be  more  nearly,  correct  to  eliminate  the  items  of  mechanic, 
blacksmith's  helper  and  oiler,  and  to  divide  the  blacksmith's  time 
between  three  machines. 

12  laborers  at  20  ct.  per  hr.,  per  month  ., . .     $    720.00 

3o  orators   at  $150   per  month    450.00 

2  hremen  at  $90  per  month   180.00 

1  man  and  team  at   125.00 

1  superintendent  to  2  machines  at  $200  per  month. .  100.00 

1  civil  engineer  and  timekeeper,   $125  —  2  machines.  67.50 

1  mechanic,  3  machines  at  $150  50.00 

1  blacksmith,   per   month    90.00 

1  blacksmith's  helper,  per  month    50.00 

1  oiler,   per  month    60.00 

•  -•'{HOT    'ul't  _jm>    ffii/ii-'  

Total  per  month   $1,892.50 

Using  31,191  cu.  yd.  excavated  for  Section  4  and  25,214  cu.  yd. 
excavated  for  Section  5,  the  costs  per  cu.  yd.  are  estimated  as 
follows : 


G50  HANDBOOK:  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Section  4 

Cost  per 
cu.  yd. 

Labor $0.061 

3  tons  coal  per  day  0.010 

Repairs  and  miscellaneous  supplies    0.048 

15%  annual  interest  on  $15,000  plant   0.006 

50%  annual  depreciation  on  $15,000  plant  0.02 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd $0.145 

Section  5 

Cost  per 
cu.  yd. 

Labor    $0.076 

3  tons  coal  per  day  0.012 

Repairs  and  miscellaneous  supplies    0.059 

15%  annual  interest  on  $15,000  plant   0.007 

50%  annual  depreciation  on  $15,000  plant  0.030 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd $0.184 

The  labor  item  includes  all  work  done,  such  as  repairs,  moving 
machine,  and  actual  excavation. 

The  repair  and  miscellaneous  supplies  item  is  large.  It  con- 
tains new  cable,  oil,  renewals  and  2  miles  of  2-in.  pipe  to  supply 
water  to  the  boilers.  The  strains  and  work  demanded  of  large 
dragline  machines  are  heavier  than  that  of  steam  shovels.  The 
average  repair  and  maintenance  bill  has  been  $1,500  per  month. 

Dragline  Excavator  Work  at  Stockton,  Cal.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  July  20,  1910,  describes  work  on  a  diverting  canal 
built  to  prevent  floods  at  Stockton,  California.  The  canal  is  5.25 
miles  long  with  a  cross-section  150  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom,  and 
with  side  slopes  of  1  to  1^.  Two  dragline  excavators  were  used, 
one  a  Hey  worth-Newman  machine  having  a  100-ft.  boom  and  a 
3}£-cu.  yd.  bucket.  The  second  machine  had  a  110-ft.  boom  and 
had  been  converted  from  clam-shell  to  dragline  rig.  It  used  a 
2^-cu.  yd.  bucket. 

The  method  followed  in  doing  the  work  was  to  set  up  the  Hey- 
worth  excavator  7  ft.  from  the  center  line  of  the  channel  in  order 
to  control  the  excavation  of  the  outer  30  ft.  opposite  the  levee 
side.  This  allowed  the  boom  to  deposit  the  spoil  on  the  levee 
site  clear  of  the  berm.  When  about  2,000  ft.  of  progress  had 
been  made  in  this  manner,  the  machine  was  placed  in  about  31  ft. 
and  another  section  was  taken  out  up  to  7  ft.  of  the  levee  side. 
The  converted  clamshell  machine  followed,  taking  out  the  rem- 
nant. The  excavating  machines  were  all  mounted  on  rollers,  made 
of  8-in.  extra  heavy  hydraulic  pipe,  with  pine  centers  pressed  in, 
and  were  moved  forward  on  12x14  in.  timbers. 

The  organization  under  which  the  work  was  done  consisted  of 
the  following: 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      651 


1  superintendent. 

2  captains,  1  on  each  machine. 

3  leveemen,  6  hours  on  and  12  off. 
2  mates,  1  on  each  machine. 

4  firemen,   2  on  each  machine. 
8  deckhands. 

jasr* 

1  cook. 

1  flunkey. 

2  pumpmen. 
1  handyman. 

1  team  of  6  horses  for  hauling  oil  and  freighting. 

The  expenditure  per  month  was  as  follows: 

hy    Jo7  91    -i(!j    V/o!:><i 

Pay    roll    .................................................    $3,754 

Fuel  oil    ..................................................         945 

Lubricating  oil  and  repairs  ............................        2,220 

Total    ............................  .  .".'..  I^LV.  ..........    $6,919 

To  this  amount  must  be  added  the  overhead  expense,  plant 
cost  and  interest  on  the  money  invested.  The  contract  price  paid 
for  doing  the  work  was  15^  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  above  prices  paid  for  labor  included  board.  On  account 
of  the  extent  of  the  work,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  camp  that 
could  readily  be  moved.  The  camp  consisted  of  two  large  tents 
which  were  used  as  sleeping  quarters  by  the  men  and  two  smaller 
tents  for  the  engineers,  superintendent  and  captains,  also  serving 
as  offices.  A  cook  wagon,  of  the  same  type  as  are  used  on  the 
ranches,  was  used  both  for  doing  the  cooking  and  as  mess  tent. 
This  outfit  proved  satisfactory  from  every  standpoint. 

From  Apr.,  1909,  to  Apr.,  1910,  inclusive,  the  Heyworth-New- 
man  machine  excavated  437,873  cu.  yd.,  and  the  converted  clam- 
shell machine  242,600  cu.  yd.  The  average  monthly  output  for 
thirteen  months  with  the  Heyworth-Newman  machine  was  33,683 
cu.  yd.  The  converted  machine  worked  10  months  and  had  an 
average  output  of  24,260  cu.  yd.  Taking  the  expenses  given  we 
have  a  cost  of  nearly  12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  without  overhead  expenses. 

Dragline  Work  on  Irrigation  Canal.  E.  H.  Moritz  and  H.  W. 
Elder,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  11,  1912,  give  the 
cost  of  dragline  excavator  work  on  the  enlargement  and  im- 
provement of  the  Main  Canal  of  Sunny  side  Yakima  Project, 
Washington.  About  23  miles  of  the  canal  were  excavated  with  a 
Lidgerwood-Crawford  dragline  machine.  This  machine  was 
erected  in  January  and  February,  1909,  and  began  operating  at 
the  upper  end,  working  down  stream.  A  road  had  to  be  leveled 
ahead  of  the  machine,  and  all  material  not  needed  was  dumped 
on  the  other  side  of  the  canal.  The  extra  amount  of  road  grad- 
ing was  not  anticipated  in  the  original  schedule,  and  the  addi- 


652 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


tional  work  that  had  to  be  done  to  strengthen  the  levee,  caused 
the  unit  price  to  run  higher  than  was  anticipated. 

A  great  deal  of  team  work  had  to  be  done  in  connection  with 
the  machine  excavation.  The  profile  of  the  upper  bank  was  very 
irregular,  and  it  meant  that  the  old  levee  had  to  be  almost 
destroyed.  A  roadway,  8  ft.  wide  had  to  be  built,  and  as  the 
grade  could  not  exceed  5%,  the  hills  had  to  be  cut  down  and 
the  ravines  filled  up.  Where  the  necessary  cut  on  hills  exceeded 
5  ft.  the  cut  had  to  be  20  ft.  wide  to  permit  the  car  to  swing 
and  dump.  In  very  deep  cuts,  this  placed  the  machine  so  far 
below  the  level  of  the  natural  ground  that  it  was  very  difficult 


60  70  SO  90  100     105 

Cu  Yds.  Per  Hour 

Fig.    22.     Curve    Showing    Performance    of    Dragline    Excavator. 


to  dispose  of  the  material,  because  of  the  lack  of  dumping  space. 
In  some  cases  the  road  grading  was  30%  of  the  entire  excava- 
tion in  cut,  and  as  the  material  was  often  hauled  200  ft.  or  more 
to  the  fill  ahead,  the  cost  was  high.  This  cost  was  charged 
against  the  machine,  and  the  total  cost  distributed  into  the 
total  yardage. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  show  the  amount  of  material 
moved  per  hr.,  with  the  machine  operating  at  various  heights 
above  the  center  of  gravity  in  the  mass  excavated.  The  result  is 
shown  in  Fig.  22.  As  indicated  each  point  represents  the  average 
of  a  number  of  values,  and  for  each  value  a  reach  was  selected 
over  which  the  material  and  conditions  of  operation  were  of  an 
average  nature.  The  curve  shows  that  the  maximum  yardage 
per  hr.  was  obtained  with  the  machine  excavating  a  mass  whose 
center  of  gravity  was  7  ft.  below  the  base  of  the  track.  This 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       653 

diagram   is  of   interest   as   showing  the   effect   the   depth   of   cut 
has  on  the  cost  of  excavation. 

The  excavation  was  done  under  water  during  7  months  of 
the  year.  During  the  winter  months,  when  there  was  no  water 
in  the  canal,  frost  interfered  with  the  work  to  a  considerable 
extent.  Due  to  the  shape  of  the  section,  the  time  consumed  in 
lifting  and  cleaning  the  buckets  was  probably  considerably  greater 
than  for  most  excavation  where  a  similar  quantity  of  material  is 
moved. 


Typical Sections £xcavof$&$y  Drag  Line 


•B  Section  to  be  removed 
M®  Team  Excavation 
1^  Team  Fill 
E23  Machine  Spoil 

Fig.  23.     Typical  Sections  Excavated  by  Dragline  Excavator. 


COST   DATA  — DRAG  LINE    EXCAVATION,   204,183   CU.  YD. 

Per 
cu.  yd. 

Labor,    excavator    0.027 

Labor,   spoil  banks , 0.031 

Fuel     0.015 

Plant    maintenance     0.035 

Plant    depreciation    0.008 


Total  per  cu.  yd 0.116 

Force  and  wages  —  One  crew  consisted  of  6  men  and  2  horses. 

Wages  paid  —  Engineer,  $4;  fireman,  $2.85;  groundman,  $2;  man  and 
team,  $450. 

Miscellaneous  —  Maximum  excavation  per  8-hr,  shift,  1,170  cu.  yd. ;  maxi- 
mum excavation  for  week,  16,000  cu.  yd.;  average  excavation  per  8-hr, 
shift,  545.5  cu.  yd. ;  average  excavation  per  actual  working  hour,  93.7  cu.  yd. 

Bridge  Foundation  Excavation.  C.  H.  Johnson  states  that  the 
Nashville,  Chattanooga  and  St.  Louis  R.  R.  has  completed  abut- 
ments for  a  bridge  across  Chattanooga  Creek,  the  foundations  of 
which  called  for  the  excavation  of  40,000  cu.  yd.  of  material,  about 


654  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

two-thirds  of  which  was  on  the  south  side  of  the  creek.  The 
excavation  had  to  be  taken  out  to  about  5  ft.  below  the  water 
surface  and  the  maximum  depth  of  cutting  was  42  ft.  A  Bucyrus 
dragline  with  a  working  radius  of  70  ft.  horizontally  and  50 
ft.  vertically  was  rented  from  a  contractor,  who  also  furnished 
the  men  to  operate  it.  The  excavation  made  for  the  two  arches 
as  originally  planned  was  refilled  by  this  machine,  a  half-inch 
stream  of  water  being  thrown  on  the  material  as  it  was  dumped 
from  the  bucket.  As  the  material  was  already  wet,  part  of  it 
coming  from  below  the  water  surface,  this  stream  proved  sufficient 
to  make  it  flow  so  as  to  till  the  entire  excavation.  The  daily 
expense  of  operating  the  machine  was  as  follows: 

Rent  of  machine $25.00 

Foreman^ 4.00 

Engineman     6.00 

Fireman 3.60 

Six  laborers t . .  10.50 

—., . .  .-  Pumper    2.00 

Watchman    3.00 

Machinist    1 4.00 

Coal,  repairs,  oil,  etc 5.90 

Total  per   day    $64.00 

&1&V  • 

iThe  total  cost  of  excavating  40,000  cu.  yd.  was  .$9,730,  or 
24.4  ct.  a  yd.  However,  about  half  the  material  had  to  be  handled 
twice  on  account  of  the  difficult  location  of  the  work,  and  allow- 
ing for  this  the  cost  was  16.2  ct.  per  yd.  of  material  handled. 
This  rather  high  price  for  drag  line  work  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  was  necessary  to  pull  the  old  piles  with  the  machine 
and  also  because  of  the  many  boulders  which  were  encountered. 

Cost  of  Excavating  Drainage  Ditch  with  a  Drag  Line  Exca- 
vator. Ray  S.  Owen,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Mar.  11, 
1914,  gives  the  following:  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the 
cost  of  excavating  drainage  ditches  in  Rock  County,  Wis.  The 
machine  used  was  a  drag  line  dredge  with  steam  power,  running 
on  a  track  laid  by  hand  and  propelled  by  pulling  on  a  deadman 
with  the  hoisting  drum.  The  operating  crew  consisted  of  1 
runner,  1  fireman,  2  trackmen  and  1  teamster. 

The  ditches  are  in  a  hay  meadow,  the  soil  being  about  2  ft. 
of  muck  underlaid  by  sand.  The  ditches  averaged  5  ft.  deep 
with  11^  to  1  slope,  the  main  ditch,  2.60  miles  in  length,  having  a 
6:ft.  bottom  with  21 -ft.  top  and  the  lateral  1.36  miles  in  length, 
having  a  4-ft.  bottom  with  19-ft.  top.  The  total  excavation  com- 
puted for  the  ditch  was  53,019  cu.  yd.  The  soil  caved  very 
badly  and  a  large  amount  of  excess  material  bad  to  be  excavated 
to  get  the  specified  prism  clear  of  dirt.  The  amount  of  dirt 
actually  moved  was  about  75,000  cu.  yd, 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  .DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      655 

The  two  ditches  are  not  connected  but  empty  into  Sugar  River 
at  points  about  one-quarter  mile  apart.  This  arrangement  ne- 
cessitated a  tear  down  and  move  of  about  three  miles  from  the 
end  of  one  ditch,  after  it  was  completed,  to  the  other  ditch,  and  a 
set  up. 

The  costs  include  freight  on  machine  from  Madison,  Wis.,  to 
Sterling,  111.,  the  operation,  moving,  repair,  etc.,  of  the  machine 
during  the  work,  and  the  tearing  down  and  delivery  of  the  ma- 
chine on  board  cars  at  Sterling,  which  is  about  8  miles  from 
the  job.  The  rent  of  2  ct.  a  yard  'included  the  furnishing,  by  the 
owner  of  the  dredge,  of  sheaves  and  cable,  which  was  a  large 
item  as  the  sand  wore  them  out  very  rapidly.  The  cost  of  coal, 
teaming  and  moving  is  rather  large,  because  of  very  bad  roads 
when  the  outfit  was  moved  out  in  the  spring  and  the  deep  sand 
through  which  the  coal  was  hauled  during  the  summer.  The 
unit  prices  are  given  for  the  contract  yardage  and  for  the  actual 
yardage  of  75,000  cu.  yd. 

Per 
cu.  yd. 

Rent   of   dredge $0.014 

Labor ; 0.038 

Coal 0.006 

Express  and  freight   0.002 

Bond  and  liability  insurance   0.002 

Livery   and   carfare    0.001 

Oil 0.000 

Teaming   and   moving    0.008 

Tools,   supplies,   repairs,  lumber   . 0.002 

Miscellaneous 0.001 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd $0.074 

3J>h01Ij    T>ijqif)    JHO    (Tf;    iril.-ll     lllJ.'dvf   VjiV.'^IlilJ'Jft'M!    >n['\°        .£    ,l,,lv  Iti    r.K 

The  total  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  contract  yardage  was  10.5  ct. 

This  shows  that  it  was  necessary  to  make  42%  excess  exca- 
vation with  the  drag  line  machine. 

Five  Examples  of  Cost  of  Dragline  Excavation.  D.  L.  Yarnell, 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb.  2,  1916,  givas  tho  following: 

Job  1.  A  dragline  excavator  of  the  rotary  type,  having  a  2-yd. 
scraper  bucket  and  a  60-ft.  boom,  was  used  in  the  construction 
of  drainage  ditches  in  southern  Texas.  It  was  built  mostly  of 
wood  and  moved  on  rollers.  Power  was  derived  from  an  80-hp. 
internal-combustion  engine,  burning  oil.  The  cost  of  the  exca- 
vator, ready  to  operate,  was  $12,000.  It  was  operated  about  10 
months  in  two  daily  shifts  of  10  hours  each,  a  shift  consisting 
of  10  men.  The  actual  working  time  was  not  recorded.  The 
ditch  ranged  from  4  to  22  ft.  in  bottom  width,  from  3  to  12  ft. 
in  depth,  and  had  1  to  1  side  slopes.  The  soil  varied  from  a 
stiff,  heavy  clay  to  a  fine  sand.  The  excavation  amounted  to 
230,000  cu.  yd.  The  cost  was  as  follows: 


656  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Operating    expenses    $22,.'513.:)6 

Miscellaneous   expenses    :'74.70 

Interest  and  depreciation    4,100.00 

Total     $26,788.06 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.,  $0.1164. 

Job  2.  On  another  drainage  project  in  southern  Texas,  a  2-yd. 
rotary  excavator  was  used.  The  machine  was  of  steel  throughout, 
had  a  60-ft.  boom,  and  was  mounted  on  caterpillar  traction.  The 
crew  consisted  of  a  foreman,  operator,  engineman,  oiler,  and  two 
laborers.  The  machine  was  operated  by  a  110-hp.  internal-com- 
bustion engine,  with  oil  as  fuel.  The  total  cost  of  the  machine 
was  about  $17,500.  The  cost  of  erection  was  $509.  During  the 
four  months  of  operation  two  10-hr,  shifts  were  run.  The  ditches 
ranged  from  4  to  22  ft.  in  bottom  width  and  from  3  to  12  ft. 
in  depth,  with  1  to  1  side  slopes  and  8-ft.  berms.  The  material 
excavated  was  a  stiff,  heavy  clay.  The  excavation  amounted  to 
91,400  cu.  yd.  The  cost  was  as  follows: 

Operating  expenses   $  8,873.82 

Miscellaneous     371.00 

Interest  and  depreciation    2,391.00 

Total     $11,635.82 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.,   $0.1273. 

Job  3.  In  the  same  general  locality  as  the  last  example  a 
1%-vd.  rotary  dragline  excavator,  operated  by  a  50-hp.  internal- 
combustion  engine  and  mounted  on  caterpillar  traction,  was  used 
in  the  construction  of  some  ditches  in  soil  ranging  from  stiff, 
heavy  clay  to  fine  sand.  The  dutches  were  of  the  same  dimensions 
as  in  Job  2.  The  machine  was  rebuilt  from  an  old  dipper  dredge 
at  a  cost  of  about  $1,200.  It  was  operated  in  two  daily  shifts  of 
10  hr.  each.  The  crew  for  each  shift  consisted  of  from  five  to 
six  men.  During  the  five  months  of  operation  the  machine 
moved  59,014  cu.  yd.  at  an  expense,  exclusive  of  interest  and 
depreciation,  of  $8,921,  or  $0.1512  per  cu.  yd. 

Job  4-  A  rotary  dragline  excavator  with  a  2%  -yd.  bucket  and 
65-ft.  boom,  mounted  on  skids  and  rollers,  was  used  in  the  exca- 
vation of  222,500  cu.  yd.  in  South  Dakota.  The  power  was  ob- 
tained from  a  50-hp.  internal-combustion  engine,  using  gasoline. 
The  cost  of  the  machine,  complete,  was  $10,500.  The  total  time 
of  construction  was  148  working  days,  or  approximately  six 
months,  of  which  23  days  were  occupied  in  making  repairs.  Two 
shifts  of  11  hr.  each  were  run.  The  soil  was  a  loam  under- 
lain by  clay.  The  crew  and  rates  per  month  were  as  follows: 
One  superintendent,  $125;  2  cranemen,  at  $100;  4  trackmen,  at 
$50;  1  teamster,  $45;  1  cook,  $40.  The  operating  expenses  were 
as  follows: 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       657 

Gasoline,   15,444  gallons,   at  $0.124   $1,915.05 

Labor     3,060.00 

Subsistence     56181 

Cables    978.87 

Repairs    and    renewals    .     845.93 

Miscellaneous     2,078.72 

Interest  and   depreciation    2,152.50 


Job  5.  The  following  costs  were  secured  on  the  operation  of 
a  rotary  dragline  excavator  with  an  85-ft.  boom,  2-yd.  bucket, 
and  a  50-hp.  engine.  The  work  was  done  on  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal.  The  machine  weighed  147  tons  and  cost 
$10,000.  It  excavated  earth  90  ft.  from  center  on  one  side  and 
deposited  it  100-ft.  from  center  on  the  other.  It  dug  a  channel 
25  ft.  deep  and  deposited  the  material  on  waste  bank  15  to 
25  ft.  high.  The  material  was  a  stiff  clay,  with  few  stumps  or 
boulders.  The  following  is  a  condensed  cost  record  for  five 
months'  work: 

Total  Yards 

for  month  excavated 

April     $1,088.21  5.205 

May     1,041.53  18,365 

June    1,152.04  25,333 

July     1,317.61  33,055 

August     1,535.36  47,363 

Average  cost  per  yd.  for  5  months,  including  all  charges,  $0.047. 
In  May,  items  of  cost  were  as  follows: 

Engineman,   at  $90  per  month   $      90.00 

Engineman,  at  $95  per  month  84.04 

Fireman,  pumpmen,  watchmen,  etc.,  at  $1.75  per  day  363.00 

Coal,  at  $3  per  ton  147.00 

Repairs,  including  labor  and  material  15.82 

Interest  and  depreciation    341.67 

Total  for  May    $1,011.53 

Large  Electric  Dragline  Excavators.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Jan.  22,  1913,  gives  information  as  to 'Lidgerwood-Craw- 
ford  machines  built  for  use  on  the  Calumet  Sag  Channel,  in 
Chicago.  The  machines  weigh  120  tons  each,  and  operate  2}£-cu. 
yd.  Page  buckets  on  100-ft.  steel  1. corns. 

The  arrangement  of  the  operating  machinery  is  shown  in  Fig. 
24.  The  double  drum  hoist  is  operated  directly  by  a  gear  on 
the  shaft  of  a  112-hp.,  60-cycle,  3-phase  motor,  making  690  r.p.m. 
A  52-hp.,  60-cycle,  3-phase  motor,  855  r.p.m.,  operates  the  bevel 
swing  gear  as  shown.  The  air  brakes  are  operated  through 
power  furnished  by  a  25-cu.  ft.  motor-driven  air  compressor. 
The  current  is  furnished  by  a  public  service  company  and  is 
brought  from  Blue  Island,  several  miles  away,  over  a  high 
tension  line  at  33,000  volts  to  a  transformer  house  on  the  work 


058 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       659 

where  the  voltage  is  stepped  down  to  2,300  volts.  It  is  again 
stepped  down  to  440  volts  through  a  portable  transformer  which 
is  attached  to  the  dragline  machine  by  a  cable  and  is  pulled 
along  on  its  trucks  as  the  machine  moves  ahead.  On  the  machine 
the  current  is  stepped  down  to  110  volts  for  the  incandescent 
lamps  and  to  35  volts  for  the  searchlight  which  is  placed  on 
the  front  of  the  house  and  just  under  the  boom. 

The  machine  is  operated  by  two  men  on  board  and  two  men 
outside  for  handling  the  track.  While  moving  to  position  for 
commencing  work  one  of  the  machines  was  moved  410  ft.  in  one 
day. 

Elsctric  Draglines  on  the  Sun  River  Irrigation  Canal.  Owing 
to  the  distance  of  this  work  from  the  nearest  railroad  and  diffi- 
culty of  hauling  over  poor  roads,  electric  power  was  adopted 
for  all  machinery.  Engineering  Record,  Jan.  29,  1916,  gives  a 
description  of  the  work. 

Current  was  obtained  from  the  Great  Falls  Power  Co.'s  plant 
at  Rainbow  Falls,  75  miles  away.  It  was  transmitted  at  48,600 
volts  over  wires  strung  on  45-ft.  cedar  poles  with  a  span  length 
of  about  350  ft.  Each  conductor  was  three-strand  copper  wire, 
carried  by  suspension  insulators  on  wood  cross  arms.  A  fourth 
stranded  steel  cable  was  grounded  at  each  pole  to  help  keep  the 
line  clear  of  static  disturbances. 

At  canal  miles  1,  20  and  36  power  was  delivered  to  substations 
of  700  to  1,600  kva.  capacity,  where  the  voltage  was  reduced  from 
48,600  to  16,500  for  distribution  along  the  canal.  The  distribu- 
tion line  was  on  30-ft.  fir  or  cedar  poles  with  span  lengths  of 
150  ft.  The  circuit  was  three  copper  wires  with  pin-type  in- 
sulators on  single  wood  cross  arms,  and  no  ground  wire  was 
used. 

Two  Bucyrus  dragline  machines  were  used  for  excavation.  The 
larger  was  Model  24  equipped  with  a  100-ft.  boom  and  an  extra 
heavy  3^-yd.  Page  bucket.  The  smaller  machine  was  Model 
20  with  85-ft.  boom  and  2^-yd.  bucket.  For  transforming  the 
16,500- volt  line  current  down  to  the  voltage  required  by  the  mo- 
tors, two  sets  of  transformers  were  required.  One  set,  stepping 
from  16,500  to  2,200  volts,  was  mounted  on  heavy  trucks  and 
hauled  along  by  teams  as  the  work  proceeds.  Connection  was 
made  to  the  16,500-volt  line  at  some  convenient  point  and  cur- 
rent transmitted  at  2,200  volts  through  a  triple-conductor,  steel- 
armored  cable  to  the  second  set  of  transformers.  These  were 
mounted  under  the  floor  on  the  frame  of  the  machine,  and  step 
the  current  down  to  the  440  volts  required  by  the  motors.  The 
steel  cable  was  about  1,000  ft.  long  and  obviated  the  necessity 
of  moving  the  high-tension  connnection  when  the  line  was  alive, 


660  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

as  the  machine  could  move  along  1,500  ft.  or  more  without 
moving  the  transformers. 

Roads  for  Sideh.ill  Work.  It  was  expected  that  the  handling 
of  the  machines  on  sidehill  slopes  as  steep  as  2^:1  would  be  slow 
and  probably  dangerous.  Whenever  sidehills  were  encountered 
the  machines  were  used  to  excavate  and  level  ahead  of  themselves 
a  road  from  30  to  35  ft.  wide,  on  which  the  timber  track  was 
laid.  This  advance  grading  was  at  such  elevation  as  would  pro- 
duce the  most  efficient  work  of  the  bucket  and  still  keep  the  track 
excavation  within  the  lines  of  the  completed  canal,  thereby  ren- 
dering unnecessary  any  non-productive  excavation  by  the  ma- 
chines. At  several  points  on  the  canal  the  upper  cuts  were  as 
great  as  90  ft.  By  excavating  the  grade  of  the  track  50  ft. 
above  canal  grade,  however,  the  upper  part  of  the  slope  was 
excavated  without  double  handling  of  the  material.  The  engi- 
neers state  that  the  machines  far  exceeded  the  expectations  of  the 
contractors  in  their  ability  to  dig  down  on  a  1^:1  slope  and  load 
the  bucket  to  capacity. 

The  material  excavated  varied  from  a  gravelly  loam  to  cemented 
gravel,  glacial  drift  and  sandstone,  and  the  topography  from  a 
level  prairie  to  a  steep,  rocky  hillside  with  transverse  slopes  of 
2^:1.  In  the  heaviest  material  blasting  was  resorted  to,  but  in 
several  instances  the  machines  have  dug  8  or  10  ft.  of  seamy  sand- 
stone without  the  use  of  explosives.  About  1,500,000  cu.  yd. 
of  excavation  has  been  handled  by  these  two  machines  in  two 
seasons,  and  costs  are  given  here  for  some  of  the  work,  showing 
the  nature  of  the  material  handled  and  the  working  conditions. 

Power  consumption  has  varied  from  0.8  to  3.0  kw.-hr.  per  cu. 
yd.  of  material  moved,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  material. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  obtain  record-breaking  outputs  for  the 
machines,  as  it  was  realized  that  with  frequent  moves,  rough 
topography  and  the  condition  imposed  of  placing  the  material  so 
as  to  produce  a  watertight  bank,  outputs  would  not  be  compar- 
able with  those  of  machines  working  in  a  large  pit  and  wasting 
the  material  or  loading  it  into  cars.  Outputs  of  1,450  cu.  yd. 
per  8-hr,  shift  and  32,000  cu.  yd.  per  shift  per  month  have, 
however,  been  obtained  under  the  above  conditions.  The  crew 
required  to  operate  a  machine  for  one  shift  has  been  one  operator 
at  from  $175  to  $200  a  month,  one  oiler  at  $2.50  a  day,  four  track- 
men at  from  $2  to  $2.50  a  day  and  one  team  to  move  track 
timbers,  etc.  Electrical  work  for  all  shifts  has  been  performed 
by  an  electrician  or  electrical  foreman  who  received  from  $150 
to  $175  a  month. 

Interest  on  investment  includes  all  charges  for  insurance,  bond 
premium  and  interest  on  cash  capital  required.  Preparatory  ex- 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       661 

pense  includes  all  charges  for  the  delivery  and  installation  of 
plant  and  accessories.  Plant  depreciation  includes  all  charges  for 
repairs  and  depreciation  of  tools  and  machinery.  Under  the 
classification  adopted  for  excavation,  class  1  includes  all  ma- 
terial that  can  be  plowed  to  a  depth  of  6  in.  with  six  animals 
of  1,400  Ib.  or  over,  and  boulders  of  less  than  2  cu.  ft.;  class  2 
includes  indurated  material  that  cannot  be  plowed  to  a  depth  of 
(3  in.  with  six  animals,  but  after  being  loosened  can  be  exca- 
vated by  teams  and  scrapers,  and  also  boulders  from  2  to  10  cu.  ft. 
in  size;  class  3  is  rock  in  place  not  included  in  classes  1  and  2, 

TABLE    I.    EXCAVATION    COSTS    IN    CENTS    PER    YARD    WITH 
MODEL  24  ELECTRIC  DRAGLINE  VALUED  AT  $36,326 

Class  1,  Class  2,  Class  3, 
333,689  23,319  39,045 
cu.  yd.  cu.  yd.  cu.  yd. 


Interest   on   investment    0.81 

Preparatory    expense    1.33 

Plant  depreciation    3.63 

Executive 0.89 

Labor    5.98 

Electric    power    0.73 

Supplies     1.13 

Miscellaneous     0.16 


1.21  2.25 
1.99     4      3.73 

5.41  10.12 

1.24  3.09 

7.85  21.03 

1.03  1.82 

1.67  6.72 


0.15 


0.29 


Total     14.66         20.55         49.05 


TABLE    II.    EXCAVATION    COSTS    IN    CENTS  PER   YARD    WITH 

MODEL   20   ELECTRIC   DRAGLINE    VALUED    AT  $20,957 

Class  1,  Class  2,  Class  3, 

410,747  4,180  9,546 

cu.  yd.  cu.  yd.  cu.  yd. 

Interest   on   investment    0.44  0.76  1.61 

Preparatory  expense   1.12  1.20  2.52 

Plant  depreciation    1.86  3.22  6.79 

Executive     0.71  1.31  3.14 

Labor 3.70  8.22  15.77 

Electric    power     0.78  V78  2.80 

Supplies     1.29  1.53  7.50 

Total    .,                                                     .     9.90  18.02  40.13 


Costs  for  the  Model  24  dragline  are  for  the  construction  of  2 
miles  of  canal  on  heavy  sidehill  and  %  mile  of  canal  entirely  in 
cut.  The  sections  excavated  were  from  12  to  22  ft.  in  bottom 
width  with  side  slopes  of  1:1  and  1^:1.  Costs  include  the  hand 
trimming  of  9,000  ft.  of  the  canal  for  placing  concrete  lining. 

Costs  for  the  Model  20  dragline  are  for  5  miles  of  canal  with 
22-ft.  bottom,  and  4  miles  of  canal  with  27-ft.  bottom.  Side 
slopes  in  both  cases  are  1^:1.  The  topography  was  rough,  rolling 
foothill  country,  with  the  surface  covered  with  large  boulders. 
About  25%  of  the  canal  was  wet  in  the  bottom  from  .springs. 


602  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Steam  and  Electric  Draglines  on  N.  Y.  Barge  Canal.'  Work 
done  011  Contract  42,  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  was  partly 
done  by  dragline  excavators.  According  to  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Sept.  28,  1910,  the  material  handled  consisted  largely  of 
black  gumbo,  near  Utica. 

The  following  data  show  the  costs  of  excavation  per  cubic 
yard  for  the  month  of  April,  1910.  These  costs  include  labor, 
repairs  and  distribution  of  field  office  expenses: 

Hey  worth-Newman  Excavator,  100-ft.  Boom;  2Ms  Yd.  Bucket: 

1  operator    $       4.00 

1  foreman    2.00 

5  laborers     7.50 

1  foreman,    average   $85    per    month 2.83 

1  pumpman     1.50 

1  oiler    2.00 

1  team  1  shift  a  day    4.50 

Total  cu.  yd.  for  April  23,192 

Total  cost  for  April  $1,983.84 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd $     0.085 

Hydraulic  Dredge  "Mohawk,"  12-in.  suction: 

1  captain,  per  month   $    150.00 

3  enginemen,  per  month  75.00 

3  levermen,   per   month    110.00 

1  mate,    per   month    120.00 

6  deckhands,  per  day  2.00 

3  firemen,    per   day    2.00 

8  laborers   or   pipemen,    per  day    1.60 

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated  15,557 

Total  cost    $1,726.30 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $     0.111 

Two  Lidgerwood   Excavators,   Electrically   Operated,   with  25   hp.   Motor  for 

Swinging  and  125  hp.  Motor  for  Hoist;  2y2  Yd.  Page  Bucket: 

1  operator,  per  day   $       4.00 

1  oiler,  per  day   2.00 

5  laborers,  per  day   1.50 

1  sloper,    per   day 

1  foreman,   $85   per   month 2.83 

1  electrician,   $125  per   month    4.17 

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated  Machine  No.  1   2,271 

Total   cost    $1,667.80 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $      0.735 

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated  by  Machine  No.  2 2,583 

Total   cost $    992.30 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $     0.384 

The  two  Lidgerwood  machines  worked  only  part  of  the  time 
during  this  month,  No.  1  working  13  days  and  No.  2  working 
10  days  during  the  month.  Both  were  engaged  in  moving  to  new 
positions  and  were  working  at  a  disadvantage.  The  yardage  for 
these  machines  should  be  about  the  same  as  for  a  Hey  worth- 
Newman  machine  under  similar  conditions.  The  difference  in 
daily  pay  roll  is,  however,  in  favor  of  the  electrically  driven  ma- 
chine. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS      C63 

The  electric  power  on  these  machines  costs  about  1  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  City  current  is  used  and  a  transformer  is  placed  at  con- 
venient points  along  the  line,  as  the  machine  moves  ahead. 

The  repairs  on  the  Hey  worth  machine  have  averaged,  approx- 
imately, $400  per  month.  The  highest  amount  charged  to  repairs 
for  any  one  month  is  $667. 

Another  machine  used  on  this  work  was  a  cableway  with  drag- 
line bucket.  It  consists  of  a  movable  tower,  located  on  one  side 
of  the  canal  with  a  cable  running  from  it  to  an  anchorage  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  canal.  The  drag  bucket  is  supported  by  and 
slides  up  and  down  this  cable.  It  is  pulled  back  and  forth  by  an 
endless  line.  'The  crew  and  costs  are  as  follows: 

1  operator,    per   d?y    $       4.00 

1  tiVeman,  $75  per  month,  per  day  2.50 

1  foreman  or  supt.,  $200  per  month,  per  day 6.67 

1  pumpman,  per  day 1.50 

6  laborers,   per  day    1.50 

Total  cu.  yd.  exca'vated   15,065 

Total   cost    , $1,455.81 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $     0.096 

This  tower  is  85  ft.  high  and  operates  a  1%-cu.  yd.  bucket  with 
a  10xl2-in.  hoisting  engine  and  40-hp.  boiler.  This  machine  is 
becoming  quite  popular  along  the  canal  because  of  its  adaptability 
and  its  moderate  cost. 

Steam  and  Electric  Draglines  on  Ditch  Work.  F.  N.  Cronkolm, 
in  Engineering  Record,  Dec.  26,  1914,  gives  the  following:  The 
operation  of  steam  and  electric  dragline  excavators  and  an  elec- 
trically-driven suction  dredge  are  described  and  costs  of  excava- 
tion given  for  the  Mindoka  Reclamation  Project,  Idaho. 

Five  excavators  were  in  service  on  the  project.  Two  steam 
dragline  machines  were  started  in  1910  and  1911.  A  small  suc- 
tion dredge  was  started  in  the  spring  of  1913  and  two  electric 
dragline  excavators  were  started  in  Sept.,  1913. 

Steam  Machines.  The  steam  dragline  machines  were  of  the 
ordinary  standard  type  and  were  built  on  the  project.  They 
have  revolving  frames,  rope-swing,  1-yd.  bucket  and  a  reach  from 
the  center  bearing  to  the  end  of  the  boom  of  58  ft.  The  machine 
was  mounted  on  rollers  supported  on  planks.  The  approximate 
cost  of  the  machine  was  $5,000. 

The  suction  dredge  was  also  built  on  the  project.  It  consisted 
of  a  boiler  and  an  engine  direct-connected  to  an  8-in.  centrifugal 
sand  pump,  mounted  on  a  10  x  30-ft.  scow.  The  40-ft.  discharge 
pipe  was  counterbalanced  by  a  weight  suspended  from  a  pole  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  boat.  The  material  was  discharged  back 
of  a  levee  built  along  the  line  of  the  proposed  construction.  The 


<j«4  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

end  of  the  suction  pipe  was  kept  on  the  center  line  of  the  drain, 
for  by  digging  from  1  to  1^  ft.  below  grade  the  sandy  soils  slough 
in  to  approximate  1^:1  slopes  and  have  the  required  bottom 
width.  The  machine  was  moved  forward  or  backward  and  held 
in  position  by  means  of  light  cable  controlled  by  drums  operated 
by  hand.  The  total  cost  of  the  machine  was  approximately 
$2,500. 

Electric  Machines.  The  two  electric  dragline  outfits  were  Model 
9i/£  Bucyrus  machines,  of  the  most  modern  type,  having  gear 
swing  and  caterpillar  traction.  The  total  reach  of  the  machine 
when  the  boom  is  in  digging  position  is  54  ft.  The  bucket  is  of 
1^4-cu.  yd.  capacity,  made  by  the  Page  Engineering  Company. 
It  is  like  the  buckets  used  on  the  steam  machines  except  that  it 
has  a  chain  in  place  of  a  stiff  bail. 

The  caterpillar  feature  was  a  decided  advantage  as  compared 
to  rollers  and  greased  skids.  The  data  secured  since  the  ma- 
chines started  show  a  saving  of  5%  of  the  digging  time,  besides 
eliminating  the  services  of  at  least  one  man.  The  desirable 
features  of  the  caterpillar  are  that  the  machine  can  be  propelled 
in  either  direction,  will  go  over  very  soft  or  rough  ground,  and 
may  be  turned  in  the  length  of  the  machine.  The  cost  of  each 
machine  complete  was  approximately  $13,800. 

Cost  of  Excavation.  The  cost  of  moving  675,000  cu.  yd.  with 
the  two  steam  machines  averaged  13.22  ct.  This  cost  was  for 
work  done  on  two  different  drains.  Although  each  machine  moved 
about  the  same  amount  of  material,  they  worked  under  entirely 
different  conditions,  resulting  in  an  average  for  one  machine  of 
11.06  ct.,  and  the  other  15.13  ct.  The  detailed  cost  of  the  average 
yardage  for  the  two  machines  per  cubic  yard  of  cross-section 
yardage  is  shown  in  Table  1. 

r  J..i  v^j 

TABLE  I.    UNIT  COSTS  WITH  THE  TWO  STEAM  MACHINES 

Labor  excavation   $0.0434 

Hauling  and  pumping  water   0.0123 

Hauling  and  handling  coal   0.0066 

Coal,  including  freight   0.0252 

Repairs,   labor 0.0017 

Repairs,   material   0.0051 

Cables     0.0034 

Carbide     0.0013 

Miscellaneous    supplies    0.0049 

Depreciation   in   machinery -°-01i1 

Engineering   and  administration    (15%)    0.0172 

Total  per  cu.  yd '. $0.1322 

In  order  to  compare  the  cost  of  the  steam  and  electrically  oper- 
ated machines,  the  lower  cost,  or  11.06  ct.,  will  be  used.  The  de- 
tails are  presented  in  Table  2. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       665 
TABLE    II.    LOWER   UNIT   COST   FOR   STEAM   MACHINES 


Labor  excavation    

Hauling  and  pumping  water  0.0102 

Hauling  and  handling  coal   0.0048 

Coal,  including  freight   0.0212 

Repairs  labor    0.0015 

Repairs   material    * 0.0037 

Cables 0.0027 

Carbide     0.0010 

Miscellaneous    supplies    0.0040 

Depreciation  on  machinery   0.0112 

Engineering   and  administration   (15%)    0.0143 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.1106 

The  average  cost  for  the  first  two  months'  operation  of  the  two 
electric  machines  was  7.1  ct.  Even  though  the  operators  were  in- 
experienced at  first  with  this  type  of  machine,  and  the  condi- 
tions were  slightly  more  difficult,  a  saving  of  36%  has  resulted, 
the  comparison  being  made  on  the  total  cost,  which  includes  de- 
preciation and  engineering  and  administration.  Aside  from  engi- 
neering and  administration  and  depreciation,  a  comparison  of 
the  costs  shows  a  saving  of  56%  in  favor  of  the  electric  machines. 
The  details  are  shown  in  Table  3. 

TABLE   III.    UNIT  COSTS  FOR  TWO  ELECTRIC  MACHINES 

Labor    excavation    $0.0204 

Electricity,   at  1  ct.  per  kw 0.0045 

Repairs,   labor    0.0001 

Repairs,  material  0.0004 

Steel   rope    0.0011 

Transmission  line,  at  6  ct.  per  ft 0.0078 

Miscellaneous    supplies    0.0035 

Depreciation  on  machinery 0.0240 

Engineering  and  administration   (15%)    0.0092 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.0710 

Table  4  shows  a  comparison  of  the  detailed  cost  in  a  condensed 
form. 

TABLE   IV.    COMPARISON   OF  COSTS  FOR   STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC 
MACHINES 

Steam.  Electric 

machine  machine  Saving 

Labor     .                                   .     $0.036  $0.0204  $0.0156 

Power     0.0372  0.0123  0.0249 

Miscellaneous    0.0119  0.0051  0.0068 

Depreciation     0.0112  0.0240  

Engineering    0.0143  0.0092 

Totals     $0.1106  $0.0710  $0.0483 

Depreciation  and  engineering  and  administration  are  based  on 
costs  and  yardages.  Further,  the  steam  machine  has  depreciation 


666  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

figured  at  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  and  the  electric  at  2  ct.,  and,  therefore, 
these  items  cannot  be  compared  on  the  two  machines. 

The  average  amount  of  electric  power  per  cubic  yard  of  cross- 
section  yardage  has  been  0.45  kw.  since  the  two  machines  started. 
The  average  amount  of  coal  per  cubic  yard  of  actual  yardage  was 
7.4  lb.,  or  8.1  Ib.  for  the  cross-section  yardage.  When  working 
under  exceptionally  good  conditions  in  easy  digging  the  pounds 
of  coal  per  cubic  yard  should  not  exceed  four;  yet,  this  depends 
largely  on  the  size  of  the  boiler.  Before  the  boilers  on  the  steam 
machines  were  replaced  with  others  of  35%  greater  capacity,  the 
average  amount  of  coal  per  cubic  yard  was  10  lb.  From  this 
will  be  seen  at  a  glance  the  importance  of  large  boiler  capacity. 

Transmission  Line  and  Suction  Dredge.  The  cost  for  electric 
line  construction  was  $875  a  mile. 

The  detailed  costs  on  the  suction  dredge  per  cubic  yard  of 
cross-section  yardage 'on  100,000  cu.  yd.  to  Nov.,  1913,  are  given 
in  Table  5. 

TABLE  V.    UNIT  COSTS  FOR  SUCTION  DREDGE 

Labor  excavation    $0.0567 

Hauling  and  handling  coal   0.0040 

Coal,  including  freight   0.0161 

Repairs,   labor    0.0027 

Repairs,  material   0.0030 

Cables    0.0004 

Carbide 0.0007 

Levee   construction 0.0086 

Miscellaneous    supplies 0.0062 

Depreciation  on  machinery 0.0200 

Engineering  and   administration    0.0178 

Total  per  cu.  yd. '....     $0.1362 

In  addition  to  keeping  detail  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  the  different 
machines,  a  record  is  also  kept  of  machine  efficiency,  which  shows 
the  percentage  of  digging  time  and  various  delays,  such  as  moving, 
repairs,  coating,  etc.  The  actual  yardage,  as  well  as  the  cross- 
section  yardage,  is  also  computed  in  order  to  determine  the  per- 
centage of  excess  yardage,  and  in  this  way  hold  the  operators 
nearer  the  required  section. 

Cost  of  Stripping  Coal  Beds  with  Electric  Dragline.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  June  19,  1918,  gives  the  following: 

Electrically-driven  dragline  excavators  were  used  for  stripping 
coal  beds  for  the  Locust  Mountain  Coal  Co.  at  Shenandoah,  Pa. 

The  stripping  is  done  from  14  to  30  ft.  deep.  The  rock  en- 
countered in  the  stripping  process  is  drilled  by  steam  drills  and 
shot.  In  one  position  with  this  dragline  it  is  possible  to  take  a 
cut  of  150  ft.  wide.  The  excavator  is  placed  directly  over  the 
vein  and  is  followed  by  a  steam  or  electric  shovel. 


METHODS  AND  COST  WITH  DRAGLINE  SCRAPERS       667 

With  electric  control  of  a  dragline  no  fireman  is  needed,  no 
coal  passer  and  no  pipeman.  Further,  there  is  no  water  pipe  to 
freeze  up  and  on  the  coldest  mornings?  no  delay  is  necessary  to 
start  the  stripping  operation,  it  being  merely  necessary  to  close 
the  main  line  switch  and  start  operation.  The  only  labor  which 
is  required  for  the  operation  of  this  machine  is  the  dragline  op- 
erator, an  oiler  and  a  few  men  in  the  pit. 

The  dragline  excavator  has  a  24-ft.  diameter  turntable,  a  150-hp. 
hoist  motor  and  a  75-hp.  swing  motor.  The  turntable  consists  of 
40  open-hearth  steel  rollers  revolving  between  two  90-lb.  rail  cir- 
cles, 24  ft.  in  diameter,  one  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  revolv- 
ing frame  and  one  to  the  top  of  the  base. 

The  main  machinery  is  driven  by  a  direct-geared  150-hp.  440- 
volt  Westinghouse  slip  ring  type  motor,  operating  at  a  speed  of 
565  r.p.m.  and  includes  two  drums,  one  of  which  winds  the  rope 
by  means  of  which  the  bucket  is  dragged  through  the  dirt  and 
the  other  operates  the  rope  by  means  of  which  the  bucket  is 
hoisted.  There  is  also  a  small  drum  for  the  purpose  of  manip- 
ulating the  rope  by  means  of  which  the  boom  is  lowered  and 
raised. 

The  swinging  machinery  is  operated  by  a  75-hp.,  440-volt  slip 
ring  motor,  driving  a  vertical  swinging  shaft  by  means  of  three 
gear  reductions.  A  pinion  on  the  vertical  shaft  engages  the 
swinging  rack  on  the  base.  The  bucket  used  had  a  capacity  of 
3y2  cu.  yd. 

Below  is  given  the  cost  of  stripping  256,710  cu.  yd.  during  the 
year  of  1915.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  net  cost  is  4.23  ct.  per 
cubic  yard. 

Classification  Labor  Material 

Excavator   crew    $1,463.50  $     82.26 

Pitmen    1,697.80  5.16 

Blasters    107.02  1,804.22 

Repair   and   maintenance    317.08  1,274.89 

Electric  repairs  and  maintenance   ...  318.64.  16.24 

Transmission   lines    74.56  7.60 

Power     2,038.26 

Foreman     339.16  2.25 

Clerk     40.50 

Hauling     36.73 

Miscellaneous    1,664.13  13.00 


Total    $6,059.12  $5,243.88 

Credit    to    labor    account    for    other 

work    .  427.25 


Net  cost  of  labor  $5,631.87 

Materials     .  5,243.88 


Total  net  cost    $10,875.75 

Net  cost  per  cu.  yd $0.042 

Cost  of  power  per  cu.  yd $0.008 


668       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Bibliography.  "  Excavating  Machinery,"  A.  B.  McDaniel. 
"Cost  Data,"  H.  P.  Gillette."  "Irrigation  Works  Constructed 
by  the  United  States  Government,"  Arthur  P.  Davis. 

"Excavating  Muskeg  Bogs  on  Winnipeg  Aqueduct,"  Engineer- 
ing News-Record,  April  19,  1917.  "  New  Self  Propelling  Dragline 
Excavator,"  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  19,  1916. 


-I 
Ij/ 
.  • 


CHAPTER  XV 
METHODS. AND  COST  OF  DREDGING 

Dredges.  The  term  "  dredge  "  is  loosely  applied.  In  this  book 
it  will  be  taken  to  include  only  machines  that  float  and  are  used 
for  excavating  under  water.  Of  these  there  are  four  principal 
types,  ( 1 )  The  bucket  or  grapple  dredge  consisting  of  a  crane 
mounted  on  a  barge  and  equipped  with  a  grab-bucket  (orange- 
peel  or  clam-shell),  or  more  rarely  with  a  scraper  bucket.  (2) 
The  dipper  or  steam  shovel  dredge,  a  floating  steam  shovel  evolved 
from  the  original  spoon  dredge.  (3)  The  elevator  or  ladder 
dredge,  which  is  fitted  with  a  bucket  conveyor.  This  type  is 
called  bucket  dredge  by  the  English.  (4)  The  hydraulic  or  suc- 
tion dredge  which  excavates  material  by  pumping. 

Dredges  may  also  be  classified  by  references  to  the  limitations 
under  which  they  work,  as  for  instance  sea-going  dredges,  deep- 
water  dredges,  canal-dredges,  etc. 

"  Land  Dredges  "  are  discussed  in  Chap.  XVII. 

Dredges  may  place  the  material  they  excavate  directly  on  the 
bank,  or  load  it  into  scows,  or  they  may  be  provided  with  hop- 
pers and  carry  their  material  to  sea.  The  sea-going  hopper 
dredge,  used  in  large  harbors  where  the  water  is  too  rough  for 
scows,  is  usually  of  the  ladder  type,  but  suction  dredges  are  also 
used  for  this  purpose. 

The  hulls  of  dredges  were  formerly  constructed  of  wood,  but  the 
use  of  steel  for  this  purpose  is  gradually  increasing. 

Capacities  of  Dredges.  The  comparative  capacity  of  dredges 
of  various  types  depends  upon  many  factors,  such  as  the  size  and 
model  of  the  dredge,  the  method  of  operating  it,  the  character 
of  the  material  to  be  excavated,  the  method  of  disposal  and  the 
many  local  conditions  that  may  affect  any  one  piece  of  work.  It 
is  therefore  impossible  to  state  with  precision  the  output  of  a 
given  type  of  dredge  unless  the  conditioning  factors  are  known. 
Mr.  Charles  Evan  Fowler,  in  his  book  "  Subaqueous  Foundations," 
gives  the  capacity  of  dredges  of  various  types,  Table  I.  He  states 
that  this  table  has  been  compiled  as  a  matter  of  judgment  from 
experience  gained  through  many  years  of  construction  and  the 
operation  of  all  kinds  of  dredges.  The  distances  for  towing  the 
material  and  discharging  it  ashore  are,  approximate.  The  ca- 
pacity is  that  of  a  24-hr,  operation  with  2  shifts. 

Cost  of  Dredge  Construction.  The  cost  of  constructing  a  dredge 
in  California  is  given  by  Robert  E.  Cranston  in  a  paper  published 
in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
for  February,  1912.  The  following  is  an  abstract  of  this  paper 
appearing  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Mar.  13,  1912: 

669 


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HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


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METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  671 

For  all  the  machinery,  including  motors,  pumps,  wire  rope,  elec- 
trical supplies,  etc.,  12}£  ct.  per  Ib.  delivered  on  the  ground;  for 
installing,  4%  ct.  per  Ib.,  or  a  total  of  17  ct.  per  Ib.  for  the  ma- 
chinery installed.  The  lumber  costs  about  $30  per  1,000  ft.  B.  M. 
at  Portland,  and  this,  together  with  freight,  bolts,  nails,  hog  rods, 
steel  plates,  oakum,  paint,  etc.,  will  make  the  hull  material  cost 
about  $50  per  1,000  ft.  of  lumber  used;  labor  of  building  costs 
about  $40  per  1,000  ft.,  giving  $90  per  1,000  ft.  as  a  total  cost  of 
the  completed  hull.  In  addition  the  direct  costs  chargeable  to 
hull  or  machinery,  insurance,  traveling,  superintendence,  camp 
equipment,  temporary  buildings,  shop,  derrick,  office  expense,  de- 
sign, etc.,  amount  to  between  $10,000  and  $25,000,  depending  on 
whether  new  designs  have  to  be  gotten  out,  what  construction 
tools  and  equipment  are  on  hand,  the  size  of  the  dredge,  and 
situation  of  the  ground  on  which  it  is  to  be  built.  For  a  com- 
plete dredge,  $180  per  ton,  on  a  basis  of  its  displacement,  is  a 
fair  average. 

Selecting  a  Dredge.  Engineering  Record,  Dec.  16,  1916,  prints 
an  article  by  Arthur  M.  Shaw,  which  is  here  given. 

In  approaching  a  dredging  job  of  any  magnitude  the  first  and 
most  important  problem  which  confronts  the  contractor  is  the 
selection  of  the  most  suitable  equipment.  The  best  guide  in  the 
selection  of  equipment  is  found  in  records  of  past  performances, 
though  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  good  results  have  been 
secured  in  individual  instances  by  nearly  every  -type  of  machine 
now  being  sold.  Certain  well-developed  types  of  dredges  will 
work  economically  under  a  considerable  range  of  conditions,  but 
there  is  no  one  machine  which  is  best  suited  to  all,  or  even  to 
most  conditions. 

This  discussion  of  various  types  of  equipment  and  the  power 
plants  used  to  operate  them  is  confined  principally  to  those  used 
in  the  reclamation  of  lands  in  the  lower  Mississippi  delta.  The 
types  considered  are  dipper  dredges,  orange-peel  and  clam-shell 
dredges,  hydraulic  dredges  and  drag-line  dred'ges. 

Dipper  Dredges.  Dipper  dredges  may  be  mounted  on  scows  or 
may  be  operated  on  land.  In  the  latter  case  they  are  supported 
on  car  wheels,  with  short  sections  of  portable  track,  on  broad- 
tread  wheels  for  running  on  planks  or  on  hard  ground,  on  rollers 
for  moving  on  planks,  or  on  caterpillar  treads,  or  are  rigged  as 
"  walking  dredges."  Wherever  it  is  practicable  to  secure  suffi- 
cient water  the  floating  dredge  is  usually  preferred,  as  the  ex- 
pense and  delays  incident  to  moving  ahead  as  the  work  progresses 
are  reduced  to  a  minimum  with  this  type.  On  isolated  work, 
requiring  frequent  tearing  down  and  rebuilding  of  a  floater,  the 
land  outfit  is  preferred. 


672  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Tearing  down  and  rebuilding  a  floating  dredge  is  a  tedious  and 
expensive  operation.  The  salvage  from  an  ordinary  wooden  hull 
is  usually  a  negligible  (and  frequently  a  minus)  quantity.  Some 
of  the  new  types  of  steel  hulls,  built  in  sections,  have  met  these 
objections  in  an  ingenious  manner  and  should  materially  increase 
the  field  of  operations  of  floating  dredges.  In  a  number  of  cases 
moderately  large  dredges  have  been  moved  intact  over  consider- 
able distances  across  land,  but  the  writer  has  yet  to  learn  of 
any  individual  owner  who  has  made  such  an  experiment  and  who 
is  ready  to  attempt  it  a  second  time. 

Vertical  and  Bank  Spuds  Compared.  The  greatest  variation 
in  the  details  of  floating  dipper  dredges  is  found  in  the  types 
of  spuds  used,  in  the  manner  of  raising  and  lowering  the  spuds 
and  in  "  pinning  up."  There  are  two  general  types  in  common 
use — the  vertical  and  the  bank  spuds.  Vertical  spuds  are  com- 
paratively simple,  are  adaptable  to  a  wide  range  of  depth  and 
are  independent  of  the  width  of  canal.  They  are  usually  raised 
and  lowered  by  independent  engines,  either  by  means  of  cables  or 
by  compound  gears  engaging  a  heavy  rack  which  is  attached  to 
the  spud.  Cables  are  now  quite  generally  preferred,  though  the 
rack  is  still  in  common  use  and  is  preferred  by  some.  Neither 
type  has  any  marked  advantage  in  the  matter  of  simplicity.  The 
cable  system  has  one  considerable  advantage  in  that  it  permits 
setting  the  engines  farther  aft,  where  they  can  be  more  easily 
attended  to  by  those  having  the  care  of  the  main  engines. 

The  power  for  raising  spuds  on  some  dredges  is  compounded 
by  means  of  worm  gears,  but  the  writer  considers  a  worm  gear 
a  necessary  evil,  to  be  tolerated  on  some  machines  but  never  on 
a  dredge. 

Bank  spuds  give  greater  stability  to  the  hull,  being,  as  their 
name  implies,  set  out  on  the  berm  or  bank.  They  permit  the  use 
of  a  much  longer  boom  on  a  dredge  of  given  width  than  is  pos- 
sible by  the  use  of  vertical  spuds.  On  some  machines  the  bank 
spuds  act  as  an  outboard  support,  the  strain  being  carried  to  the 
hull  by  a  well-braced  structure  acting  as  a  beam.  In  other  cases 
the  strain  is  transferred  direct  to  the  top  of  the  A-frame.  That 
portion  of  the  spud  which  rests  on  the  bank  is  in  the  form  of  a 
plank  platform,  and  for  work  in  soft  material  these  platforms  are 
extended  so  as  to  cover  a  considerable  area.  In  some  cases  these 
platforms  are  hinged  along  the  center  so  that  they  may  be  more 
easily  raised  out  of  sticky  material.  One  of  the  principal  objec- 
tions to  bank  spuds  is  that  they  often  crush  down  the  berm, 
inducing  slides  in  the  levee  or  waste  bank.  It  is  impracticable 
to  use  bank  spuds  in  wide  canals  or  open  water  of  any  consider- 
able depth. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  673 

Owing  to  the  powerful  thrust  of  the  dipper  acting  in  various 
directions,  the  rigid  bracing  of  spuds  and  fastening  of  all  spud 
connections,  whether  of  the  vertical  or  bank  type,  are  most  im- 
portant. 

Dipper  Dredge  Best  for  Hard  Digging.  Comparison  with  other 
types  of  dredges  is  most  favorable  to  the  dipper  type  when  work- 
ing in  hard,  compact  material  such  as  cemented  gravel  and  ledge 
rock.  It  is  usually  preferred  for  digging  through  heavily  tim- 
bered country,  especially  through  trees  having  large  tap  roots. 
Its  ability  to  bring  a  tremendous  amount  of  power  to  bear  at  a 
single  point  contributes  to  its  popularity  in  heavy  timber  work. 
Whenever  possible,  however,  all  large  stumps  should  be  loosened 
and  shattered  before  the  dredge  reaches  them. 

Hard  gravel  and  rock  should  be  blasted  ahead  of  the  dredge 
even  though  »it  may  be  possible  to  make  some  progress  without 
first  loosening  the  material.  Dipper  dredges  equipped  with 
crowding  engines  on  the  boom  and  with  special  teeth  on  the 
bucket  will  make  fair  progress  without  preliminary  blasting  in 
soft  limestone  rock  which  is  in  fairly  thin  layers.  It  will  usu- 
ally be  found  more  economical,  however,  to  do  some  preliminary 
blasting  in  all  such  material. 

Loss  of  time  frequently  occurs  in  the  use  of  a  dipper  dredge 
by  the  jamming  into  the  bucket  of  a  large  stump  or  boulder, 
though  a  skillful  operator  will  seldom  permit  this  to  occur. 

In  mucky  soils  dipper  dredges  often  disintegrate  the  material 
to  such  an  extent  that  much  of  it  is  carried  in  suspension  in  the 
canal  for  several  hours,  to  be  deposited  later  in  the  bed  of  the 
canal  and  materially  reduce  the  section.  In  the  very  soft  trem- 
bling prairies  of  southern  Louisiana  this  will  occur  to  a  certain 
extent  with  any  type  of  dredge,  but  is  most  noticeable  witli  dip- 
per and  dragline  machines,  which  require  a  long  movement  of  the 
bucket  in  filling. 

Grab-Bucket  Dredges.  Variations  in  mounting  and  methods  of 
moving  are  much  the  same  with  grab-bucket  dredges  as  with  the 
dipper  type.  Spuds  are  usually  cable-operated.  The  spuds  are 
used  as  anchors  only,  since  there  is  less  necessity  for  pinning 
up  a  dredge  with  this  class  of  machinery.  For  levee  construction 
and  other  classes  of  work  on  which  the  bulk  of  the  material  is 
to  be  dumped  to  one  side  of  the  excavation,  gravity  swing  out  ts 
are  preferred  on  account  of  their  simplicity,  low  first  cost  and 
economy  of  operation. 

Orange-peel  -and  chamshell  buckets  are  most  efficient  in  handling 
gravel,  sand  and  soft  material,  though  boulders,  pig  iron  and 
blasted  ledge  rock  are  handled  economically  by  the  larger,  three- 
bladed  orange-peels  of  extra-heavy  construction.  In  hard,  packed 


674  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

sand  the  clamshell  is  most  suitable,  as  it  gathers  its  load  by  the 
scraping  action  of  the  blades.  In  hard  digging  teeth  are  placed 
on  the  edges  of  cl.unshell  buckets  for  loosening  the  material. 
Though,  owing  to  the  large  number  of  wearing  parts,  repairs  are 
frequently  required  with  grab  buckets,  they  are  readily  made, 
usually  by  the  substitution  of  small  bushings  and  pins.  A  liberal 
supply  of  these  repair  parts  should  be  kept  in  stock.  It  is  usu- 
ally found  most  economical  to  keep  an  extra  bucket  on  hand  so 
that  at  least  one  may  be  in  perfect  condition  at  all  times. 

Orange-peel  buckets  are  preferred  to  clamshells  for  digging 
stumps,  widening  canals  and  other  work  where  it  is  necessary  for 
the  bucket  to  fill  on  irregular  surfaces  or  grab  hold  of  materials 
of  varying  density.  For  digging  stumps  other  than  those  having 
large  tap  roots  the  orange-peel  dredge  of  large  size  is  fully  equal 
to  any  other  type.  Its  ability  to  dig  on  all  sides  of  a  stump, 
tearing  loose  each  individual  main  root,  makes  up  for  its  lack 
of  the  great  lifting  and  shoving  power  of  the  dipper  dredge. 

While  not  well  adapted  to  digging  hard  sand,  the  orange-peel 
bucket  may  be  used  in  such  material  with  moderate  success  if 
properly  handled.  To  insure  economical  loading  the  bucket 
should  be  dropped  into  the  pit  in  a  partly  closed  position,  the 
blades  being  held  as  nearly  vertical  as  practicable.  After  drop- 
ping, the  closing  line  should  be  overhauled  slight!}'  and  released, 
repeating  this  operation  as  many  times  as  may  be  necessary  to 
load  the  bucket.  It  is  not  usually  feasible  to  secure  a  full  load 
by  this  method,  nor  is  this  desirable,  as  the  "  suction  "  in  such 
material  is  so  great  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  break  loose 
with  a  full  bucket  of  packed  sand. 

Though  careless  manipulation  of  dredges  of  any  type  when 
working  in  soft  muck  will  stir  up  the  material  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  will  a  dipper  dredge,  grab  buckets,  if  intelligently 
handled,  will  excavate  such  material  much  better  than  any  other 
bucket  dredge.  When  working  in  material  easily  carried  in  sus- 
pension by  the  water,  the  bucket  should  not  be  permitted  to 
bury  itself  in  the  bottom  of  the  canal,  but  should  be  held  by  the 
"  standing  line,"  so  that  it  will  load  with  only  such  material  as 
it  can  take  out  of  the  canal.  Overloading  and  consequent  drop- 
ping of  broken  material  back  into  the  water  is  the  cause  of  most 
of  the  loss  in  section  through  sedimentation  of  canals  dug  by 
grab  buckets.  In  cleaning  out  old  canals  which  have  become 
partly  filled  with  fine  oo/e  especial  care  is  necessary  to'  insure 
tight  closing  of  the  bucket.  In  the  tough  muck  and  Sharkey 
clay  which  are  typical  of  the  lower  Mississippi  delta  grab  buckets 
may  be  loaded  30  to  40%  beyond  their  rated  capacity  without 
danger  of  any  considerable  portion  of  the  load  dropping  off. 

'  i  'J'til- '!  ._n,t;-;:      j.'.I'i 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  675 

Grab-Bucket  Dredge  Could  Build  Levees.  Until  quite  recently 
most  of  the  river  levees  on  the  lower  Mississippi  were  built  by 
wheelbarrow  or  team  work.  These  methods  are  -now  largely 
superseded  by  land  dredges  and  by  tower  and  cable  rigs,  though 
a  few  floating  dredges  are  also  used.  As  the  material  for  build- 
ing these  levees  is  taken  from  the  river  side  and  land  equipment 
cannot  be  operated  excepting  during  moderately  low  stages  of  the 
river,  the  working  period  is  reduced  to  a  few  months  of  each 
year.  It  would  seem  as  if,  by  making  a  slight  modification  in  the 
specifications  for  the  construction  of  these  levees,  it  would  be 
possible  to  use  floating  dredges  with  extra-long  booms  for  a  large 
portion  of  such  work. 

Hydraulic  Dredges  Preferred  for  Filling  Low  Land.  Hydraulic 
dredges  are  often  preferred  for  interior  canal  construction  on 
account  of  their  ability  to  spread  the  excavated  material  over  a 
wide  area,  thus  avoiding  wasteful  and  unsightly  banks.  The 
preferred  method  in  cutting  new  canals  is  to  make  a  first  cut 
with  a  small  bucket  dredge,  dumping  the  material  in  about  equal 
quantities  on  each  side,  to  form  a  barrier  which  prevents  the 
•material  excavated  by  the  hydraulic  dredge  from  flowing  back  into 
the  canal.  In  other  cases  a  small  hand-built  levee  serves  the 
same  purpose.  A  levee  or  ridge  of  sod  2  ft.  in  height  will  usually 
retain  the  discharge  from  a  12-in.  hydraulic  dredge,  provided  the 
point  of  discharge  is  30  ft.  or  more  beyond  the  levee.  For  canals 
having  a  cross-section  much  in  excess  of  10.  cu.  yd.  per  lin.  ft., 
a  larger  levee  will  be  required. 

Suction  dredges  are  subject  to  delays  through  the  stoppage  of 
suction  pipes  and  pumps  from  grass  roots  and  other  debris. 
The  larger  sizes  are  seldom  troubled  by  anything  smaller  than 
stumps.  Nothing  less  than  a  10-in.  pump  should  be  used  for  work 
of  this  class  owing  to  frequent  stoppages  of  the  suction  line. 
Very  large  sizes  are  unsuitable  because  they  require  hulls  of 
too  large  a  size  for  small  canals.  A  12-in.  dredging  pump  with 
all  necessary  equipment  can  be  mounted  on  a"  barge  24  x  80  ft. 
which  will  be  found  suitable  for  digging  30  ft.  canals. 

Types  of  Cutter  Heads.  Rotary  cutter  heads  are  used  on  the 
suction  line  from  the  pump,  their  design  and  speed  of  rotation 
being  dictated  by  the  character  of  the  material  excavated.  In 
hard,  gravelly  material  a  rugged  cutter  head  is  required  which 
will  produce  the  maximum  agitation  of  the  material.  In  the 
muck  and  soft  clay  soils  of  the  lower  Mississippi  delta  a 
slicing  action  of  the  blades  secures  better  results,  especially 
if  combined  with  only  moderate  speed  of  rotation. 

For  the  excavation  of  narrow  canals  a  ladder  is  required  which 
is  flexible  in  all  directions,  as  the  space  is  too  limited  for  keep- 


C76  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ing  the  intake  to  its  work  by  swinging  the  hull.  The  swinging 
device  should  be  subject  to  the  easy  control  of  the  operator  in 
order  that  the  greatest  economy  of  operation  may  be  assured. 
The  effective  work  of  a  hydraulic  dredge  depends  to  a  great  ex- 
tent on  the  percentage  of  solids  discharged.  This  percentage  will 
drop  if  the  dredge  is  operated  carelessly,  or  if  it  is  not  equipped 
so  that  the  cutter-head  may  be  kept  close  up  to  the  work  and  so 
regulated  that  it  will  not  clog. 

Power. —  Heretofore  steam  power  has  been  used  almost  ex- 
clusively the  smaller  dredges  being  equipped  with  the  simplest 
type  of  slide-valve  hoisting  engines.  Hydraulic  dredges  have  usu- 
ally employed  a  better  grade  of  engine  in  their  main  power  unit. 

Great  difficulty  is  experienced  near  the  coast  in  securing  suit- 
able boiler-feed  water.  The  unlimited  use  of  raw  water  from  the 
canals  results  in  expensive  delays  and  repair  bills  through  the 
rapid  deterioration  of  boilers,  steam  piping  and  engines.  This 
trouble  is  reduced,  though  not  eliminated,  by  the  use  of  con- 
densers. A  dredge  equipped  with  a  complete  salt-water  outfit, 
including  condenser,  circulating  and  vacuum  pump  and  a  high- 
speed evaporator,  was  constructed  by  the  writer  in  one  instance 
for  use  in  waters  which  were  exceptionally  bad.  This  plant  has 
now  been  in  nearly  continuous  operation  for  three  years  with  no 
serious  delays  from  the  steam  end  of  the  outfit.  Although  the 
steam  auxiliaries  cost  nearly  the  same  as  the  boiler  •  itself,  it 
appears  by  comparing  the  operation  of  this  dredge  with  that  of 
others  operating  in  the  same  water,  but  not  similarly  equipped, 
that  the  extra  equipment  has  paid  for  itself  several  times  over. 

The  intermittent  but  frequently  excessive  demands  for  steam 
on  most  types  of  dredges  makes  it  necessary  that  an  ample  ca- 
pacity for  producing  dry  steam  should  be  provided.  Condensers, 
evaporators  and  steam  separators  are  an  aid,  but  nothing  will 
fully  make  up  for  a  deficiency  in  boiler  capacity.  Foaming,  due 
to  overcrowding  the  boilers,  especially  when  supplied  with  poor 
water,  reduces  the  available  power  of  engines,  carries  away  the 
lubrication  and  contributes  to  a  large  extent  to  engine  break- 
downs. 

Short  Stacks  a  Disadvantage.  Another  factor  in  limiting  the 
power  supply  is  curtailment  of  draft  through  the  unnecessary 
abbreviation  of  the  stack.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  average 
floating  dredge  should  not  carry  a  smokestack  more  nearly  ap- 
proximating the  length  established  as  good  practice  in  other  lines 
of  steam  engineering.  In  spite  of  this  fact  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  see  an  80  or  100-hp.  dredge  boiler  supplied  with  a  20-ft.  stack. 
The  design  of  the  stack,  however,  should  be  based  on  the  coal 
burned  per  hr.  rather  than  on  the  rated  horsepower  of  the  boiler, 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  677 

which  should  be  considerably  in  excess  of  the  theoretical  re- 
quirements. 

American  and  European  Practice  Compared  with  Regard  to 
Dredging.  The  practice  in  America  and  Europe  differs  con- 
siderably. In  Europe  permanent  plants  are  constructed  for  the 
gradual  execution  of  large  projects  and  this  makes  it  economical 
to  plan  work  along  the  ultimately  cheapest  line,  and  to  construct 
high  priced  plants  for  doing  the  best  work  in  the  most  efficient 
manner.  On  the  other  hand,  in  America  the  ordinary  short-time 
contract  of  small  size  compels  the  contractor  to  build  the  cheapest 
plant  that  will  do  the  particular  piece  of  work  in  hand.  How- 
ever, this  condition  in  America  is  rapidly  changing,  the  increased 
size  of  ocean  vessels  and  the  expansion  of  commerce  demanding 
larger  and  deeper  channels  and  better  harbor  facilities.  A  num- 
ber of  large  and  powerful  dredges  have  been  built  in  the  last 
decade. 

Government  Dredging  vs.  Contract  Dredging.  Engineering 
News,  Apr.  2,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

Lieut.-Col.  Harry  Taylor,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,  As- 
sistant to  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  Washington,  D.  C.,  has  com- 
piled the  following  data  in  regard  to  the  relative  costs  of  dredg- 
ing with  government-owned  plant  and  by  contract,  which  are 
published  in  the  Professional  Memoirs  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers 
for  March-April,  1914.  The  data  cover  the  fiscal  year  June, 
1912,  to  June,  1913,  and  are  essentially  as  follows: 

(a)  Government  dredges  excavated  during  the  year  a  total  of 
52,564,497  cu.  yd.  at  an  average  rate  of  7.2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.     This 
amount  of  material  was  divided  between  the  different  classes  of 
government    dredges    as    follows:     Hydraulic    pipe-line    dredges, 
21,351,780  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost  of  6.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.;    by  seagoing 
dredges,  27,502,996  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost  of  6.14  ct.  per  cu.  yd.;   by 
dipper  and  bucket  dredges,  3,709,721  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost  of  19.8  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  . 

( b )  Dredging  contracts  completed  during  the  year  or  in  force 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  included  a  total  excavation  of  181,873,125 
cu.  yd.  at  an  average  rate  of  14.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.     This  excavation 
was  divided  among  different  classes  of  dredges  as  follows:     Hy- 
draulic pipe-line  dredges,   101,518,980  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost  of  10.16 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.;  by  dipper  and  bucket  dredges,  80,354,145  cu.  yd. 
at  a  cost  of  19.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

In  the  cost  of  dredging  by  government  plant  there  is  included 
all  expenses  for  operation,  ordinary  and  extraordinary  repairs, 
surveys,  and  such  office  expenses  as  are  chargeable  to  dredging 
operations,  while  the  cost  of  the  contract  dredging  is  the  contract 
cost  only,  and  does  not  include  the  cost  of  government  inspection, 


078  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

surveys,  office  expenses,  etc.,  that  are  charged  against  the  gov- 
ernment plant. 

The  government  dredging  plant  comprises  22  seagoing  dredges, 
54  hydraulic  dredges,  40  dipper  dredges,  22  bucket  dredges  and 
the  necessary  equipment  of  tugs,  scows,  pontoons,  barges,  etc., 
representing  a  total  investment  of  $12,583,503.  Lieut.-Col.  Taylor 
concludes  that  the  saving  in  cost  had  the  government  dredged  the 
181,873,125  cu.  yd.,  which  were  let  by  contract,  would  have  paid 
for  all  the  dredging  equipment  at  present  owned  by  the  gov- 
ernment. 

[These  figures  are  not  to  be  taken  too  seriously.  They  do  not 
show  the  comparative  sizes  of  government  and  contract  jobs. 
Moreover,  interest  and  depreciation  (exclusive  of  repairs)  on  the 
government's  investment  are  not  stated  and  may  not  be  included. 
It  is  probable  that  were  the  government  to  call  for  bids  on  large, 
long-time  dredging  contracts,  the  contract  prices  would  be  below 
the  total  costs  with  government  dredges. —  The  Author.] 

Combined  Grab-Bucket  and  Dragline  Dredges.  A  locomotive 
crane  or  hoisting  engine  and  derrick  mounted  on  a  scow  makes 
a  serviceable  grab-bucket  dredge,  and,  if  properly  designed,  may 
also  be  used  as  a  dragline  excavator  (Fig.  1). 

(This  same  crane  also  is  used  with  a  dragline  bucket.) 

Stone  Grapplers.  These  are  specially  designed  grab-buckets 
for  use  in  lifting  rocks  and  boulders  from  the  bottom  of  rivers, 
for  ripping  out  crib  work  and  for  pulling  stumps  from  streams. 
Sizes  of  from  1  to  10  cu.  yd.  are  available. 

Proportions  of  Orange-Peel  Dredge.  The  following  table  il- 
lustrates the  ideas  of  Arthur  M.  Shaw,  previously  quoted,  as  to 
suitable  proportions  for  a  1^-yd.  orange-peel,  gravity-swing 
dredge  designed  for  a  given  reach  of  50  ft.  from  the  side  of  the 
excavation.  These  proportions  contemplate  setting  the  machinery 
down  in  the  hull. 

Width  of  hull   36  ft. 

Length  of  hull   80  ft. 

Depth  of  hull   6  ft. 

Length   of  boom    75  ft. 

Spread  of  main  drums   16  ft. 

Double-cylinder  main  engine  10  x  12  in. 

Boiler     80  hp. 

Diameter  of  stack  27  in. 

Height   of  stack    50  ft. 

Clamshell  Dredge  with  195-ft.  Boom.  Engineering  News,  Mar. 
1,  1917,  describes  a  clamshell  dredge  with  a  5-yd.  bucket  for  use 
in  building  levees  along  California  rivers.  The  boom  is  made  up 
of  three  lengths,  the  outer  section  20  by  22  in.,  and  the  other 
sections  22  x  22  in.  The  total  length  of  the  boom  was  195  ft. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING 


079 


680 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


It  is  trussed  vertically  and  laterally,  long  timber  spreaders  car- 
rying the  side  truss  rods.  To  take  care  of  the  list  of  the  dredge 
when  the  boom  swings  out  90°  from  the  center  line,  the  A-frame 
cap  is  51/2,  ft.  forward  of  the  pivot  point  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
boom  known  as  the  heel  casing.  When  the  boom  swings  at  right 


Fig.  2. 


Stone  Grappler  for  Use  on  Dredges.     Made  by  Theodore 
Smith  and  Sons,  Jersey  City,  New  Jersey. 


angles,  the  dredge  has  considerable  list,  and  this  offset  permits 
the  boom  to  swing  around  on  practically  a  level  plane.  If  the 
dredge  is  properly  balanced,  the  righting  of  the  dredge  when  the 
bucket  is  emptied  will  swing  the  boom  back  to  center  line.  This 
makes  rapid  handling  possible  even  with  so  long  a  fooom,  and 
gives  an  effective  machine  for  building  levees  of  material  exca- 
vated in  the  stream. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  68l 

A  "  Storage  Drum "  for  Dredge  Cable.  Engineering  A'm-s, 
Feb.  7,  1907,  gives  the  following: 

A  cable  drum  of  special  design,  invented  and  patented  by 
W.  S.  Edwards,  has  an  extension  of  about  800  ft.  of  cable  in  addi- 
tion to  the  200  ft.  working  length,  so  that  a  single  cable  1,000 
ft.  long  is  carried.  With  the  ordinary  arrangement  this  dredge 
would  have  a  hoisting  cable  about  180  ft.  long,  and  when  this 
is  broken  the  entire  cable  would  have  to  be  thrown  away.  As 
the  cable  usually  breaks  at  about  80  ft.  from  the  outer  end,  the 
remainder  is  then  too  short  for  further  use.  With  the  Edward 
"  storage  drum  "  only  about  80  or  90  ft.  of  the  outer  end  of  the 
cable  is  lost.  The  working  length  is  restored  by  paying  out  suffi- 
cient cable  from  the  storage  part  of  the  drum.  Since  cables  of 
this  kind  cost  about  $2  per  ft.  (cables  referred  to  are  2%  in. 
dipper  cables)  and  they  usually  break  in  less  than  a  month  and 
sometimes  in  less  than  a  week,  averaging  about  3  weeks  in  a 
season  of  30  weeks,  this  cable  storage  system  would  effect  a  sav- 
ing of  $2,000.00  in  cost  of  cable  alone,  for  ten  100-ft.  lengths  of 
cable  thrown  away.  In  addition  there  would  be  a  saving  of  about 
3  hr.  for  each  break  or  30  hr.  for  the  season.  At  $30  per.  hr. 
this  would  mean  $900.  Contractors  who  have  used  this  rig  say 
that  in  actual  use  it  has  saved  even  more  than  that.  The  total 
saving  of  cable  and  time  during  one  sesaon  being  about  $3,000. 

Cost  of  Clam-Shell  Dredging  at  Oakland,  Cal.  The  cost  of 
dredging  with  clam-shell  dredges  at  Oakland,  Cal.,  is  given  by  L. 
J.  Le  Conte  in  Transactions,  Institute  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  89 
(1887).  These  machines  were  unable  to  dig  clean  sand  success- 
fully and  in  hard  material  could  do  nothing.  The  plant  employed 
comprised  the  following: 

2  clam-shell  dredges    $40,000 

1  large  tug  boat   25,000 

4  dump    scov/s    20.000 

2  water-boats 3.000 


Total   plant    $88.000 

The  loaded  scows  were  towed  one  mile  to  the  dumping  ground. 
The  depth  excavated  was  24  ft.  The  material  was  soft  mud.  The 
cost  exclusive  of  interest,  depreciation,  insurance  and  taxes  was 
as  follows  for  two  dredges  operating  over  a  period  of  8  yr. : 

Salary  of  employees   $210,962 

Repairs     94,504 

Coal     , 81,725 

Ship  chandlery  and  water   32,851 

Miscellaneous,     including     docking     dredges,     tugs 

and   scows    2,637       •-> 


Total  for  8  years  $422,679 


682  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Number  of  cu.  yd.  dredged  5,603,401 

Number  of  hours  worked  31,670 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.,  ct 7.54 

Vacuum  Pump  and  Delivering  Dredge.  A  dredging  apparatus 
used  at  Far  Rockaway,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  was  described  in 
Engineering  'Sews,  June  13,  1895.  The  dredge  consisted  of  a 
large  rectangular  hull  with  two  derrick  towers  at  the  bow 
end,  each  one  of  which  handled  an  orange-peel  bucket.  The  equip- 
ment throughout  the  dredge  was  in  duplicate.  The  material  was 
dumped  into  hoppers  or  receivers  from  each  of  which  a  pipe  led 
to  the  pumping  apparatus.  This  apparatus  was  a  Hussey  pump 
practically  on  the  same  plan  as  the  old  Savary  pump  or  modern 
pulsometer,  the  suction  being  obtained  by  means  of  a  vacuum 
and  the  discharge  through  direct  steam  pressure.  The  plan  of 
working  was  as  follows:  When  the  hopper  was  filled  with 
sufficient  material  to  fill  the  pump,  a  vacuum  was  created  by  a 
water  supply  condensing  steam  in  a  chamber,  and  the  load  was 
driven  into  the  pump  by  the  pressure  of  the  outside  air.  Steam 
at  10  to  100-lb.  pressure  (according  to  the  height  of  lift  and  the 
length  of  the  discharge  pipe)  was  then  admitted.  This  forced  the 
material  through  the  shore  delivery  pipe.  Both  pumps  discharged 
into  the  same  pipe,  thus  keeping  the  column  moving  at  a  fairly 
constant  rate.  Both  the  Badger  and  Riker  pumps  worked  on  the 
same  plan,  but  discharged  the  material  into  chutes. 

At  Rockaway  the  orange-peel  buckets  were  from  4.5  to  6  cu.  yd. 
in  capacity.  The  hoisting  engine  had  a  cylinder  14x18  in.;  the 
vacuum  pump  has  a  28-in.  cylinder;  the  steam  pressure  was  18 
to  35  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  The  discharge  pipe  was  2,500  ft.  long. 
With  the  pump  making  1.5  to  2  strokes  per  min.,  in  material  con- 
sisting of.  70%  sand  and  gravel,  and  30%  mud,  500  cu.  yd.  per 
hr.  were  dredged.  The  apparatus  handled  large  stones  readily. 
The  material,  as  delivered  from  the  pipe,  was  50%  water  and 
50%  solid  matter. 

On  the  Massena  Canal  a  special  designed  dredge  of  somewhat 
similar  type  as  the  above  described  machine  was  used.  This 
dredge  was  equipped  with  rotary  cutters  and  disintegrating 
water  jets.  The  material  was  dredged  with  4-cu.  yd.  orange-peel 
buckets  dumping  into  hoppers,  and  thence  fed  to  centrifugal 
pumps.  John  Bogart,  in  Engineering  News,  Oct.  30,  1902,  stated 
that  these  machines  could  handle  the  softer  material,  as  a 
whole,  but  the  vacuum  method  of  transmission  was  a  failure,  the 
clay  forming  into  balls  in  the  hopper  instead  of  remaining  sus- 
pended in  the  water. 

While  clay  will  form  into  balls  in  centrifugal  dredges  it  will 
pass  through  the  pump  and  pipe  line. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  683 

Cost  in  Clay  with  a  Large  Clam-Shell  Dredge.  The  following 
is  given  by  Emile  Low  in  Engineering  Xews,  Oct.  11,  1906. 
The  Buffalo  breakwater  was  composed  in  part  of  a  rubble 
mound  resting  on  a  sand  foundation.  This  foundation  was 
dumped  from  scows  as  soon  as  possible  after  a  trench  had  been 
dredged  to  receive  it.  The  natural  material  composing  the  bot- 
tom of  the  harbor  was  chiefly  a  moderately  stiff  red  clay,  mixed 
with  some  blue  clay,  the  weight  in  general  being  about  3,300  Ib. 
per  cu.  yd.  Overlying  the  clay  was  a  layer  of  sand  1  or  2  ft. 
thick,  and  underlying  it,  next  to  the  bed  rock,  was  a  layer  of 
hard,  blue  clay,  mixed  with  broken  stone  or  gravel,  with  boulders 
in  places.  The  material  was  excavated  from  depths  up  to  70 
ft. 

The  dredge  built  for  excavating  this  trench  was  a  10-yd.  clam- 
shell dredge,  operated  by  an  18  x  24-in.  main  engine,  and  two  sec- 
ondary 10  x  12-in.  engines,  supplied  with  steam  from  two  boilers. 

The  dredged  material  was  transported  to  the  dumping  ground, 
10,000  ft.  distant,  in  1  hr.  6  min.  Three  steel  scows,  each  hold- 
ing an  average  of  400  cu.  yd.  were  used. 

During  the  season  (from  May  5  to  Oct.  16,  1899),  316,343 
cu.  yd.  scow  measure,  or  286,335  cu.  yd.  place  measure,  were 
dredged.  This  shows  an  increase  of  scow  over  place  measure  of 
10.48%.  The  crew  employed  and  their  monthly  wages  were  as 
follows : 

1  r  u  nner     $90 

1  second    runner    .'.... 35 

1  fireman    35 

1  deckhand    35 

1  greaser     .• 30 

1  watchman     30 

7  deckhands    at   $30    210 

1  cook     30 

1  cook's   helper    15 

Total   monthly   wages    $510 

The  work  began  at  5  A.  M.  and  ended  at  7  P.  M.  with  1  hr.  out 
for  two  meals,  leaving  a  net  working  day  of  13  hr.  For  working 
overtime  the  men  received  15  ct.  per  hr.  Subsistence  cost  $12 
per  month  per  man.  One-half  the  wages  of  the  superintendent 
or  $62.50  per  month  was  charged  to  dredging.  The  cost  of  fuel 
was  0.55  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  dredged. 

Pumping  of  dredges  and  scows  was  performed  by  a  steam 
siphon  rigged  up  on  an  old  dredge.  The  cost  per  month  was 
$40  for  1  man,  plus  $30  for  20  tons  of  coal  at  $1.50,  a  total  of 
$70. 

New  steel  cables  cost  $100  per  month ;  oil,  grease,  waste,  etc., 
$20;  blacksmith  shop,  $175;  hemp  lines,  cables,  etc.,  $40;  miscel- 


684  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

laneous  expenses,  $50;  yard  expense,  $100  per  month.  Range 
piles  and  buoys  cost  $256  for  the  season.  Small  tugs  with  coal, 
$20  per  day;  large  tugs,  coaled,  $25;  larger  tugs,  coaled,  $30 
per  day. 

The  approximate  value  of  the  plant  was  as  follows: 

Clam-shell    dredge    $60,000 

3  steel  dump  scows   32,000 


Total   plant    $92,000 

•      .  i*  O{f  j  ;  [•(..,»! 

The  annual  depreciation  at  10%  amounted  to  $0,200,  and  the 
annual  interest  at  6%  to  $5,520,  a  total  of  $14,720. 

The  cost  of  the  work  during  the  season  of  1899,  was  as  follows 
for  316,343  cu.  yd.  scow  measure. 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Superintendence     $0.001 

Wages     0.009 

Board    0.003 

Coal 0.005 

Towing,  tug  hire   0.018 

Syphoning     0.001 

Cables,   main,   steel    0.002 

Lines,   ropes,   etc.,  hemp    0.001 

Blacksmith    shop    0.003 

Yard  expenses   0.002 

Miscellaneous    expenses    0.001 

Range  piles  and  buoys   0.001 

Total  operating  charges   ($14,702)    $0.047 

Depreciation    and   interest    ($14,720)    0.046 

Total  cost   ($"9,422) ' $0.093 

The  above  does  not  include  overhead  expenses,  dockage,  heavy 
repairs  and  renewals,  insurance,  cost  of  getting  to  and  from 
the  work,  preparatory  expenses,  etc.  The  contract  price  was  18 
ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

During  the  five  months  of  the  season  of  139  working  days,  1,121 
hr.  were  actually  worked,  and  801  hr.  were  lost  on  account  of 
delays.  During  this  period  952  scows,  holding  an  average  of 
332.3  cu.  yd.  each,  were  loaded  in  the  average  time  of  1.18 
hr.  per  scow.  The  average  number  of  hr.  worked  per  day  was 
8;  the  average  ampunt  dredged  per  hr.  worked  was  282.1  cu.  yd., 
and  per  day  was  2,263  cu.  yd.  The  maximum  day's  work  was 
5,037  cu.  yd.,  and  the  maximum  hr.  work  was  438  cu.  yd. 

The  delays  were  as  follows: 

Hrs. 
Dredge :    Repairs     to    cables,     bucket,     engines,     boilers, 

frame  and  boom,  general  140 

Anchors   and   attachments    7 

Scows:   leaking,  repairs,  pumping,  delays,  tug  delays 59 

Rain,   fog,   sea    , , 322 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  685 

Moving  and  placing    68 

Meals     125 

Miscellaneous 37 

Holidays     43 


Cost  with  Clamshell  Dredges  at  Vicksburg.  H.  St.  L.  Copee 
gives  the  cost  of  dredging  in  Vicksburg  harbor  in  1888,  in  the 
discussion  of  a  paper  published  in  Transactions  American  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  31,  1894.  The  machine  used  was  a  clam- 
shell dredge.  The  daily  (2  shifts)  cost  of  the  work  was  as  fol- 
lows per  24  hr. : 

16  laborers  at  $30  per  month   $  16.00 

2  enginemen  at  $60  per  month  4.00 

2  captains  at  $125  per  month   8.25 

2  cooks  at  $45  per  month   3.00 


Dredge  total    $  31.25 

6  men  at  $30  per  month  $    6.00 

2  captains  at  $125  per  month  : 8.25 

2  cooks  at  $45  per  month   3.00 

2  engineers  at  $60  per  month   4.00 

Tug   total    $  21.25 

Subsisting  36  men   (including  2  inspectors)  at  50  ct...  18.00 

Coal  for  dredge  and  tug  (6  tons)    25.00 

Incidentals,    repairs    10.00 


53.00 
Total  per  24-hr,  day   $105.50 

The  average  monthly  output  was  55,529  cu.  yd.  (scow  measure) 
and  the  cost  5.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  This  cost  does  not  include  in- 
terest or  depreciation,  or  the  cost  of  getting  'the  dredge  to  the 
working  locality.  The  depth  of  water  was  35  ft.  The  material 
dredged  was  mud  and  silt.  The  dumping  ground  was  1^  miles 
distant. 

Low  Cost  with  an  Orange-Peel  Dredge.  According  to  a  letter 
of  A.  M.  Shaw,  Engineering  News,  Apr.  30,  1914,  the  following 
is  the  cost  of  operation  of  a  1^-cu.  yd.  orange-peel  dredge  during 
a  run  of  15X4  months. 

/^r 


$  6  458  64 

Fuel                                                  

4  776  09 

Main   hoisting  cables    

1  Oil  04 

2  184  19 

,     ...                        280  08 

Miscellaneous    suonlies    . 

357.36 

General  (includes  board  of  crew  and  operation  of  gasoline 

tenders,  etc.)  2,175.41 

Estimated  amount  of  supplies  used  in  above  time,  but  paid  for 

by  vouchers  of  following  month  (liberal  estimate)  1,200.00 

Total  operating  charge   $18,442.81 


686  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Miscellaneous  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Proportion  of  cost  of  running  main  office  and  engineering  force.  $  3,050.00 

Interest  on  cost  of  dredge  at  5% ; 1,080.00 

Depreciation  at  6%  1,300.00 

Depreciation   and   interest  on  house  boat,    fuel  barges   and   other 

auxiliaries     600.00 

Insurance  on  dredge  and  auxiliaries 528.00 


Total  miscellaneous  and  overhead   $  6,558.00 

Total   cost    $25,000.81 

Total  material  excavated,   cu.   yd 924,204 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $0.026 

The  material  excavated  was  unusually  well  suited  to  the  type 
of  dredge  used,  being  a  light-weight  muck  over  a  soft  clay.  Oc- 
casional sand  deposits  were  encountered,  but  these  formed  a  very 
small  percentage  of  the  work.  The  kind  of  material  accounts  for 
the  low  cost.  The  measurements  of  material  handled  were  taken 
in  excavation.  Operating  charges  were  from  actual  cost  records 
excepting  the  estimate  shown  on  the  last  item.  Wages  were  some- 
what lower  than  those  paid  in  most  Northern  states.  Oil  was 
used  for  fuel  until  the  cost  came  to  $1.25  per  bbl.  delivered,  when 
coal  was  substituted,  at  a  cost  of  about  $4  per  ton. 

Dredge  with  Dragline  Bucket.  In  1904  a  small  dredge 
equipped  with  a  derrick  for  handling  a  Page  dragline  scraper,  was 
used  to  excavate  compact  glacial  drift  from  under  water,  for 
filling  a  cofferdam  at  Green  Lake,  Wis.  The  material  consisted  of 
a  light  covering  of  sand  overlying  packed  marl,  clay,  gravel  and 
boulders.  A  centrifugal  pump  proved  a  complete  failure,  and  an- 
orange-peel  bucket  brought  up  only  30  Ib.  per  trip.  The  scraper 
bucket  handled  300  to  400  cu.  yd.  per  day.  The  hull  of  the  dredge 
was  42  x  28  x  2.5  ft.  in  size.  The  derrick  had  a  32-ft.  mast  and 
95-ft.  boom,  both  of  12  x  12-in.  pine.  The  power  equipment  com- 
prised two  engines  and  a  boiler. 

Dipper  Dredges.  Engineering  News,  May  14,  1903,  describes  the 
dipper  dredge  as  follows: 

A  dipper  dredge  is  really  a  scow-mounted  steam  shovel.  The 
machinery  is  usually  of  larger  size  than  that  used  for  work  on 
land,  the  dipper  handle  being  very  long  and  the  dipper  ranging 
in  size  from  %  to  15  cu.  yd.  This  type  of  machine  is  best  for 
general  purposes.  Dipper  dredges  are  comparatively  cheap  and 
simple  in  construction,  can  do  harder  and  heavier  work  than  the 
other  types  of  dredges,  and  can  deal  with  stumps,  roots,  and  other 
obstructions.  Hard  compact  material  such  as  glacial  drifts  can 
be  dug  because  of  the  positive  application  of  the  power  to  the 
penetration  of  the  bucket.  In  fact  this  type  of  dredge  is  the  only 
one  capable  of  handling  very  hard  material  such  as  cemented 
gravel  and  large  pieces  of  blasted  rock. 

The  dipper  dredge  possesses  one  great  advantage  over  the  other 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  687 


088  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

kinds  because  of  its  "  spuds."  Spuds  are  legs  of  heavy  timber 
(or,  sometimes,  steel)  which  are  raised  and  lowered  vertically, 
and  when  sunk  into  the  mud  provide  a  firm  anchorage  for  the 
hull.  The  boat  can  manoeuvre  on  its  spuds,  using  its  dipper  to 
pull  itself  into  any  desired  position,  and  consequently  it  does 
not  obstruct  traffic  with  anchor  lines.  It  can  push  its  scows 
about  with  its  dipper.  While  suited  best  to  comparatively  shal- 
low depths  it  can  dig  equally  well  to  the  full  reach  of  its  dipper 
or  can  cut  barely  enough  to  enable  it  to  float.  By  changing  the 
size  of  the  dipper  it  can  be  readily  converted  from  a  hard  material 
machine  to  a  soft  material  machine.  This  is  a  most  important 
consideration  to  contractors.  The  entire  machine  is  under  the 
control  of  one  leverman  and  the  necessary  crew  of  one  operator, 
one  cranesman,  2  or  3  deckhands  and  a  (i reman. 

Dipper  dredges  were  formerly  of  the  crane  type  but  are  now 
usually  of  the  boom  type.  The  average  size  of  dippers  generally 
used  is  about  6  cu.  yd.  The  largest  dredge  of  which  the  writers 
know  is  the  "  Onondaga  "  which  has  a  15-cu.  yd.  dipper,  a  hull  140 
x  50  x  15  ft.  in  size,  and  which  can  excavate  to  a  depth  of  50  ft. 

The  outputs  of  dipper  dredges  depend  naturally  upon  many 
factors,  chief  of  which  are  the  size  of  the  dredge,  the  depth  being 
excavated,  and  the  character  of  the  material.  On  the  Great  Lakes 
a  dredge  equipped  with  4.5  to  6-cu.  yd.  dipper  excavated  4,450 
cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  from  depths  of  20  ft.  loading  into  scows. 

Conditions  Favorable  to  the  Dipper  Dredge.  The  dipper  type 
of  gold  dredge  is  suited  to  conditions  where  the  ground  is  some- 
what shallow,  where  the  extent  of  ground  is  not  sufficient  to  war- 
rant a  costly  dredge,  where  the  material  is  of  somewhat  rough 
character  containing  boulders  and  stumps  and  where  the  ground 
contains  adhesive  clay  which  is  difficult  to  remove  from  elevator 
dredge  buckets. 

Cost  of  a  Dipper  Dredge.  The  main  dredge  ditch  of  a  swamp 
in  Ha.rney  County,  Oregon,  was  approximately  24  ft.  wide  and  8 
ft.  deep,  with  banks  sloping  at  1  to  1.  The  work  was  located 
far  from  railroads  and  mills,  lumber  having  to  be  hauled  60  miles, 
and  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  design  a  machine  the  materials 
and  machinery  for  which  could  be  conveyed  economically.  The 
ground  was  generally  swampy,  the  material  being  namely  a  peat 
soil  on  a  peaty,  loam  or  clay  sub-soil  with  pockets  of  cobbles  and 
gravel.  The  machine  determined  upon  for  the  work  was  a  dip- 
per dredge  with  a  1^4-yd.  dipper. 

This  dredge  had  a  hull  of  lumber  19x75x6  ft.  in  size.  The 
boiler  was  a  50-hp.  locomotive  type  boiler,  and  there  were  2 
engines,  10  x  12  in.  in  size,  for  operating  the  crane,  and  7  small 
auxiliary  engines  for  hoisting  spuds,  etc.  The  largest  single 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING 


680 


000  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

piece  was  the  boiler  which  weighed  7,000  11).  The  crane  was  han- 
dled in  three  parts  of  2.67  tons  each.  About  2i/£  months'  time 
was  required  to  construct  the  hull  and  barges.  The  cost  of  the 
plant  was  approximately  as  follows: 

Machinery  and  hull   $  9,750 

Quarter-boat,   2  wooden  scows,   etc 4,900 

Freight     2,100 

Hauling , 1,200 

Total  cost  of  plant   $17,950 

The  crew  consisted  of  I  engineman,  1  fireman,  2  deck  hands,  1 
cook  and  the  necessary  wood  choppers  and  teams  and  drivers  for 
supplying  fuel.  Sagebrush  and  dwarf  juniper  were  used  for  fuel. 
The  costs  of  obtaining  both  woods  were  approximately  the  same, 
but  the  labor  required  in  firing  the  sage  brush  was  twice  that 
necessary  for  the  juniper.  The  fetter  wood  had  an  efficiency 
greater  than  that  of  pine. 

Aligning  a  Dredge  in  a  Canal.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Feb.  13,  1907,  gives  the  following:  The  following  method  of 
aligning  a  dipper  dredge  used  in  swamp  reclamation  work  was 
employed  with  success.  A  permanent  back-sight  flag  was  set  on 
the  starboard  water  edge  of  the  canal,  and  two  permanent  fore- 
sight flags  were  set  at  the  end  of  the  proposed  tangent,  one  on 
the  right  and  the  other  on  the  left  of  the  proposed  water  edge. 
Two  3  x  12  in.  planks  extending  out  from  the  dredge  were  spiked 
to  the  port  and  star-board  gunwales  of  the  dredge  to  serve  as 
gages.  These  planks  were  located  directly  opposite  the  runner's 
levers  and  were  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  scow. 
A  series  of  numbers  was  painted  on  the  gages,  the  numbers  be- 
in^  so  arranged  that  the  distance  from  any  number  on  the  star- 
board, gage  to  the  corresponding  number  on  the  port  gage  equaled 
the  required  width  of  the  canal  at  the  water  line.  Before  the 
day's  dredging  commences,  the  runner  sets  up  a  temporary  flag 
back  of  the  starboard  gage,  and  in  range  with  the  starboard  back 
and  fore-sights.  After  each  move  of  the  dredge  the  runner  goes 
out  on  the  starboard  gage  until  he  comes  into  the  back-sight  range 
formed  by  the  temporary  flag.  He  then  faces  the  other  way  and 
spots  some  natural  object  upon  the  forward  cutting,  in  range 
with  the  forward  starboard  sight.  After  noticing  the  number 
that  he  is  standing  upon,  he  goes  to  the  port  gage  and  stands 
upon  the  number  corresponding  to  the  number  on  the  starboard 
gage.  After  selecting  some  natural  object  upon  the  forward  cut- 
ting range  with  the  forward  port  sight  he  returns  to  the  levers 
and  cuts  to  these  natural  objects. 

Erection  Costs  of  Steel  Knock-Down  Dredge.  Engineering 
News,  July  6,  1916,  gives  the  following: 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING 


691 


A  new  design  of  steel  dredge  was  recently  brought  out  by  the 
American  Steel  Dredge  Co.,  of  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.  It  is  of  the 
single-line  type.  The  improvements  pertain  to  the  so-called  struc- 
tural part  of  the  dredge  or  the  front  end,  embodying  the  dipper, 
dipper  handle,  boom  and  circle.  Dippers  in  general  use  are  of 
the  square  type,  but  the  one  on  this  dredge  is  made  with  an  ex- 
ceptionally wide  mouth  and  narrow  back.  The  shell  is  formed 
of  one  piece  of  flanged  steel  riveted  to  the  back  casting,  with  a 
flanged-steel  mouthpiece  and  lower  band. 

The  design  of  the  dipper  handle  is  unique  and  opens  another 
field  for  acetylene  welding.  Dipper  handles  in  common  use  are 


Fig.  5.     Dipper  Handle  Formed  of  Two  Rivetless  Steel  Boxes. 


of  wood  or  of  wood  armored  with  steel  plates  on  the  four  sides 
or  are  made  of  steel.  In  the  latter  instance  they  are  usually 
built  of  I-beams  reinforced  to  form  a  box  section.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  new '  handle  is  a  hollow-steel  box  section  devoid  of 
rivets.  The  box  is  formed  by  coping  the  flanges  of  two  channels, 
so  that  when  the  latter  are  placed  together  they  form  a  section 
of  the  proper  width.  The  flanges  are  then  welded  for  the  entire 
length  on  both  edges.  Two  of  these  box  sectiens  are  required 
for  each  handle.  The  racks  are  bolted  on  in  the  same  manner 
as  on  a  wooden  handle.  The  dipper-handle  foot  casting  is  put  in 
place  before  the  channels  are  welded,  so  that  when  this  is  done 
the  channels  contract,  resulting  in  a  tight  fit  on  the  casting. 

The  dredge  has  a  sectional  hull,  built  entirely  of  flat  steel  sec- 
tions of  convenient  sizes  for  easy  handling.  A  complete  hull 
80x20  ft.  in  plan  by  6  ft.  deep  can  be  loaded  on  one  flat-car. 
The  tabulation  that  follows  gives  the  cost  of  transporting  and 
erecting  one  of  the  new  machines.  The  figures  were  furnished 
the  manufacturer  by  the  contractor  and  are  for  one  of  the  new 
dredges,  equipped  with  a  1^-yd.  dipper  and  50-ft.  boom,  used 
on  a  large  drainage  district  in  Arkansas, 


692 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Fig.   6.     "  American "   Steel   Dredge  with   Bank    Spuds. 

Transporting  Steel  Hull 

Hull     weighing    88,000    lb.,    arrived    on    job.    Oct.    22; 
hauled  to  bank  on  Oct.  23  and  24 

60  man-hours   @   20  ct 

110  man-hours    @    17y2  ct 

20  hours  for  foreman    

Two  days'  teaming  


Total  transporting  hull 


Erecting  and  Launching  the  Hull 

Erection  began  Oct.  26;   completed  Nov.  4   (work  de- 
layed 1%  days  by  hull  grounding) 

275  man-hours  @   20  ct 

424  man-hours    @    17%   ct 

90  man-hours   @  12%  ct 


Total  erecting  hull 


$  55.00 
74.20 
11.25 

$140.45 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING 

Hauling  Machinery 

Machinery    arrived   on   two  cars    Oct.   29;    hauled   to 
dredge  Oct.  30  to  Nov.  4 

50  man-hours   @  20  ct $  10.00 

110  man-hours  @   17  ct 18.70 

30  hours  for  foreman    13.20 


693 


Total   hauling   machinery 


41.90 


Began  Nov.  5; 


Installing  Machinery 
completed  Nov.  27 


480  man-hours   @   20  ct  .................................     $  96.00 

170  man-hours    @    12%   ct  ..............................        21.25 


603  man-hours  @   17M>  ct 


105.52 


Total    installing   machinery    $222.77 

Total  cost  of  erecting  dredge    $464.17 

Dredging  with  Steam-Shovel  Mounted  on  a  Hull.  Engineering 
Neu-s,  Jan.  18,  1917,  gives  the  following: 

On  canal  clean-up  work  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  the  Pennsyl\iania 
R.  R.  is  using  the  machinery  of  a  small  revolving  steam  shovel 
mounted  on  a  wooden  hull.  The  boom  and  dipper  handle  are 


Fig.  7.     How  the  Spuds  on  a  Floating  Shovel  are  Operated. 

especially  long,  making  it  possible  to  dig  to  a  depth  of  9  ft.  be- 
low water  and  dump  material  28  ft.  from  the  centerline  of  the 
boat  and  6  ft.  above  water.  The  hull  is  40  x  18i/£  ft.  in  plan  by 
4i£  ft.  deep.  The  outfit  is  efficient  for  digging  small  ditches  or 
for  dredging  shallow  streams.  It  is  cheaper  to  build  than  a  reg- 
ular dredge  for  the  same  service  and  is  cheaper  to  operate.  The 
shovel  used  is  of  the  Osgood  18  type. 


694  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  truck  frame  of  the  shovel  —  axle  and  axle  bearings  re- 
moved—  is  bolted  to  the  hull.  The  heavy  end-plate  is  bolted 
both  to  the  shovel  frame  and  (by  means  of  an  extension  plate) 
to  the  hull. 

The  special  parts  required  to  build  this  outfit  are  the  spuds, 
spud  machinery,  backing  drum  at  the  foot  of  the  boom,  and  the 
hull  upon  which  the  machinery  is  mounted.  The  general  arrange- 
ment is  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

To  move  the  dredge  forward:  First,  the  dipper  is  placed  far 
ahead;  next,  the  hull  is  floated  by  raising  the  spuds;  then,  by 
starting  the  boom  engines,  the  hull  is  caused  to  move  toward 
the  dipper.  The  spuds  are  then  dropped,  thus  anchoring  the  hull, 
when  the  dredge  is  again  ready  to  excavate. 

Costs  of  Dredgework  on  the  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  May  31,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

The  costs  of  dredging  are  taken  from  the  monthly  report  for 
February  on  a  section  of  the  Los  Angeles  aqueduct  through  the 
Owens  Valley.  The  dredge  consists  of  a  scow  on  which  is  mounted 
a  No.  60  Marion  electric  shovel  with  a  iy2  cu.  yd.  dipper.  The 
cost  of  the  dredge  was  $19,897  and  was  built  according  to  the 
specifications  of  the  aqueduct  engineers.  The  yardage  is  based 
upon  the  theoretical  section  of  the  aqueduct  or  14.81  cu.  yd.  per 
lin.  ft.  This  is  exceeded  a  small  amount  by  excess  cutting.  The 
following  are  the  data  for  February: 

Men  —  number  days  459 

Live  stock  —  number  days 68 

Lineal  feet   t  2,625 

Cubic  yards   38,876 

Labor    costs    $1,618.34 

Live  stock  costs  61.20 

Cost  materials  and  supplies   122.07 

Power  cost   418.30 

Freight  cost   24.41 

Total   costs    $2,244.32 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $0.0565 

The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  the  month  figures  5.65  ct.,  but  the  unit 
cost  given  for  the  work  of  the  dredge  to  date  is  6.7  ct. 

A  Steam  Shovel  Dredge.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec. 
25,  1907,  gives  the  following:  A  steam  shovel  mounted  upon  a 
barge  was  used  in  securing  gravel  from  the  beds  of  streams  for 
ballasting  purposes.  The  gravel  was  obtained  from  streams 
which  contained  very  little  water  during  nine  months  of  the 
year.  The  barge  used  cost  about  $1,000  and  had  a  deck  20x50 
ft.  Upon  this  was  securely  mounted  on  a  track  a  steam  shovel 
weighing  78,000  Ib.  and  having  a  dipper  capacity  of  1^  cu.  yd. 
The  barge  drew  2^  ft.  of  water.  In  excavating  the  gravel,  the 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  695 

steam  shovel  was  run  forward  on  its  track,  the  bow  of  the  barge 
sinking  and  practically  resting  on  the  bottom,  although  for 
safety  four  10  x  10-in.  spuds  at  the  corners  of  the  barge  were 
used  to  hold  the  barge  stationary.  The  gravel  was  loaded  into 
cars  on  a  temporary  track  alongside  the  bank.  When  the  gravel 
within  reach  of  the  dipper  had  been  exhausted,  the  shovel  was 
moved  back  on  the  track,  the  bow  of  the  barge  rising.  The 
barge  was  then  advanced  and  again  secured  by  spuds.  The  cost 
of  securing  the  gravel  was  about  4  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Hydraulic  Jet  Equipment  for  Leveling  Spoil  Banks.  Chester 
B.  Loomis,  in  Engineering  News,  July  31,  1913,  gives  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  dipper  dredge  built  especially  for  cleaning  a  part  of  the 
channel  for  the  Los  Angeles  River  and  for  building  levees.  The 
special  feature  of  the  equipment  was  the  hydraulic  giant  for  level- 
ing the  spoil  banks. 

This  dredge  was  equipped  with  a  1^-yd.  bucket,  x55-ft.  boom, 
and  a  dipper  handle  of  such  length  as  to  enable  it  to  dredge  10 
ft.  below  the  water  surface.  The  hull  was  of  steel  75  x  32  x  6  ft. 
in  size,  strongly  braced  longitudinally  and  transversely  with 
bulkheads  and  braces.  The  hull  proved  very  satisfactory  and 
was  lower  -in  cost  than  a  wooden  hull.  It  was  erected  and  bolted 
together  in  the  shop,  the  parts  were  then  marked,  dismantled 
and  shipped  knocked  down  by  wagons.  The  entire  hull  was 
riveted  together  in  10  days  by  8  men  and  1  foreman. 

The  standard  equipment  of  this  dredge  comprised  an  8  x  10-in. 
hoisting  engine,  a  6  x  7-in.  swining  engine,  three  12-in.  drums  and 
spud  hoists,  and  a  boiler  working  at  125  Ib.  pressure.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  regular  machinery  a  second  locomotive  boiler  and  a 
compound  duplex  steam  pump,  9}4  x  10  x  12  in.  in  size,  were  in- 
stalled. This  pump  supplied  water  to  2  hydraulic  giants  each 
mounted  near  the  bow. 

The  method  of  carrying  out  the  work  was  as  follows:  Brush 
was  cut  in  advance  of  the  dredge  and  piled  on  each  side  of  the  line 
of  the  cut  and  about  10  ft.  back  from  it.  The  channel  being  80 
ft.  wide  it  was  found  more  economical  to  have  the  day  shift 
make  a  cut  half  the  width  of  the  channel,  piling  the  material  on 
one  side  of  the  brush.  After  making  a  cut  and  when  the  dredge 
was  moved  ahead  for  the  next  cut,  the  sluicing  pump  was  started 
and  a  jet  was  played  on  the  spoil  bank.  As  the  bank  was  di- 
rectly opposite  the  giant,  the  water  jet  was  very  effective  and  it 
was  found  that  the  bank  could  be  cut  down  into  a  levee  about  7 
ft.  high,  with  a  top  about  10  ft.  wide,  in  about  one-half  the  time 
it  took  to  excavate  it  with  the  dipper.  At  the  end  of  the  day  the 
dredge  was  moved  back  so  that  the  night  shift  could  start  the 
dredge  on  the  part  yet  unexcavated,  the  same  method  of  sluicing 


690  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

being  employed.  The  spoil  was  largely  sandy  loam  and  silt  with 
occasional  clay  and  washed  very  easily.  Stumps  were  washed 
back  or  buried  by  undermining.  Water  pressure  at  30  to  35 
Ib.  per  sq.  in.  was  most  elective. 

The  Cost  of  Dipper  Dredge.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May 
29,  1912,  gives  the  following  notes  on  the  cost  of  dredging,  ab- 
stracted from  a  report  by  B.  F.  Powell,  Engineer  for  the  Fort 
Lyon  Canal  Co.,  at  Las  Animas,  Colo. 

The  dredge  was  built  under  the  supervision  of  the  Marion 
Steam  Shovel  Co.  Work  on  it  was  commenced  April  3  and  the 
hull  was  completed  and  launched  on  May  26,  1911.  The  boilers 
were  steamed  up  on  June  5  and  used  from  that  time  on  to  furnish 
power  for  erecting  the  balance  of  the  machinery.  The  fifteen-day 
test  was  begun  on  July  1,  when  it  was  demonstrated  that  the 
dredge  would  excavate  its  estimated  yardage. 

The  hull  of  the  dredge  is  100  x  41  x  8  ft.  and  required  135,000  ft. 
B.  M.  of  lumber.  It  has  two  120-hp.  boilers,  one  double  10  x  12-in. 
hoisting  engine,  a  double  8  x  10-in.  swinging  engine,  an  80-ft.  boom 
and  a  2^-yd.  bucket.  The  amount  of  work  accomplished  by  the 
dredge  in  the  soft  material  in  which  it  worked,  was: 

Cu.  yd. 

July     74,000 

August  and  September  130,000 

October     71,750 


Total    ." "...     275,750 

The  cost  of  operation  as  given  for  the  month  .of  October  was 
3.15  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  dimensions  of  the  irrigating  and  storage  canal  now  being 
completed,  are  120  ft.  on  top  and  100  ft.  on  the  bottom  for  the 
first  two  miles  from  the  head  gate;  for  the  next  mile  the  width 
is  20  ft.  less  and  after  the  third  mile  the  width  is  again  reduced 
20  ft.,  making  the  bottom  width  60  ft.,  with  1:1  slopes.  The 
depth  is  10  ft. 

The  cost  of  the  dredge  and  operating  expense  for  one  season 
were : 

Materials : 

Dredge  equipment    $14,932.00 

Extra  boiler  1,600.00 

Electric  light  plant   500.00 

Freight    413.96 

Tools     250.00 

Extra    machinery    571.17 

Boiler   flues    236.80 

Oakum    4.50 

Steel  and  castings   427.70 

Wire  rope 510.75 

Oil    317.27 

Coal  and  hauling 2,896.68 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  697 

Hardware    1,880.22 

Groceries  and  camp  supplies  1,611.45 

Lumber 5,033.27 


Total    materials    $31,185.77 

Labor : 

Constructor    $      584.70 

Foreman 984.02 

Cook     155.00 

Dredge    runner    722.83 

Labor 1,717.03 

Carpenters     1,232.05 

Hauling    404.45 

Sundry  expenses,    materials,    teams,    labor    2,818.33 

Total  labor   $8,619.31 

Total,   labor  and  material   $39,804.08 

The  above  table  shows  the  cost  of  the  dredge,  its  construc- 
tion and  its  operation  until  the  end  of  the  season,  Nov.  1,  1911,  as 
shown  by  the  company's  books.  If  we  multiply  the  yardage 
excavated  by  about  4  ct.  (the  cost  of  operation)  and  deduct  this 
amount,  $11,030,  from  the  total  shown  in  the  table  the  result 
should  give  the  cost  of  the  dredge  ready  for  operation.  This  is 
$28,774. 

Cost  with  Dipper  Dredge  on  the  Massena  Canal.  The  cost  of 
dredging  on  the  Massena  Canal  is  given  by  John  Bogart  in  a 
paper  read  before  the  International  Navigation  Congress  (see 
Eng.  News,,  Oct.  30,  1902). 

For  excavating  indurated  clay  and  boulders  that  could  not  be 
handled  by  a  centrifugal  dredge  nor  an  orange-peel  dredge,  a 
dipper  dredge  with  a  2}£-yd.  dipper  was  used.  This  machine  ex- 
cavated from  depths  as  great  as  20  ft.,  loading  into  scows.  Two 
scows  were  employed,  each  having  a  capacity  of  140  cu.  yd.  The 
dredge  excavated  an  average  of  754  ci*.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day  for  183 
days.  The  loaded  scows  were  towed  during  the  day  5,500  ft.  to 
the  dumping  grounds. 

The  cost  of  the  dredge,  scows  and  tug  was  $43,000.  In  the 
tabulation  following  repairs  and  renewals  are  estimated  at  10% 
per  annum  and  interest  at  4%  per  annum,  the  daily  cost  being 
figured  on  the  basis  of  the  actual  number  of  days,  212,  worked 
per  year. 

The  cost  was  as  follows: 

Per  day 

Labor,  supervision,  coal,  supplies   $30.56 

Interest,    repairs,    renewals    28.80 

Care  during  winter 1.00 

Total    daily    $60.36 

This  is  equal  to  a  cost  of  8  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


698  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

A  1^-yd.  dipper  dredge  worked  one  season,  the  unit  cost  of 
dredging  being  8  ct.  Dredging  with  a  6-cu.  yd.  dipper  dredge 
also  cost  practically  the  same. 

It  should  be  noted  that  dredges  can  not  ordinarily  be  ex- 
pected to  average  212  days  worked  each  year. 

Cost  with  a  Small  Dipper  Dredge,  Florida.  The  cost  of  dredg- 
ing mud  and  sand  at  Manatee  River,  Florida,  during  August  and 
September,  1887,  is  given  by  W.  M.  Black  on  p.  38  of  "  The 
United  States  Public  Works."  The  depth  dredged  was  8  ft.;  the 
depth  of  cut  was  2  to  4  ft.  The  average  distance  to  the  dumping 
grounds  was  3.5  mi.  The  plant  employed  consisted  of  1  dipper 
dredge,  2  tugs,  and  dump-scows.  The  time  occupied  was  48  days, 
of  which  25  days  were  worked. 

The  working  time  was  consumed  as  follows: 

Dredge    working    100.1  hr. 

Dredge  idle,  waiting  for  tug  89.5     " 

Dredge   idle,    repairing   machinery    3.2     ' 

Dredge  idle,  shifting  and  moving  57.5     ' 

Dredge  idle,  pumping  scows  17.2     " 


25  days  at  10.7  hr.  each  267.5  hr. 

The   total    amount    dredged    was    15,302    cu.    yd.,    the    amount 
dredged  per  working  day  being  612  cu.  yd. 

Dredge:  48  working  days  Per  cu.  yd. 

Captain  at  $125  per  month,  plus  $15  board  $0.015 

Engineman  at  $60  per  month   0.008 

Crew  of  7  men  at  $30  per  month  0.033 

Tug:  48  working  days 

Captain  at  $90  per  month,  plus  $15  board  0.011 

Engineman  at  $60  per  month   0.008 

2  firemen  at  $30  per  month   0.010 

2  deck  hands  at  $30  per  month  0.010 

Tug:  28  working  days 

Captain  at  $90  per  month  0.006 

2  enginemen  at  $60  per  month  0.009 

2  firemen  at  $30  per  month  0.005 

2  deck  hands  at  $30  per  month  0.005 

Materials : 

Wood  for  dredge,  7  cords  daily  at  $3  for  31  days 0.043 

Wood  for  tug,  4  cords  daily  at  $3  for  37  days 0.029 

Wood  -for  tug,  5  cords  daily  at  $3  for  24  days 0.024 

5  guide  piles  at  $5. 

Dredge,   interest,   depreciation  and  repairs    0.106 

Tug,  interest,   depreciation  and  repairs   0.011 

Tug,  interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  0.008 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.341 

Dredging  a  Canal  on  the  Florida  Coast.     George  P.  Miles  gives 
a  description  in  Engineering  News,  Apr.  25,  1904,  of  the  methods 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  699 

used  in  excavating  canals  that  connected  lagoons  along  the 
Florida  coast.  At  first  elevator  bucket  dredges  were  used,  but 
these  were  soon  abandoned,  owing  to  the  constant  wear  on  the 
links  connecting  the  buckets.  In  a  personal  letter  to  the  author, 
Mr.  Miles  states  that  the  Florida  sand  cut  the  links  of  the  bucket- 
ladder  so  rapidly  as  to  cause  numerous  delays.  Furthermore,  the 
cost  of  repairing  dredges  in  Florida  is  larger  than  in  a  country 
where  machine  shops  and  manufacturing  facilities  are  at  hand. 
Although  duplicate  parts  were  kept  in  stock,  the  repair  costs 
were  very  high,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  statement  of  operation 
expenses  given  later.  Clamshell,  suction  and  dipper  dredges  were 
also  tried,  the  last  two  being  most  effective.  Osgood  dipper 
dredges  for  hard  ground  and  suction  dredges  for  shoals  of  recent 
formation  were  found  most  efficient. 

In  dredging  soft  mud  with  dippers  the  mud  would  slide  so 
badly  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  attach  a  long  chute  to  the 
A-frame  of  the  dredger,  and  to  dump  into  the  chute.  The  ma- 
terial would  spread  over  the  adjacent  marshes  in  a  thin  layer. 

Dredges  on  the  Chicago  Canal.  The  material  on  Sections  0  of 
the  Chicago  canal  was  excavated  mainly  by  steam  dipper  dredges, 
loading  into  scows  that  were  towed  out  to  Lake  Michigan  and 
there  dumped.  A  description  of  the  work  is  given  by  Mr.  Alex. 
E.  Kastl  in  Journal,  Association  of  Engineering  Societies,  vol.  14, 
April,  1895,  from  which  the  following  data  have  been  abstracted: 

The  largest  number  of  dredges  employed  at  any  one  time  was 
five,  of  which  four  worked  steadily  from  May  15  to  December  27, 
1894.  During  this  period  400,262  cu.  yd.  were  dredged;  the 
average  output  per  10-hr,  shift  per  dredge  was  606  cu.  yd.,  and 
the  average  scow  load  was  184  cu.  yd.  The  largest  average  out- 
put per  10-hr,  shift  per  dredge  in  any  month  was  870  eu.  yd.,  and 
the  least  was  330  cu.  yd.;  the  latter  low  output  being  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  dredges  were  mainly  engaged  in  finishing  the  bot- 
tom and  the  side  slopes.  The  largest  average  scow  load  was  230 
cu.  yd.,  and  the  least  was  140.  The  largest  amount  excavated 
by  any  one  dredge  in  10  hr.  was  1,800  cu.  yd.  The  dredges  varied 
in  size,  but  all  had  hulls  about  90  x  32  x  9  ft.,  2^  to  3^-cu.  yd. 
dippers,  and  burned  2y2  to  3^  tons  of  coal  per  10  hr. 

10-yd.  Dredges  on  the  Cape  Cod  Canal,  Mass.  Two  very  power- 
ful dredges  constructed  for  excavating  the  Cape  Cod  Canal  during 
1912  are  described  in  Engineer-ing  News,  Feb.  19,  1914  These 
machines  were  10-cu.  yd.  dipper  dredges.  The  hulls  were  of 
steel,  135  ft.  long,  42  ft.  beam,  and  10  to  12  ft.  deep.  The 
crowding  engine  was  a  12xl5-in  double  cylinder,  and  the  main 
engine  an  18-x  24-in.  double  cylinder  engine.  The  dipper  handles 
were  70  ft.  long,  enabling  the  dredge  to  dig  in  40  ft.  of  water. 


700  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  dredges  began  excavation  Sept.  1,  1912.  Slight  progress 
was  made  during  the  fall,  the  working  out  of  defective  parts  caus- 
ing frequent  stoppage.  In  January,  1913,  the  excavation  of  the 
two  dredges  amounted  to  about  32,000  cu.  yd.  per  dredge  per 
month.  The  dredges  were  subjected  to  two  months  of  repairs 
and  changes,  were  returned  to  the  Canal  in  March,  1913,  and 
began  working  continuously  three  8-hr,  shifts  per  day.  Each 
then  averaged  very  nearly  100,000  cu.  yd.  place  measure  per 
month.  In  June  and  July,  1913,  the  "  Governor  Herrick  "  exca- 
vated 120,000  and  131,000  cu.  yd.  place  measure. 

The  season's  performance  by  the  "  Governor  Warfield "  was 
more  uniform.  The  output  increased  from  50,000  cu.  yd.  per 
month  to  110,000  cu.  yd.  in  July,  and  was  maintained  at  a  rate 
of  120,000  cu.  yd.  per  month  throughout  August  and  September, 
1913.  The  material  was  sand. 

Cost  of  Dredging  on  the  N.  Y.  Barge  Canal.  A  description 
of  some  performances  of  dipper  dredges  on  the  New  York  State 
Barge  Canal  is  given  by  Emile  Low  in  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Apr.  29,  1914. 

The  contract  in  general  provided  but  one  price  for  all  excava- 
tion, a  lump  sum  for  each  cubic  yard  of  material  excavated  of 
every  name  and  nature;  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  classify  the 
materials  excavated. 

Contract  No.  19  is  prism  excavation  in  Tonawanda  Creek. 
This  included  about  2,842,000  cu.  yd.  of  sand,  gravel,  clay,  etc., 
which  was  let  at  the  contract  price  of  17.5  ct.  Among  the  vari- 
ous machines  working  on  this  contract  was  a  dipper  dredge,  the 
"Buffalo,"  with  a  hull  86  ft.  long,  29.5  ft.  wide,  arid  8  ft.  high. 
This  hull  was  constructed  of  the  best  grade  of  long-leaf,  yellow 
pine.  The  main  engine  was  a  12.5  by  15-irx,  double  cylinder. 
The  swinging  engine  was  a  10  by  10-in.,  double  cylinder.  The 
boiler  was  of  the  Scotch  marine  type,  8.3  ft.  in  diameter  and 
10  ft.  long.  The  pinning  up  engine  was  7%  by  7-in.,  double 
cylinder.  The  dredge  was  equipped  with  a  2.5-cu.  yd.  hard-dig- 
ging dipper,  and  a  3.25-cu.  yd.  soft-digging  dipper.  It  could 
excavate  to  a  depth  of  23  ft.  below  water.  The  cost  of  the 
machine  was  about  $35,000. 

The  work  of  the  dipper  dredge  at  the  start  was  mainly  exca- 
vation of  the  prism,  the  material  being  deposited  in  dump  scows, 
towed  to  points  near  the  shore,  dumped  and  redredged  by  two 
clam-shell  dredges,  with  booms  of  80  and  100  ft.  respectively, 
the  dumped  material  being  then  rehandled  into  spoil  banks. 
Later  on  the  dipper  dredge  was  rebuilt  and  was  used  to  dredge 
the  hard  material,  encountered  on  the  bottom  of  the  prism,  which 
in  time  verged  close  to  hard  sand.  This  hard  material  was 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  701 

dumped  in  various  places  along  the  creek,  and  was  later  handled 
by  the  hydraulic  dredge  "  Niagara."  The  following  tabulations 
show  the  output  of  the  dipper  dredge  for  a  number  of  years: 

Year  Cu.  yd. 

1908  132,687 

1909  28,100 

1910  81,873 

1911  '  30,500 

1912  168,192 

Total  441,352 

The  following  gives  the  month  cost  of  labor  for  running  the 
dredge  for  a  double  shift  of  16  hours: 

1  captain    $    !5Z-59 

1  runner     

2  cranemen    at   $106.50    

2  oilers    at    $77.50    

2  firemen  at  $77.50    

4  deckhands    at    $67.50    

4  scowmen   at  $67.50    

1  watchman     

1  blacksmith     

Total  monthly   cost    $1,493.00 

As  the  average  monthly  output  of  the  dredge  was  only  about 
10,000  cu.  yd.,  and  as  the  contract  price  was  17.5  ct.,  amounting 
to  about  $1,750  per  month,  it  is  apparent  that  this  price  barely 
covered  the  expense  of  wages  and  coal. 

Blasting  a  Pit  for  a  Dipper  Dredge.  F.  W.  Wilson,  in  En- 
gineering News,  gives  the  following:  Two  large  ditches  were  to 
be  dug  in  New  Madrid  .County,  Missouri.  The  contractor  owned 
two  dipper  dredges,  but  there  was  no  basin  in  which  to  float  a 
dredge  in  order  to  start  the  ditching.  A  pit  was  required  136  x 
50  x  6  ft.  deep.  It  was  decided  that  this  could  be  formed  quickest 
by  blasting.  The  hole  was  shot  by  a  professional  dynamiter. 

Bore  holes  were  put  down,  running  the  length  of  the  proposed 
pit,  in  eleven  parallel  rows  3  ft.  apart.  The  holes  in  the  middle 
row  were  each  loaded  with  2y2  Ib.  of  dynamite.  The  holes  in 
the  two  rows  on  either  side  of  the  middle  line  were  spaced  15  in. 
apart  in  the  row  and  each  loaded  with  2  Ib.  of  dynamite;  the 
holes  in  the  next  two  rows  were  loaded  and  spaced  the  same 
way.  The  spacing  between  holes  in  the  next  two  rows  was  2,y2 
ft.  and  the  loading  iy2  Ib.  per  hole;  in  the  next  two  rows  the 
holes  were  2  ft.  apart,  and  each  was  loaded  with  1  Ib.  The 
holes  in  the  two  outsida  rows  were  spaced  18  in.  apart  and  loaded 
with  y2  lb-  each.  In  all,  950  Ib.  of  dynamite  was  used. 

The  result  of  the  shot  was  a  pit  43  ft.  wide,  136  ft.  long  and 
7  ft.  deep  in  the  center,  with  an  average  depth  of  3^  ft.,  with 


702  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  exception  of  one  spot  where  a  large  cypress  stump  had  stood 
and  which  caused  the  dirt  to  pile  up.  The  blaster  claims  that 
he  did  not  want  to  blast  the  pit  in  one  shot,  but  the  contractor 
wanted  it  done  that  way  and  so  he  acquiesced.  The  blaster's 
idea  was  to  blast  out  two  pits  and  then  shoot  out  the  division. 
By  this  method  much  less  earth  would  have  fallen  back  into  the 
excavation. 

Operation  of  15-yd.  Dredges  on  the  Isthmian  Canal.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Oct.  17,  1917,  gives  the  following:  In  the 
early  part  of  1914  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  began  operat- 
ing two  15-cu.  yd.  dipper  dredges  on  the  completion  of  the  chan- 
nel through  the  Gaillard  Cut  of  the  Panama  Canal.  These 
dredges  —  the  Gamboa  and  Paraiso  —  were  built  by  the  Bucyrus 
Co.,  the  total  cost  including  the  towing  to  the  Isthmus,  being 
$573,287.  The  dredges  operated  so  efficiently  that  the  Commis- 
sion placed  another  contract  with  the  BUcyrus  Co.  for  a  third 
dredge,  of  improved  design,  the  Cascadas.  The  dredge  was  placed 
at  work  in  Gaillard  Cut  on  Oct.  31,  1915,  at  a  total  cost  of 
$376,180.  An  interesting  study  of  the  design,  operation  and 
efficiency  of  these  dredges  was  given  by  Mr.  Ray  W.  Berdeau  in  a 
paper  presented  Sept.  19,  before  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers,  from  which  the  matter  in  this  article  is  abstracted. 

The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions,  etc.,  of  the  Gam- 
boa  and  Paraiso: 

Length  of  hull   144  ft.  0  in. 

Beam,    moulded 44  ft.  0  in. 

Depth,   moulded    13  ft.  6  in. 

Draft     8  ft.  0  in. 

Digging  depth,  below  water  line  50  ft.  0  in. 

Displacement     1,730  tons 

One  main  engine,  two  cylinders,  compound,  16  by  28  by  24  in. 
One  swinging  engine,  two  cylinders,  compound,  12  by  16  in. 
One  backing  engine,  two  cylinders,   compound,  12  by  16  in. 
Two  forward  spud  engines,  two  cylinders,  compound,  12  by  16  in. 
One  stern  spud  engine,  two  cylinders,  9  by  9  in. 
Two  deck  winches,  two  cylinders,  6  by  6  in. 

Two  boilers,   Scotch  marine  type,  126  in.  diameter,  138  in.  long,  water  pres- 
sure, 150  Ib. 

Two  forward  spuds,  48  by  48  in.,  and  82  ft.  long. 
One  stern  spud,  30  by  30  in.,  and  83  ft.  6  in.  long. 
Swing  circle,  24  ft.  in  diameter. 
Bail  pull,   235,000  Ib. 

Hoisting  pull  on  spud  rope  due  to  engine,  88,000  Ib. 
"  Pin  up  "  pull  on  single  cable,  with  brake  on  engine,  160,000  Ib. 
Capacity  of  rock  dipper,  10  cu.  yd. 
Capacity  of  mud  dipper,  15  cu.  yd. 
Capacity  of  fuel  oil  tanks,  14,200  gal. 

The  displacement  of  the  Cascadas  is  2,095  tons,  and  the  hull 
is  144  ft.  long,  55  ft.  beam,  and  15^  ft.  deep.  Thus,  it  is  11  ft. 
wider  than  the  others,  making  less  reactions  on  the  spuds,  less 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  703 

metacentric  variation  when  digging  over  the  sides,  and  it  allows 
the  spuds  to  be  inset.  The  spud-well  construction  differs  from 
that  of  the  Gamboa  and  Paraiso,  as  their  forward  spuds  are 
placed  outside  the  hull,  with  tapering  sponsons  fore  and  aft 
to  transmit  the  reactions  to  the  sides  of  the  hull. 

The  dredges  were  supplied  with  interchangeable  buckets  of 
two  sizes,  one  with  a  capacity  of  15  cu.  yd.  and  another  of  10 
cu.  yd.,  for  use  in  rock  excavation.  Having  been  placed  in 
Gaillard  Cut  in  rock  digging  exclusively,  the  larger  dippers  have 
been  seldom  used;  the  smaller  ones,  as  supplied  by  the  con- 
tractors, were  of  extra  massive  construction,  but  were  of  insuffi- 
cient strength  to  withstand  the  severe  use  and  the  impact  from 
a  dipper  stick  load  of  131,000  lb.,  and  were  replaced  later  by 
the  Missabe  type  of  cast  manganese-steel  dippers.  The  over-all 
dimensions  of  the  new  dipper  are  Wy2  by  9  by  9  ft.;  the  lips 
are  314  in.  thick  at  the  bottom  bands,  and  the  body  consists  of  a 
iront  and  back  casting  with  lap-riveted  joints  at  the  sides;  and, 
in  addition,  the  lip  is  a  separate  casting  riveted  to  the  front 
piece  and  joined  thereto  by  the  rivets  of  the  tooth  ribs. 

All  three  dredges  have  been  working  until  recently  in  Gaillard 
Cut  of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  material  excavated  consisted  of 
hard  and  soft  rock,  to  depth  of  from  35  to  47  ft.  The  accom- 
panying costs  include  operation,  that  is,  wages  of  crew,  subsist- 
ence of  crew,  fuel  and  lubricants,  maintenance,  that  is,  the  cost 
of  keeping  the  equipment  in  first-class  physical  condition,  and 
maintenance  only.  Extra  heavy  10-yd.  manganese-steel  dippers 
were  used  on  this  work,  the  dredges  working  continuously  in 
three  8-hr,  shifts. 

YARDAGE  EXCAVATED  BY  FISCAL  YEARS 
July  1,   1913,  to  July  1,  1914 

Cu.  yd.         Per  cu.  yd. 

Gamboa     1,825,122  $0.1278 

Paraiso    69,812  0.2931 

Cascadas     , .  

July  1,   1914,  to  July  1,  1915 

Cu.  yd.  Per  cu.  yd. 

Gamboa     1,825,1^2  $0.1278 

Paraiso      1,739,228  0.1313 

Cascadas     

July  1,   1915,  to  July  1,   1916 

Cu.  yd.  Per  cu.  yd. 

Gamboa     3,097,226  $0.0731 

Paraiso      3,004,104  0.0769 

Cascadas     2,400,492  0.0651 

July  1,  1916,  to  Oct.  1,  1916 

Cu.  yd.  Per  cu.  yd. 

Gamboa     599,575  $0.0713 

Paraiso      818,095  0.0658 

Cascadas     666,656  0.0742 


704  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

World's  Dredging  Record  at  Culebra.  According  to  'Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  May  3,  1916,  from  midnight  to  midnight 
on  Feb.  18,  1916,  the  15-cu.  yd.  dipper  dredge  "  Cascadas,"  work- 
ing in  Gaillard  (Culebra)  Cut,  Panama  Canal,  excavated  23,305 
cu.  yd.  of  rock  and  earth.  This  is  believed  to  be  the  world's 
record. 

The  actual  working  time  of  the  "  Cascadas  "  having  been  23 
hr.  and  15  min.  during  the  record  day,  the  rate  of  output  was 
slightly  over  1,002  cu.  yd.  an  hr.  This  is  about  1,500  tons  an  hr. 
or  25  tons  a  min.  The  "  Cascadas  "  was  built  by  the  Bucyrus 
Co.,  South  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  and  of  her  record  the  Canal  Record 
says:  The  15-yd.  dipper  dredge,  "Cascadas,"  was  placed  in  com- 
mission on  Oct.  31,  1915,  and  was  in  the  cut  continuously  until 
March  20,  when  she  was  brought  to  the  repair  dock  at  Paraiso  for 
renewing  the  starboard  spud.  During  that  time,  slightly  over  4^ 
months,  the  "  Cascadas "  excavated  1,447,946  cu.  yd.  and  was 
delayed  by  breakdowns  77  hr.  and  35  min.  Her  average  excava- 
tion was  466  cu.  yd.  per  hr.,  over  a  working  period  of  3,104  hr. 
The  dredge  was  engaged  throughout  in  excavating  rock.  The 
loss  of  time  from  breakdowns  was  only  2.44%  of  the  total  work- 
ing time. 

Ladder  Dredges.  Ladder  Dredges  are  known  as  bucket-elevator 
dredges,  chain-bucket  dredges,  endless-bucket  dredges,  conveyor- 
,  bucket  dredges,  etc.  This  type  of  dredge  is  a  favorite  abroad, 
but  in  America  it  is  confined  mainly  to.  canal  work  and  to  gold 
dredging.  The  comparatively  rare  use  of  this  type  of  machine 
is  due  to  the  relatively  high  first-cost  and  the  larger  crew  re- 
quired, as  well  as  the  fact  that  other  types  of  dredges  are  suited 
to  work  of  more  widely  varying  nature.  The  introduction  of 
special  steels  has  reduced  the  wear  on  such  working  parts  as 
chains  and  buckets,  to  a  large  extent,  making  this  type  of  dredge 
one  of  the  most  efficient  for  work  of  large  extent,  except  where 
the  material  is  of  an  extremely  abrasive  nature.  (See  the  fore 
part  of  this  chapter  for  a  description  of  the  difficulties  en- 
countered wfien  using  elevator  dredges  in  Florida.) 

As  the  name  of  this  dredge  implies,  it  has  an  endless  chain 
of  buckets  which  cut  into  and  scoop  up  the  material,  and  elevate 
it  to  the  top  of  the  ladder  on  which  the  line  of  buckets  travels. 
There  the  material  is  delivered  to  an  inclined  chute  or  a  travelling 
belt  conveyor.  The  earliest  forms  of  these  dredges  had  chutes 
inclined  1  in  10  for  clay  and  1  in  20  for  fine  sand,  but  long 
chutes  became  clogged.  On  the  earlier  work  on  the  Panama 
Canal  auxiliary  jets  of  water  had  to  be  provided  to  keep  the 
chutes  clean.  Wet  clay  will  slide  down  chute  inclined  1  in  5 
to  1  in  3,  if  the  material  is  comparatively  free  from  sand.  Wet 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  705 

sand  will  not  slide  down  an  incline  of  even  1  in  2  without  a 
free  flow  of  water.  According  to  J.  J.  Webster,  when  the  volume 
of  solid  is  diluted  with  2  or  3  times  its  volume  of  water,  the 
best  angles  for  chutes  are  as  follows:  for  soft  mud  1  in  10;  for 
soft  clay  1  in  12  to  16;  for  fine  sand  and  water  1  in  25.  On 
the  Suez  Canal  work  it  was  found  that  when  fine  sand  was 
mixed  with  equal  quantities  of  water  it  would  flow  down  a  slope 
in  1  in  25. 

The  modern  bucket-elevator  dredge  has  an  endless  belt  conveyor 
instead  of  an  inclined  chute,  which  reduces  the  height  to  which 
the  material  must  be  raised  and  delivers  it  with  the  certainty  of 
not  becoming  clogged. 

The  output  of  a  bucket-elevator  dredge  depends  on  the  capa- 
city, and  quantity  of  the  buckets,  the  mode  of  power  transmis- 
sion from  the  engine  to  the  dredging  apparatus,  the  size  of 
dredge,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  operating  and  the  local  con- 
ditions such  as  the  character  of  the  soil. 

Mr.  J.  J.  Webster  in  1887  read  a  paper  before  the  Institute  of 
Civil  Engineers  (England)  in  which  the  gave  the  following 
formula,  based  upon  actual  tests. 

Hp.=  0.04TVH  for  stiff  clay;  hp.=  0.026  T  V  H  for  soft 
mud;  hp.  being  the  indicated  horsepower  required  to  excavate  and 
raise  T  tons  per  hr.  to  a  height  of  H  ft.  Where  T  =  450  and 
H  =  40,  he  found  hp.=  98  in  one  case,  or  1  hp.  excavated  nearly 
4.5  tons  per  hr.  In  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  1886-7,  A.  W.  Robinson,  the  well-known 
designer  of  dredges,  gives  a  paper  on  bucket  elevator  dredges  in 
which  he  says  that  certain  indicator  cards  showed  that  1  hp. 
would  excavate  5  to  9  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  on  a  bucket  elevator  dredge, 
both  working  in  the  same  kind  of  tolerably  yielding  material  in 
water  32  ft.  deep.  If  we  assume  a  total  lift  of  40  ft.  1  hp. 
should  raise  16i£  cu.  yd.  (3,000  Ib.  per  cu.  yd.)  of  earth  per  hr., 
if  there  were  no  loss  in  friction  of  machinery,' no  dead  weight  of 
buckets  and  water  to  lift  and  no  force  consumed  in  loosening  the 
material. 

The  bucket  elevator  dredge  is  used  almost  exclusively  where 
gold  bearing  gravel  is  excavated.  It  is  claimed  that  the  dipper 
dredge  stirs  up  the  gravel  to  such  an  extent  that  the  gold 
settles  and  escapes;  and  further  losses  of  gold  occur  through 
the  cracks  between  the  door  of  the  dipper  and  the  sides  of  the 
dipper.  The  writer  is  not  inclined  to  accept  this  theory  of 
gold  loss,  but  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  dredge  like  the  bucket 
elevator  that  delivers  a  steady  stream  of  gravel  instead  of  an 
intermittent  stream. 

Dredging  Silt  Bars,  Muscle  Shoals  Canal.     A  paper  by  A.  D. 


706  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Edwards  appearing  in  Professional  Memoirs  for  January-Febru- 
ary, 1912,  is  quoted  by  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  17. 
1912.  The  Muscle  Shoals  Canal  is  divided  into  two  parts,  locally 
designated  as  the  upper  and  lower  divisions,  which  are  separated 
by  8  miles  of  open  river.  The  upper  division  consists  of  two 
locks  connected  by  a  mile  of  canal,  an  upper  pool  2}fc  miles  long, 
and  a  dredged  channel  below  the  lower  lock.  The  lower  division 
is  composed  of  14^  miles  of  canal  and  nine  locks.  Fifteen 
streams  varying  in  size,  empty  directly  into  the  canal.  Though 
none  of  them  is  very  large,  yet  at  every  freshet  they  bring  down 
sediment,  and  bars  are  constantly  forming  in  the  channel  oppo- 
site their  mouths.  At  the  entrance  to  both  divisions  of  the  canal 
a  large  amount  of  silt  also  accumulates  at  every  high  water,  and 
constant  dredging  is  therefore  required  to  keep  it  cleaned. 

A  Bucyrus  dredge  of  the  elevator  type  is  employed  on  the  canal 
for  this  purpose,  having  the  following  general  dimensions: 
Length,  80  ft.,  width  in  center,  38  ft.;  width  at  each  end,  13  ft.; 
depth  of  hull,  6  ft.  The  sides  are  circular,  being  struck  with  a 
68-ft.  radius  so  as  to  give  the  above  dimensions.  Draft  when 
working,  42  in. 

A  chain  of  24  buckets  and  24  links  is  mounted  on  a  ladder 
frame  48  ft.  long,  equipped  with  truss  rods  and  fittings,  rollers 
with  shafts  arid  bearings,  top  and  bottom  tumblers,  device  for 
holding  bucket  chain,  and  hoisting  tackle  for  regulating  the  depth 
of  cut.  This  chain  of  buckets  works  over  the  forward  end  of 
the  boat,  and  slops  back  at  an  angle  of  45°  until  it  reaches  an 
elevation  of  about  22  ft.  above  the  deck,  where  the  material  is 
discharged  into  a  hopper.  This  chain  of  24  buckets,  each  having 
a  capacity  of  5  cu.  ft.,  makes  one  complete  revolution  in  1}4  min., 
discharging  4.44  cu.  yd.  per  revolution,  which  gives  the  dredge 
a  capacity  of  213  cu.  yd.  per  hr.,  or  2,130  cu.  yd.  per  day  of 
10  hr. 

From  the  hopper,  which  is  located  15  ft.  above  the  center  of 
the  boat,  a  discharge  pipe  26  in.  in  diameter  and  80  ft.  long, 
suspended  by  a  set  of  tackle  attached  to  an  A-frame,  conducts  the 
material  that  is  dumped  into  the  hopper  to  the  place  of  deposit, 
which  is  usually  beyond  the  tow-path.  When  the  material  is 
thick  and  heavy,  a  stream  from  a  6-in.  pump  is  turned  into  the 
pipe  to  keep  it  flushed  out. 

The  dredge  is  equipped  with  a  10  x  14-in.  double  cylinder  en- 
gine making  140  revolutions  per  min.,  developing  40  hp.  The 
swinging  engines  are  double  cylinder,  8-in.  diameter  and  8-in. 
stroke.  The  boiler  is  of  marine  type,  40  hp.,  60  in.  in  diameter, 
17  ft.  long,  and  carries  a  pressure  of  90  Ib.  For  flushing  the 
discharge  pipe  a  Gordon  Duplex  steam  pump  is  used,  having  12-in. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  707 

steam  cylinders,  10-in.  plungers,  and  16-in.  stroke;  capacity,  326 
gal.  per  min. 

This  dredge,  when  in  operation,  revolves  about  a  center  spud, 
which  is  40  ft.  from  the  point  of  the  buckets,  thus  enabling  a  cut 
80  ft.  wide  to  be  made.  The  depth  of  the  cut  varies  from  3^ 
to  10  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 

This  dredge  has  an  advantage  over  other  types,  as  it  cleans 
the  entire  widtli  of  the  canal  as  it  moves  forward,  and  deposits 
the  material  outside  of  the  canal  bank,  where  it  does  not  have 
to  be  handled  again.  The  canal  is  cleaned  with  a  single  cut, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  places  where  two  cuts,  and  some- 
times three,  have  to  be  made  before  the  material  is  finally  de- 
posed outside  the  canal  bank.  This  method  is  a  little  slow,  but 
it  is  the  best  way  to  handle  the  work,  as  it  would  not  be  prac- 
ticable to  load  the  material  in  scows  and  tow  them  outside  of 
the  canal.  Above  Lock  A  (upper  division)  three  cuts  have  to 
be  made,  and-  between  Locks  1  and  2  (lower  division)  three 
cuts  are  necessary.  Another  point  where  some  difficulty  is  ex- 
perienced in  operating  the  dredge  is  above  Lock  1,  where  the 
banks  are  too  high  for  the  discharge  pipe  to  reach  over  them. 
To  dredge  this  part  of  the  canal  the  river  has  to  be  caught  at  a 
stage  that  will  allow  the  discharge  pipe  to  clear  the  bank. 

The  crew  necessary  to  operate  the  dredge  consists  of  one 
dredge  runner,  one  engineman,  one  fireman,  one  spudman,  and 
two  linemen. 

The  hull  of  this  dredge  was  built  at  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  by 
contract,  in  1891.  The  machinery. was  placed  on  the  hull  and 
floated  to  the  canal,  where  the  cabin  was  built  and  machinery 
installed.  The  total  cost  of  the  dredge  was  approximately  $20,- 
000.  The  hull  was  rebuilt  at  the  canal  by  hired  labor  in  1902 
and  1903,  at  a  cost  of  $10,000,  being  put  back  in  commission  in 
October,  1903.  The  dredge  has  been  operated  almost  continu- 
ously since  it  was  rebuilt.  A  new  hull  will  have  to  be  built 
within  the  next  year  or  two,  also  a  complete  set  of  new  buckets 
and  links  will  be  required.  The  machinery  is  in  good  condition 
and  will  outlast  another  hull. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  number  of  cu.  yd.  dredged 
with  cost  of  labor,  material,  and  field  repairs  since  the  dredge 
was  put  in  commission. 

Year  Ou.yd.  Per  cu.yd. 

1892    27,210 

1893    38,964 

1894      42,800 

1895    13,235 

1896    5,513 

127,722  $0.036 


708  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Year  Cu.  yd.             Per  cu.  yd. 

1897 61,550  .039 

1898  62,097  .041 

1899 39,375  .036 

1900  59,200  .038 

1901  18,093  .144 

1902  55,764  .031 

1903  38,123  .028 

1904  100,012  .030 

1905  105,490  .031 

1906 146,968  .030 

1907 111,337  .023 

1908  59,372  .056 

1909  117,777  .046 

1910  195,982  .036 

*1911  87,731  .036 


1,386,593  $0.036 

Total  cost  of  labor,  material  and  field  repairs $51,302 

Cost  of  rebuilding  hull  in  1902  and  1903  10,000 

Deterioration  of  plant  10,000 

Total  cost  of  dredging  since  1892   $71,302 

*To  Jan.  1.  1911,  of  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911. 

This  gives  for  the  unit  cost  of  dredging  1,386,593  cu.  yd.  of  ma- 
terial, 5.11  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Trestle  Filling  with  a  Ladder  Dredge.  Engineering  News, 
Aug.  4,  1892,  gives  the  following:  Near  New  Orleans,  La.,  a 
railway  trestle  18  miles  long  and  7  to  10  ft.  above  the  ground 
and  water  level,  was  filled  with  material  obtained  by  excavating  a 
canal  alongside  and  50  ft.  away.  A  bucket  elevator  dredge  with 
a  hull  40  ft.  wide,  40  ft.  long,  and  6  ft.  deep,  equipped  with  a 
90-ft.  belt  conveyor,  was  employed.  This  machine  excavated  472,- 
934  cu.  yd.,  or  34,170  lin.  ft.  of  cut  6  ft.  deep  by  60  ft.  wide, 
from  Jan.  1,  1891  to  April  30,  1892,  an  average  of  2,135  lin.  ft. 
or  29,558  cu.  yd.  per  month,  or  1,180  cu.  yd.  per  day,  measured 
in  cut.  A  10-hr,  day  was  worked,  but  passing  trains  reduced  the 
actual  working  time  to  7  hr.  per  day.  Many  sunken  logs  and 
cypress  roots  were  encountered  and  material  retarded  the  work. 
The  dredge  required  a  crew  of  6  men.  Excavation  cost  about 
3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  this  material  the  original 
rubber  conveyor  belt  was  still  in  service  after  having  conveyed 
473,000  cu.  yd. 

High  Cost  of  Dredging  at  Havana,  Cuba.  A.  H.  Weber,  in 
Engineering  Record,  Nov.  23,  1901,  gives  some  cost  data  of 
dredging  at  Havana.  A  bucket-ladder  dredge  with  a  "  capacity  " 
of  1,000  cu.  yd.  in  ordinary  harbor  mud,  but  only  200  to  600 
cu.  yd.  in  hard  clay,  was  used.  In  addition  t^o  small  clamshell 
dredges,  of  the  Prestmann  type,  with  %-cu.  yd.  bucket,  and  "  ca- 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  709 

pacity  "  each  of  200  to  400  cu.  yd.  in  mud,  were  worked.     These 
machines  were  not  at  all  effective  in  hard  clay. 

Rock  and  very  hard  clay  were  encountered,  and  had  to  be 
blasted.  An  Ingersoll  auto-feed  4%-in.  cylinder  drill  was  hung 
in  the  leads  of  a  floating  pile  driver.  This  machine  drilled 
through  a  telescopic  tube  from  4  to  12  in.  in  diameter.  The 
charges  were  loaded  in  the  holes  by  a  diver.  At  first  10  holes 
spaced  5  ft.  apart  in  a  row  were  blasted  to  the  requisite  depths 
of  12  to  16  ft.,  but  it  was  claimed  that  the  charges  injured 
adjacent  buildings.  The  holes  therefore,  were  drilled  only  6  to 
8  ft.  deep  and  charged  with  6  Ib.  of  60%  dynamite  each.  The 
whole  area,  therefore,  was  removed  in  two  or  three  lifts.  The 
number  of  holes  drilled  was  1,682,  and  5,600  Ib.  of  dynamite  were 
used.  If  the  clay  was  allowed  to  remain  undredged  after  being 
blasted,  it  would  become  hard  and  require  reblasting. 

The  total  amount  of  material  dredged  measured  47,970  cu.  yd. 
scow  measure,  of  which  about  10,500  cu.  yd.  were  stone.  The 
unit  cost  of  stone  excavation  exceeded  that  of  the  clay  by  about 
75%.  The  total  cost  of  the  work  was  $35,734. 

Per  cu.  yd. 
ct. 

Dredging,  wages,  supplies  and  repairs  49.2 

Dredging,  wages,  supplies  and  repairs  12.3 

Explosives     2.8 

Moving  scows  to  sea  3  miles  7.6 

Office  operation  •  and  superintendent  2.6 

Total  per  cu.  yd 74.5 

The  work  was  done  by  day  labor  for  the  government. 

A  Ladder  Dredge  with  a  Belt  Conveyor  System.  In  Engineer- 
ing News,  Oct.  25,  1906,  I,  M.  Mann  gives  the  following:  On 
the  Fox  River,  Wisconsin,  dredging  over  a  period  of  50  years 
by  dipper  and  clam-shell  dredges  had  formed  high  spoil  banks 
on  each  side  of  the  channel.  These  were  unsightly,  objectionable 
to  property  owners,  and  were  subject  to  erosion'  by  the  current, 
necessitating  a  second  and  third  dredging  of  about  25%  of  the 
material.  To  overcome  this  objectionable  practice,  a  dredge  was 
designed  to  fulfill  the  following  conditions: 

( 1 )  Ability  to  dig  all  materials  except  solid  rock  or  equally 
hard  material; 

(2)  Ability  to  cut  full  width  of  channel  without  moving  the 
dredge  sideways; 

(3)  Ability  to  convey  the  spoil  a  considerable  distance  with- 
out rehandling; 

(4)  Ability  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  area  of  distribution 
of  spoil  and   to   deposit  either  side  of  the  channel   and   in   low 
places  or  scows; 


710  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

(5)  Ability  to  carry  the  spoil  in  places  over  old  dredge  banks 
not  less  than  20  ft.  in  height  and  to  distribute  it  without  form- 
ing new  banks. 

These  conditions  were  fulfilled  by  the  "  conveyor  dredge." 
This  plant  consists  of  a  dredge  with  two  intermediate  conveyor 
scows  and  one  delivery  scow.  The  delivery  scow  can  be  attached 
directly  to  the  dredge  if  desired.  The  dredge  is  of  the  regular 
bucket-elevator  type,  having  30  buckets  of  5  cu.  ft.  capacity  each, 
equipped  with  steel  cutting  teeth.  It  is  able  to  dig  to  a  depth 
of  10  ft.  The  dredge  hull  is  of  fir,  75x31x6  ft.  in  size.  It 
is  equipped  with  a  9  x  12-in.  and  a  6  x  6-in.  engine,  a  35-kw. 
electric  generator,  and  electric  motors.  Steam  is  supplied  by  a 
marine  boiler  10  ft.  long. 

The  intermediate  scows  are  40  x  15  x  3  ft.  in  size,  and  each 
carries  a  belt  conveyor  32  in.  wide  and  65  ft.  long,  driven  by 
electric  motors.  The  delivery  scow  is  nearly  triangular  in  shape, 
being  31  ft.  long  and  16  ft.  wide  at  the  delivery  end.  It  is 
furnished  with  a  delivery  belt  conveyor  supported  by  a  derrick, 
and  overhanging  the  stern  by  about  40  ft.  The  delivery  end  of 
this  conveyor  can  be  raised  to  20  ft.  above  water  to  suit  the 
height  of  the  spoil  bank.  The  total  length  of  the  outfit  is  300  ft. 

The  dredge  is  furnished  with  a  turning  spud  at  the  stern 
amidships,  and  a  walking  spud  slightly  forward  and  to  starboard. 
It  is  moored  to  shore  anchors  by  bow  lines,  and  digs  in  a  circle 
of  about  80  ft.  radius,  covering  a  width  of  channel  of  145  ft. 
In  operation  the  material  leaving  the  elevator  buckets  at  the 
top  of  the  ladder  passes  into  a  hopper,  thence  to  a  belt  conveyor 
that  carries  it  to  the  stern  of  the  dredge,  thence  to  another 
hopper,  and  finally,  by  the  various  conveyors  on  the  scows, 
to  the  shore. 

The  crew  consisted  in  1906  of  9  men.  The  cost  of  operation, 
including  fuel,  was  $30  per  day.  In  ordinary  digging  the  dredge 
excavated  400  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  in  a  trial  test,  and  in  very  tough 
clay  and  hard  pan  200  cu.  yd.  per  hr. 

Bucket-Ladder  Dredge  with  Long  Chutes.  In  a  paper  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers  (Great  Britain), 
John  B.  Body  gives  a  description  of  the  drainage  of  the  Valley 
of  Mexico.  His  paper  is  quoted  in  Engineering  Record,  Aug. 
10,  1901. 

Part  of  the  work  was  excavated  by  Indians,  who  carried  bas- 
kets on  their  heads,  and  part  by  a  grab-bucket  on  a  cableway. 
The  main  part  of  the  canal,  however,  was  dredged  with  5 
"  couloir  "  or  long-chute  dredge  of  the  bucket-ladder  type.  These 
machines  had  main  engines  of  150  hp.  One  of  these  dredges  was 
of  large  size  with  the  top  tumbler  of  the  bucket-ladder  at  a 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  711 

height  of  74.5  ft.,  while  the  other  four  had  top  tumblers  at  a 
height  of  56  ft.  The  material  was  discharged  from  the  bucket- 
ladder  on  to  the  chutes.  These  extended  165  ft.  from  the  center 
of  the  dredge  over  the  bank  of  the  canal.  Pumps,  discharging 
as  much  as  600  cu.  ft.  of  water  per  min.,  facilitated  the  passage 
of  the  dredged  material  through  these  chutes.  At  times  the 
material  was  discharged  as  far  as  185  ft.  from  the  center  of  the 
dredge. 

The  ladders  were  78  ffc  long,  and  the  buckets  had  capacities  of 
11  cu.  ft.  each.  In  very  sticky  soil,  hinged  bottoms  were  used 
on  the  buckets  with  exceptional  success. 

The  maximum  depth  excavated  was  63.5  ft.  in  48  months,  and 
8,500,000  cu.  yd.  were  dredged.  The  best  output  of  a  single  dredge 
for  one  month,  working  day  and  night,  in  soft  soil,  was  124,230 
cu.  yd.  In  hard  soil  a  fair  average  was  90  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  The 
most  suitable  face  against  which  to  work  was  6  ft.  in  height. 

Ladder  Dredge  and  Conveyor  on  N.  Y.  Barge  Canal.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Sept.  7,  1910,  gives  the  following:  The 
dredge  was  started  on  July  30,  1909,  and  worked  4  months  of 
the  season  and  was  then  laid  up  for  the  winter,  as  the  canal  is 
drained  during  the  winter  season.  The  costs  given  are  for  thess 

4  months'   work.     This  dredging  plant  differs  from  other   types 
in  that  the  excavated  material  is  carried  by  a  series  of  belt  con- 
veyors to  the  spoil  bank.     The   dredge  itself   is  floated  on   two 
steel  pontoons  which  are  parallel  to  each  other  and  are  braced 
together  by  a  rigid  frame  work.     A  gantry  projects  out  in  front 
and  between  these  pontoons.     This  gantry  supports  the  "  ladder  " 
or   endless   chain    of   buckets,   which    extends    down    between    the 
pontoons  to  the  bottom  of  the  canal.     The  buckets  move  down- 
ward on   the  underside  of  the  ladder   and   come  up   loaded   and 
discharge   into   a  hopper   at   the   top.     The   buckets   are   each    of 

5  cu.   ft.   capacity.     From  the   hopper   at  the  top   of   the   ladder 
the  material  is  discharged  onto  a  belt  which  hi  turn  discharges 
into  a  second  hopper  and  second  belt  at  the  rear  of  the  dredge 
which  projects  out  to  the  rear  of  the  machine.     A  third  belt  is 
carried   on    a   separate   pontoon.     It    runs    on    a    steel    cantilever 
framework  which   carries  the  belt   40   or   50   ft.   onto   the   canal 
bank.     The  pontoon  which  carries  this  belt  is  so  arranged  that 
it  can  be  turned  at  any  angle  and  still  have  its  receiving  hopper 
under  the  discharge  of  the  second  dredge  belt.     The  belts  are  each 
operated  by  a  separate  motor  receiving  power  from  the  dredge. 
The  dredge  plant  cost  $70,000.     The  plant  took  out  from  20,000 
to  32,000  cu.  yd.  per  month  during  the  first  few  months  it  was 
in  operation  in  1909,  working  three  8-hr,  shifts  per  day. 

The  chief  difficulty  met  with  in  the  first  part  of  the  work  was 


712  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

holding  the  soft  material  in  embankment.  At  first  very  heavy 
wooden  forms  were  built  to  hold  up  the  embankment  to  its  full 
height.  These  proved  very  expensive  and  inefficient;  they  gave 
way  in  places  and  the  soft  material,  which  flowed  out  over  the 
adjacent  land,  had  to  be  scraped  back.  The  plan  now  adopted 
is  to  build  dikes  of  sod  and  earth  about  4  ft.  high  along  the 
outside  edge  of  the  embankment.  The  material  is  then  deposited 
by  the  dredge  within  the  dikes,  the  dredge  moving  along  as 
soon  as  the  material  reaches  the  top  of  the  dikes.  When  the 
material  deposited  has  dried  out  sufficiently,  a  second  series  of 
dikes  is  built  on  top  of  the  first  and  the  dredge  moved  back  to 
fill  again. 

The  cost  of  the  work  for  one  season  is  given  by  months  as 
follows  : 

August,  1909;  18,638  cu.  yd.  excavated: 

Coal  and  oil  $1,984.50 

15  tons  coal  for  hoisting  engine  at  $2.85   42.75 

Misc.  supplies  for  hoisting  engine   5.25 

Misc.  supplies  for  hoisting  engine  and  derrick 6.48 

Hauling    supplies    54.00 

Crew  of  dredge   2,296.68 

Total   cost    $4,389.66 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.  (ct.)   23.6 

Drains  and  scrapers  supplemented  the  dredge  moving  6,244  yd. 
for  a  total  of  $1,280.50  or  20.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  cost  of 
wooden  forms  and  of  spreading  and  compacting  amounted  to 
$1,193  for  10,015  cu.  yd.  of  embankment  or  11.9  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

September,  1909;  32,000  cu.  yd.  excavated: 

Interest,   depreciation  and  repairs  $2,205.00 

180.  tons  at   (2  tons  per  shift)    513.00 

150  gal.  gasoline  at  12  ct 48.00 

Oil  (80  gal.  at  19  ct. ;  60  gal.  at  35  ct.)   36.20 

1,200  Ib.  grease  at  8  ct 96.00 

200  Ib.  waste  at  8  ct 16.00 

Teams    245.00 

Labor 2,827.00 


Total   cost    $5,956.20 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.    (ct.)    , 18.6 

A  total  of  90    (8-hr)   shifts  were  worked.     The  cost  of  the  em- 
Lankment  was  as  follows: 

Labor  spreading  and  compacting  $3,151.50 

Hauling   form   lumber    177.16 

Cost  form  lumber   1,125.00 

General     ,. 290.00 

Labor   on   forms    ". 828.32 

Hauling   supplies 55.00 

Total     .                                                                            .  $5,626.98 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  713 

Only  11,000  cu.  yd.  were  allowed  for  the  above  work  on  em- 
bankment as  the  forms  gave  way  and  the  soft  material  had  to 
be  scraped  back.  This  brought  the  cost  of  embankment  for 
the  month  up  to  51.1  ct.  per  yd. 

October,  1909;   25,500  cu.  yd.  excavated: 

Interest  and   depreciation    \.  $2.351.66 

186  tons  coal  at  $2.85    530.10 

Labor     3,145.58 

Teams    5.00 

Oil,  'grease  and  waste   153.09 

Gasoline     18.60 

Repairs     18.90 

Total   cost    $6,222.93 

Cost  per  cu.   yd.   (ct.)    24.4 

A  total  of  93  (8-hr.)  shifts  were  worked.  The  cost  of  em- 
bankments was  as  follows : 

Labor  spreading  and  compacting  'V2,898.25 

Forms     567.50 

Erection    * 108.50 

Hauling    , 95.00 

Total     $3,669.25 

This  gives  for  21,800  cu.  yd.  of  embankment  a  cost  of  16.9  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

Thomas  J.  Morrison  objected  that  the  cost  shown  for  embank- 
ment in  the  foregoing  paragraph  was  deceptive.  It  should  be 
accompanied  by  an  explanation,  showing  why  it  was  so  high. 
The  embankment  forms  to  hold  the  dredge  material  were  very 
expensive,  and  the  cost  was  charged  up  to  the  embankment  on  * 
which  they  were  built.  Under  the  specifications,  the  embank- 
ment could  not  be  estimated  as  paid  for  until  finished;  and  the 
paid  embankment  was  therefore  only  a  small  part  of  the  exca- 
vations among  which  costs  are  given.  For  instance  in  November, 
the  excavation  was  20,560  cu.  yd.,  of  which  only  513  cu.  yd. 
were  paid  for  in  embankment.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  practically 
all  of  the  material  was  placed  into  embankment  that  was  not 
trimmed  up,  and  was,  therefore,  not  estimated.  During  the 
month  following,  all  these  unfinished  embankments  were  dredged 
out  at  a  cost  of  only  a  few  cents  per  cu.  yd.,  so  that  in  the  cost 
of  forming  embankments  distributed  over  the  entire  work,  in- 
stead of  being  separated  into  months  was  quite  low.  The  cost 
for  November  was  as  follows:  A  total  of  45  (8-hr.)  shifts  were 
worked;  and  20,516  cu.  yd.  were  excavated  at  the  following  cost. 

Interest  and   depreciation    $1,102.50 

Coal,   90  tons    @    $2.85   256.50 

Labor     1,437.80 

Teams     00.00 


714  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Oil,  grease  and  waste  $     83.07 

Gasoline 9.00 

Repairs     94.50 

Total     $3,383.37 

This  gives  a  cost  for  excavation  of  16.5  ct.  per  yd.  Labor  on 
embankment  was  practically  all  for  building  dikes  and  cost 
$782.50.  The  number  of  cu.  yd.  for  embankment  estimated  dur- 
ing the  month  was  only  513,  giving  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  $1.52. 

A  Record  for  Ladder  Dredges.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Jan.  18,  1911,  reports  that  the  Marmot  of  the  Pacific  Division, 
Panama  Canal,  a  ladder  dredge,  broke  all  records  for  the  daily, 
weekly  and  monthly  output  of  ladder  dredges  in  the  Canal  service 
during  December.  The  output  for  the  month  was  219,795  cu.  yd.; 
for  the  best  week  of  6  working  days,  47,693  cu.  yd.,  and  for  the 
best  day  (Dec.  14),  8,569  cu.  yd.  The  output  for  the  best  10-day 
period  during  the  month  was  77,838  cu.  yd.,  or  an  average  of 
7,783  cu.  yd.  a  day;  for  a  25-day  period,  183,163  cu.  yd.  The 
average  per  working  day  over  the  whole  month  was  7,326  cu.  yd. 
The  above  figures  are  based  upon  place  measurement.  The 
dredge  was  working  the  entire  month  in  the  approach  channel  to 
the  site  of  the  new  docks  at -the  Pacific  entrance  to  the  Canal, 
excavating  earth  to  a  depth  of  31  ft.  below  low  tide.  The  crew 
set  deliberately  to  work  on  Dec.  1  to  exceed  all  previous  records, 
and  by  request  of  the  men  themselves,  the  dredge  was  kept  at 
work  every  day  in  the  month,  excepting  Christmas  day.  All  the 
dredges  work  night  and  day.  The  best  previous  record  for  old 
.French  ladder  dredges  was  made  by  the  Atlantic  Division  dredge, 
No.  5,  in  July,  1909,  which  excavated  176,082  cu.  yd. 

Elevator  Dredge  Work  on  Sunnyside  Irrigation  Canal.  In  a 
long  paper  by  Moritz  and  H.  W.  Elder,  in  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Sept.  11,  1912,  the  description  and  cost  of  elevator 
dredge  work  on  the  enlargement  and  improvement  of  the  Main 
Canal  of  Sunnyside  Yakima  Project  at  Washington,  is  given. 
A  floating  dredge  was  used  upon  the  first  21  miles.  As  the 
concrete  lock  structures,  of  which  there  were  about  18,  had  a 
clearance  of  only  32  ft.  between  the  walls,  and  as  the  dredge  had 
to  pass  through  these,  the  hull  could  be  only  about  30  ft.  wide. 
This  reduced  the  stability  of  the  machine  considerably.  It  would 
have  been  much  easier  to  handle  if  it  had  had  a  wider  hull. 
The  machine  used  was  a  3.5  cu.  ft.  steam  driven  continuous 
bucket,  elevator  type,  with  an  82  x  30  x  6.5-ft.  hull,  drawing  5 
ft.  of  water.  The  steam  was  furnished  by  two  80-hp.  locomotive 
type  boilers,  44-in.  by  18-ft.  The  main  drive  and  ladder  hoist 
was  driven  by  a  70-hp.,  8  x  12-in.  double  horizontal  engine. 
Machinery  for  spuds  and  for  swinging  was  driven  by  a  2  cylinder, 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  715 

20-hp.,  6  by  6-in.  double  horizontal  engine.  The  conveyers  were 
driven  by  two  18-hp.,  7  by  10-in.  single  cylinder  horizontal  engines. 
A  no.  1  hydraulic  giant,  supplied  by  a  2-stage,  6-in.  centrifugal 
pump,  belted  to  an  80-hp.,  10  by  12-in.  single  cylinder  upright 
engine,  was  mounted  in  the  bow,  to  remove  the  bank,  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  bucket  above  the  water  level.  The  conveyors  were 
72  ft.  long  and  had  32-in.  rubber  conveyor  belts.  This  machine 
was  operated  from  Dec.  4,  1909,  to  Oct.  1,  1911,  and  removed  921,- 
000  cu.  yd.  of  material. 

Had  the  running  water  been  of  sufficient  depth  at  all  times  in 
the  canal,  much  unnecessary  excavation  would  have  been  saved; 
for  the  machine  excavated  in  some  cases  4  ft.  below  grade,  in 


Fig.  8.     Bucket  Elevator  Dredge,  Sunnyside  Canal. 

order  to  have  sufficient  water  to  float.  A  great  deal  of  diffi- 
culty was  encountered  in  disposing  of  excavated  material.  So 
much  water  was  carried  over  with  the  earth  and  gravel,  that  a 
mud  was  formed,  which  ran  out  into  the  adjoining  field  orchard, 
covering  the  original  ground  to  a  depth  of  several  feet.  Bulk- 
heads had  been  built  in  an  attempt  to  hold  the  material.  This 
was  found  very  expensive,  so  finally  %-in.  holes  were  bored  in 
each  bucket,  to  allow  the  water  which  was  picked  up  with  the 
dirt  to  escape.  This  accomplished  a  great  deal  toward  retain- 
ing the  material  on  the  right-of-way. 

The  statement  of  cost  given  below  requires  some  explanation. 
The  labor  cost  is  low.  The  high  cost  charge  to  the  item  spoil 
bank  is  due  to  the  fact  that  much  of  the  material  was  deposited 
jn  the  form  of  muck  that  ran  over  valuable  farm  land;  and 
had  to  be  hauled  back  when  dry,  unless  it  had  been  retained  by 
the  expensive  bulkhead  along  the  right-of-way.  Another  reason 
for  the  high  cost  of  this  item,  is  that  much  of  the  material  was 


716 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


deposited  in  high  mounds,  which  had  to  be  graded  down  to 
permit  ditch  riders  to  travel  over  the  levee.  The  high  cost  of 
maintenance  was  due  to  the  fact  that  much  adjusting  and 
many  changes  had  to  be  made  to  adapt  the  machine  to  local  con- 
ditions. The  depreciation  item  includes  the  entire  cost  of  the 
machine  ($41,400),  charging  it  against  the  total  yardage.  Every- 
thing except  the  hull  should  have  considerable  salvage  value, 
which  will  go  toward  reducing  the  cost.  Fuel  had  to  be  hauled 
about  3  miles  across  open  country  or  over  roads  that  were 
very  rough. 


LEGCNJO 

—  Old  Ground  Line 

—  Required  Section 

-  •  Dredge  Excovat,on  L  me 
-    Team  Cxcovotion  Lme 

•  Team  work  nil 
m   ream  work  Spot 
H    Team  Excavation 
E3  Dredge  Excavation 


Fig.  9.     Typical  Sections  Excavated  by  Elevator  Dredge. 

The  most  gratifying  result  of  this  work  was  , the  solid  lower 
bank  produced  by  the  saturated  material  discharged  by  the 
dredge,  and  the  substantial  roadway  over  it.  The  cost  of  920,- 
723  cu.  yd.  was: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Labor,    dredge $0.0:9 

Labor,   spoil  banks    0.034 

Fuel    0.036 

Plant   maintenance    0.057 

Plant   depreciation    0.045 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.201 

Miscellaneous.  Maximum  excavation  per  8-hr,  shift,  1,429  cu. 
yd.;  maximum  excavation  for  one  week,  17,644  cu.  yd.  (three 
shifts)  ;  average  excavation  per  8-hr,  shift,  557.9  cu.  yd.;  average 
excavation  actual  working  hr.,  128.7  cu.  yd.;  per  cent,  of  lost 
time,  49;  made  up  as  follows:  moving,  10%;  repairs  and  miscel- 
laneous, 39%. 

Force  and  Wages.  An  operating  force  consisted  of  8  men  and 
4  horses. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING 


717 


718  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Wages  paid  were:  Operator,  $5.00;  engineer,  $4.67;  spudman, 
$3.83;  fireman,  $3.33;  oiler,  $3.00;  deckman,  $2.50;  man  and 
team,  $4.50. 

Gold  Dredging.  In  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  chapter 
will  be  found  many  references  to  articles  on  gold  dredging.  The 
elevator  dredge  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  this  class  of  work, 
so  that  any  one  who  desires  all  the  information  available  on  this 
type  of  dredge  should  study  the  articles  on  gold  dredging.  Partly 
because  these  machines  are  too  highly  specialized  to  be  of  direct 
interest  to  the  average  earth  excavator  and  partly  because 
elimination  in  an  almost  endless  field  of  information  is  necessary, 
gold  dredging  will  not  be  discussed  in  this  volume. 

Operating  Cost  of  a  Hydraulic  Dredge.  J.  M.  Allen,  in  En- 
gineering News,  Oct.  29,  1914,  gives  the  following:  The  tabula- 
tion gives  the  typical  operating  costs  of  a  15-in.  hydraulic  dredge 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  in  1914,  working  two  12-hr,  shifts. 
Wages  do  not  include  subsistence.  Assuming  an  output  of  75,000 
cu.  yd.  per  month,  the  cost  is  about  6  ct.  per  yd. 

1  foreman      $    150 

1  engineman    125 

1  engineman    100 

2  suction  operators,  at  $100  200 

2  oilers,  at  $60   120 

2  firemen,    at   $70    140 

2  coal  passers,  at  $60  120 

3  deck  hands,  at  $60  180 

1  levee   foreman    (day)    90 

1  levee    foreman    (night)    70 

10  levee  laborers,   at  $60  600 


26       Total  labor  cost  per  month $1,895 

Coal   (18  tons  per  day) 1,200 

Supplies   (rope,   oil,  packing)    150 

Repairs  and  renewals   200 

Office  and  over  head  expenses   200 

Insurance  (fire  and  liability)    100 

Interest  and  depreciation   (2%  on  $35,000)    700 

Total  operating  cost  per  month  $4,445 

Hydraulic  or  Suction  Dredges.  There  are  four  general  classes 
of  this  type  of  dredge:  (1)  The  seagoing  hopper  type  without 
anchorage;  (2)  the  lateral  feeding  type,  with  5  or  6  mooring 
lines  to  anchors,  for  use  in  wide  channels;  (3)  the  forward  feed- 
ing type  with  one  or  two  forward  mooring  lines  to  anchors;  (4) 
the  radial  feeding  type  with  spud  anchorage.  Hydraulic  dredges 
may  also  be  classed  thus:  (1)  Plain  suction  pipe  dredges;  (2) 
with  water  jet  agitators;  (3)  with  mechanical  agitators  or  cut- 
ters. Cutters  are  generally  necessary  for  material  other  than 
sand. 

The  forward  feeding    type  of   dredge    is   adapted   to   work    in 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING 


719 


720  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

shallow  alluvial  rivers  such  as  the  Mississippi,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  often  called  the  Mississippi  type  dredge.  Almost  all 
of  the  work  on  the  Mississippi  River  is  done  by  the  government. 
The  Alpha  was  the  first  dredge  of  this  type  built  for  the  Missis- 
sippi River  Commission.  This  was  followed  by  the  Beta  and 
Gamma. 

The  radial  feeding  type  of  suction  dredge  is  usually  anchored 
by  one  or  more  spuds,  the  suction  pipe  making  a  radial  cut  on 
the  arc  of  a  circle  about  the  spud  as  a  center.  This  is  the  com- 
mon type  of  dre:lge  for  general  work. 

The  seagoing  type  is  confined  to  harbor  work,  and  the  forward 
feeding  type  is  used  on  alluvial  rivers. 

The  Floating  Pipe  Line.  The  pipe  line  of  a  dredge  is  generally 
built  of  thin  sheet  steel.  Almost  any  kind  of  floats  are  used 
in  quiet  waters.  In  exposed  situations  the  pipe  and  floats  are 
built  of  heavy  ma'terial,  solidly  constructed.  A  water  velocity 
of  7  ft.  per  sec.  in  clay  or  mud,  or  of  10  ft.  in  sand  generally 
gives  good  results.  For  moderate  distances  velocities  of  12  to 
16  ft.  per  sec.  are  sometimes  employed.  The  percentage  of  solids 
varies  up  to  75%.  It  is  less  difficult  to  transport  a  large  per- 
centage of  solid  material  after  it  has  entered  the  pipe  line  than 
to  introduce  it  into  the  pipe  without  choking  the  pump.  At 
Oakland,  California,  a  dredge  belonging  to  the  Atlanic  Gulf  and 
Pacific  Company  delivered  material  through  6,170  ft.  of  20-in. 
pipe.  Other  dredges  built  by  this  company  for  the  Baltimore 
Water  Works  p  mped  through  pipe  lines  10,800  ft.  long,  but  part 
of  this  line  was  down  grade  giving  a  10  ft.  negative  ahead. 

The  Output  and  Cost  of  Operation.  This  varies  widely.  In 
the  centrifugal  type  the  construction  of  the  dredge  itself  has  a 
large  influence  upon  the  cost  of  operation  and  repairs.  The  type 
of  pump  selected  is  particularly  important.  The  side  suction 
type  gives  an  easier  passage  through  the  larger  bends  and  is 
therefore  generally  preferred,  but  the  double  suction  type  of 
pump  avoids  side  thrust.  The  shape  of  the  pump  and  vanes  also 
has  a  material  effect  upon  its  wearing  qualities.  A  badly  de- 
signed pump,  especially  when  excavating  sharp  sand,  will  wear 
out  in  a  very  short  time.  The  mooring  and  dredging  moving 
eq-  ipment,  and  the  digging,  cutting,  or  agitating  appliances  are 
also  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Robert  A.  Cummings,  in  Transactions  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers,  vol.  31,  1894,  states  that  with  centrifugal  pumps 
for  silt  and  alluvial  deposit  30  to  40%  of  solids,  and  for  coarse 
gravel  and  fine  sand  10%  of  solids  is  the  best  proportion  of  the 
volume  pumped. 

It  is  stated  in  Engineering  News,  Dec.  15,  1898,  that  with  the 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  721 

12-in.  dredge  the  discharged  material  ordinarily  consisted  of  about 
10%  of  solid  matter.  At  times,  however,  the  1,000  ft.  of  dis- 
charge pipe  would  start  to  clog  up,  but  by  increasing  the  speed  of 
the  pump  the  material  was  forced  out  in  a  nearly  solid  mass 
that  would  break  off  in  lengths  of  15  to  18  in. 

The  water  in  which  the  dredge  worked  was  furnished  from  a 
source  1,700  ft.  distant  by  a  12-in.  pump  through  a  6-in.  dis- 
charge pipe.  The  soil  was  clay  naturally  wet  and  soft  because 
of  seepage  water  and  therefore  unfavorable  to  dry  excavation 
methods,  but  decidedly  favorable  to  hydraulic  dredge  work. 

Depth  at  Which  Suction  Dredges  Can  Work.  The  Engineer- 
ing and  Mining  Journal,  Nov.  7,  1914,  describes  a  dredge  made 
for  the  Calumet  and  Heckla  Mining  Co.  for  use  in,  working  over 
stamp  mill  tailings  in  Torch  Lake,  Mich.  This  dredge  is  equipped 
with  two  20-in.  centrifugal  pumps,  one  driven  by  a  750-hp.  motor, 
and  the  other  by  a  l,2o()-hp.  motor.  Previous  to  the  construction 
of  this  dredge  the  greatest  depth  attained  by  suction  dredge  was 
70  ft.,  which  depth  has  been  reached  by  the  sand  suckers  work- 
ing in  Long  Island  Sound.  The  Calumet  and  Heckla  dredge  is 
intended  to  dig  to  a  depth  of  100  ft. 

Dredging  in  Mobile  Harbor,  Alabama.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Mar.  20,.  1012,  gives  the  following:  Three  types  of 
dredges  have  been  employed  in  improving  and  deepening  the 
ship  channels  in  and  about  Mobile  Harbor.  These  are  the  clam 
shell,  the  seagoing  suction  and  the  hydraulic  pipe  line.  In  an 
article  in  Professional  Memoirs  for  March-April,  1912,  Assistant 
Engineer  J.  M.  Pratt  describes  the  work  of  these  dredges.  A 
comparison  of  output  and  cost  is  made  between  a  clam  shell  and 
a  hydraulic  dredge.  Records  of  work  are  given  of  one  seagoing 
hopper  dredge  and  three  hydraulic  pipe  line  dredges,  including 
costs  and  statement  of  delays.  Structural  defects  and  advantages 
of  the  dredges  are  specified. 

Comparison  of  Clam  Shell  and  Pipe  Line  Dredge.  The  Mobile 
Harbor  dredged  channel  extends  from  Chickasaw  Creek,  4.8  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  Mobile  River,  to  deep  water  in  the  lower 
portion  of  Mobile  Bay,  a  total  distance  of  33}£  miles.  The  ma- 
terial along  the  upper  six  miles  of  this  channel  consists  prin- 
cipally of  sand  and  clay  with  some  mud.  Along  the  next  eleven 
miles  it  is  mud  and  sand  with  strata  of  shells  at  the  lower  por- 
tion. The  material  along  the  remainder  of  the  channel  is  com- 
posed of  a  soft  blue  mud  having  a  specific  gravity,  as  it  lies 
on  the  bottom,  of  about  1.36.  From  the  head  of  the  channel  in 
Mobile  River  to  a  point  ten  miles  below,  the  dredged  material 
either  has  to  be  deposited  on  shore  or  towed  several  miles  in 
scows,  because  the  water  on  the  edges  of  the  channel  is  too  shoal 


722  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

for  loaded  scows  to  get  out.  A  dredge  would  be  protected  from 
storms,  unless  of  unusual  severity,  while  working  in  the  channel 
in  Mobile  River,  and  be  better  protected  while  working  in  the 
upper  portion  of  Mobile  Bay  than  in  the  lower  portion,  thus 
making  delays  in  dredging  on  account  of  weather  conditions  much 
less  in  the  upper  than  in  the  lower  bay  and  reducing  them  to 
a  minimum  in  the  river.  All  of  these  considerations  make  it 
difficult  to  form  a  comparison  between  two  dredges  working  in 
this  channel,  unless  engaged  near  the  same  locality  at  the  same 
time.  However,  a  fairly  good  comparison  may  be  obtained  of  a 
clam  shell  and  a  hydraulic  pipe  line  dredge  by  taking  the  records 
made  in  1909  by  the  clam  shell  Sredge  A  and  the  hydraulic 
dredge  B,  both  belonging  to  contractors  and  working  under  the 
same  contract  a  few  miles  apart  in  middle  and  lower  Mobile 
Bay.  The  yardage  dredged  represents  the  amount  excavated  from 
the  theoretical  section  in  either  case,  or  the  amount  paid  for 
and  not  the  total  amount  removed.  The  time  extends  from  April 
1  to  July  12,  the  hydraulic  dredge  working  two  days  longer  in 
July  than  the  clam  shell,  which  discontinued  work  on  the  10th. 
The  material  in  each  case  was  mud,  although  that  obtained  by 
dredge  A  was  much  softer  and  more  easily  handled  than  where 
the  hydraulic  dredge  was  working  during  April  and  May.  In 
June  this  dredge  reached  a  point  near  where  dredge  A  had  been 
working,  and  her  results  were  largely  increased.  These  dredges 
are  both  representative  of  their  respective  types  and  the  material 
was  deposited  by  each  about  1,200  to  1,500  ft.  from  the  channel. 
Dredge  A  has  an  8^-cu.  yd.  clam  shell  bucket  and  dredge  B  has  a 
20-in.  centrifugal  pump  with  a  22-in.  suction  and  20-in.  diameter 
discharge.  The  following  table  shows  the  amount  dredged  per 
month  and  the  delays  to  each  dredge. 

Time  lost 

Month  Ou.  yd.  Hr. 
Dredge  A. 

April   1   to  30    , 208,922  157 

May   1   to   31 195,231  179 

June  1  to  30   155,016  173 

July    1   to  10    70,567                    56 

Total     629,736  565 

Dredge  B. 

April  1  to  30   226,294  114 

May   1    to  31    244,350  161 

June  1  to  30   410,821  67 

July  1  to  12  142,576  44 

Total     ....' 1,024,041  386 

The  time  lost  in  each  case  does  not  include  Sundays  or  legal 
holidays,  but  is  a  portion   of  the  total   effective  working  time. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  723 

This  work  was  done  at  a  contract  price  of  9.95  ct.  per  cu.  yd., 
but  during  the  last  two  contracts  work  has  been  done  at  this 
locality  for  a  little  less  than  6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Figuring  on  this 
basis  and  estimating  the  value  of  each  outfit  to  be:  $75,000  for 
dredge  A  and  attendant  plant,  and  $125,000  for  dredge  B  and 
attendant  plant,  the  value  of  each  in  earning  power  is  as  follows : 

Dredge  A 

629,736  cu.  yd.  dredged,  at  6  ct $37,784 

Interest  on  $75,000  for  3^  months,  at  6%  $  1,250 

Depreciation  at  10%  per  annum,  for  3^  months  2,083 

Cost  of  operating  dredge,  3^  months  14,300 

17,633 


Amount  earned    $20,151 

Dredge  B 

1,024,041  cu.  yd.  dredged,  at  6  ct $61,442 

Interest  on  $125,000  for  3^  months  at  6%  $  2,083 

Depreciation  at  10%  per  annum,   for  S1/^  months   3,472 

Cost  of  operating  dredge,  3^  months   28,333 

Amount  earned    $27,554 

Thus,  in  a  little  over  three  months,  the  hydraulic  dredge  earned 
about  $7,500  more  than  the  clam  shell  dredge,  though  the  latter 
was  one  of  the  best  ever  seen  in  this  district.  The  hydraulic 
dredge  experienced  fewer  delays  in  general,  and  could  work  as 
long  during  rough  weather  as  the  clam  shell  dredge,  the  latter, 
of  course,  having  to  quit  work  when  it  became  too  rough  to  land 
scows  alongside. 

Mr.  Pratt  describes  an  interesting  expedient  resorted  to  to 
remedy  a  difficulty  encountered  with  the  Seagoing  Hopper  Dredge 
Charleston  which  decreased  its  output  in  very  soft  mud.  It  was 
found  that  when  the  drag  was  lowered  below  the  surface  of  the 
material  that  it  buried  in  the  mud,  the  pipe  would  continually 
choke,  and  the  drag  would  then  have  to  be  lifted  in  order  to  ad- 
mit sufficient  water  to  clear  it.  This,  of  course,  would  put  a 
great  deal  of  water  in  the  bins  which  could  not  be  disposed  of, 
and  simply  decreased  the  amount  of  material  carried  at  each 
load.  If  the  drag  were  kept  near  enough  to  the  surface  of  the 
material  to  prevent  choking,  a  large  percentage  of  water  was 
admitted,  and  the  result  was  practically  the  same.  The  only 
way  then  to  obtain  a  maximum  amount  of  material  in  the  short- 
est time  was  to  bury  the  drag  below  the  surface  of  the  ma- 
terial, move  slowly  along  the  cut  as  before,  and  admit  just 
enough  water  in  the  drag  to  pump  the  material  without  choking 
it  or  having  to  raise  the  drag.  This  was  accomplished  by  cut- 
ting a  hole  in  the  top  of  the  drag  and  fastening  thereon  a 
pipe  (Fig.  12),  5%  in.  in  diameter  and  12  ft.  long,  which  ex- 


724 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


tended  up  the  outside  of  the  main  suction  pipe  and  was  fastened 
thereto.  A  valve  was  placed  in  the  upper  end  of  this  5%-in. 
pipe,  as  this  was  always  above  the  surface  of  the  material  on  the 
bottom,  and  just  enough  water  admitted  to  enable  the  pump  to 
work  properly.  When  shifting  the  dredge  from  this  locality  to 
the  other  bar,  this  pipe  was  removed  and  a  steel  plate  put  in  its 
place,  filling  up  the  hole  in  the  drag.  The  value  of  this  pipe  to 
the  dredge  when  working  in  very  soft  material  may  be  seen  from 
the  fact  that  before  installing  this  pipe  the  average  time  required 
to  load  200  cu.  yd.  was  49  min.,  and  after  the  installation  only 
25  min.  were  required. 


Length  Rff _ 


{4  Lap-, 


6  *$  Pie  Bent  lo  fit  Suction 


Llevation 


Fig.    12. 


EngKontg. 

Nipple-.^ 

Bent  To  1 'it. , 
Drag  " 

Improved    Suction    Pipe    for    Seagoing   Hopper   Dredge 
Charleston. 


Dredging  Ocean  Bars.  The  following  data  relative  to  work 
done  at  various  harbors  by  three  government  dredges,  have  been 
abstracted  from  a  paper  by  Major  J.  C.  Sanford  in  Transactions 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  54,  part  C,  1905. 

The  following  are  monthly  reports  for  July,  1904,  of  the 
Gedney,  working  at  New  York  Harbor;  the  Gen.  C.  B.  Comstock, 
working  at  Galveston,  Tex.,  and  the  Sabine  working  on  the  bar 
outside  the  mouth  of  South  Pass,  Mississippi  River.  These  may 
be  taken  as  typical  of  the  work  of  the  older  and  smaller  class 
of  dredges  under  rather  favorable  conditions. 

DREDGE  GEDNEY 
Location  of  work,  north  side  of  Gedney  Channel,  New  York  harbor 

Depth  of  water  (survey  of  Jan.,  1904)   27  to  30  ft.  M.  L.  W. 

Depth   required    30  ft.  M.  L.  W. 

Range  of  tide    4.6  ft. 

Material  dredged   Sand  and  gravel  in  varying  proportions 

Cubic   yards   removed    53,193 

Loads        ./  *  )(J  W 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  725 

Yards  carried  per  load,    average    604 

"       dredged  per  minute,  average  15.0 

Time  dredging   59  hr.  14  mm. 

turning     2    "    37 

running  to  dumping  ground    53    "    48 

Average  speed,  loaded    5.4  knots 

Time  running  from  dump  to  working  ground   32  hr.  11  m  n. 

"        "    anchorage     18    "    24 

"    wharf     18    "    02 

anchorage  to  working  ground   12    "    59 

wharf  to   working  ground    12    "    29 

"        anchorage  to  anchorage   1    "    12 

lost  repairing  (while  under  steam)    1    "    06 

"      lost  from  other  causes  (while  under  steam)   05 

dumping    11    "    45 

Average  time  dumping  per  load  8  mm. 

Total  time  under  steam    223  hr.  47  min. 

Average   speed,    light 6.9  knots 

(to  and  from  wharf)    7.4 

Approximate   speed    while   dredging    1.5 

Time  lost  due  to  fog   1*4  days 

"    rough   sea    ^ 

' '    repairs     % 

"    coaling    ship    2% 

"    other    causes     % 

actually    working    19% 

Distance  from  working  grounds  to  dumping  grounds,  mean. 3.3  nautical  miles 

Coal   burned    (pea   coal)    207  long  tons 

Water    used    35,300  gal. 

Average  cost  of  dredging  per  cu.  yd.  (based  on  actual  cost  of  coal, 
water,  rent  of  wharf,  wages  of  crew,  and  mess  bills,  and  on  aver- 
age of  ten  years'  cost,  per  working  day,  of  repairs  and  supplies).  5.9  ct. 

DREDGE  GE-N.  C.  B.  COMSTOCK 

Quantity  of  material  dredged    67,476  cu.  yd. 

Character   of  material   dredged    Sand,    mud   and   clay 

Distribution  of  working  time: 

Anchorage   to   cut    9  hr.  55  min. 

Pumping 147    ^    29 

Cut  to   dump 33 

Dumping     8 

Dump  to   cut    25    "    27 

Dump  to  anchorage   10 

Time  lost  turning  0    "    00 

Total  hours  worked   234  hr.  46  min. 

Time    lost   on   account   of   bad   weather,    Sundays    and   holidays,    wash- 
ing out  boilers  and  repairs   220  hr.  37  "»"• 

Cost  of  operating  for  the  month    - $2,888 

Cost  of  extraordinary  repairs  for  the  month   774 

Fuel  consumed,  845  bbl.  fuel  oil  at  70  and  75  ct.  per  bbl. 

The  dredge  Sabine  was  transferred  on  July  13,  1904,  for  work 
beyond  the  ends  of  the  jetties  at  South  Pass.  The  dredge  left 
New  Orleans  on  July  14,  arrived  at  Port  Eods  on  July  15,  and 
began  work  beyond  the  ends  of  the  jetties  on  the  same  day.  The 
material  removed  consists  principally  of  a  stiff  clay  or  mud,  with 
some  sand.  Between  July  15  and  30,  the  dredge  worked  161.5 
hr.,  distributed  as  follows: 


726  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Moving  to  and  from  dredging  position  13  hr. 

-  Pumping     102    " 

Dumping     28    " 

Repairs     12%    " 

Taking  aboard  fuel   6    " 

During  this  time  the  dredge  removed  286  loads  of  material 
containing  a  total  of  about  55,770  cu.  yd.  of  solid  matter.  The 
expenses  of  the  dredge  from  July  13  to  31,  were  about  $1,250, 
making  the  average  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  material  removed  about 
21/4  ct.  From  the  13th  to  31st,  439  bbl.  of  fuel  oil  were  consumed, 
of  which  401  bbl.  were  used  in  connection  with  the  dredging 
operations  proper.  In  August,  1904,  this  dredge  removed  67,- 
860  cu.  yd.  at  this  locality,  the  average  cost  for  working  ex- 
penses being  3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Work  of  Hopper  Dredges  in  Ambrose  Channel.  Two  dredges, 
"  Thomas  "  and  "  Mills  "  were  constructed  after  the  "  Liverpool 
type  "  of  dredges  for  the  Metropolitan  Dredging  Co.,  to  work  in 
New  York  Harbor.  These  dredges  were  each  self-propelling 
steamers  of  7,000  tons  displacement,  300  ft.  long,  52.5  ft.  beam, 
with  a  hopper  capacity  of  2,800  cu.  yd.,  and  a  speed  of  10  knots. 
The  draft  when  empty  was  13  ft.,  and  when  loaded  18  ft.  Each 
was  equipped  with  a  double-suction,  48-in.,  centrifugal  pump. 
The  suction  pipe  was  48-in.  diameter,  and  operated  through  a 
longitudinal  well  in  the  vessel.  The  hoppers  or  bins  were  dumped 
through  bottom  valves.  The  cost  of  each  dredge  was  about 
$475,000. 

At  work  in  New  York  Harbor,  sand  (70%),  with  clay  (5%), 
gravel  and  small  stones  was  the  material  dredged.  The  sand 
fed  freely.  The  maximum  rates  of  loading  were  as  follows:  2,850 
cu.  yd.  in  32  min.;  21,624  cu.  yd.  in  1  day;  285,551  cu.  yd.  for 
one  dredge  in  1  month;  552,297  cu.  yd.  for  both  dredges  in  1 
month.  During  the  12  months  ending  June  30,  1902,  the  two 
dredges  removed  5,015,568  cu.  yd.  of  sand,  of  which  923,176 
cu.  yd.,  or  18.4%,  were  from  below  the  required  depth,  leaving  a 
net  output  of  4,092,392  cu.  yd.,  or  170,516  cu.  yd.  per  month 
per  dredge. 

The  large  amount  cut  from  below  grade  was  due  to  the  method 
of  working  the  Liverpool  type  of  dredges.  The  vessel  was  an- 
chored while  dredging  and  thus  deep  holes  with  intervening 
high  ridges  resulted.  It  required  from  3  to  6  moves  to  obtain 
a  full  load.  Naturally  an  uneven  bottom  was  left. 

During  562  working  days  previous  to  May  31,  442  (78.7%) 
days  were  actually  worked,  88  days  (15.7%)  were  used  for  re- 
pairing, and  32  days  (5.6%)  were  lost  during  bad  weather. 
During  the  working  days,  15^4  hr.  per  day  were  worked,  the  re- 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  727 

mainder  of  the  time  being  charged  to  weather,  coaling,  minor 
repairs,  and  lack  of  steam. 

The  time  occupied  in  pumping,  removing  and  dumping  an 
average  load  of  2,500  cu.  yd.  was  3  hr.  50  min.,  of  which  1  hr. 
45  min.  was  spent  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  dump  (12 
miles),  and  15  min.  in  dumping. 

The  crew  required  for  day  and  night  work  on  each  dredge  was 
54  men;  the  monthly  payroll  was  $2,700  per  dredge. 

Work  of  U.  S.  Dredges  in  Ambrose  Channel.  Henry  N.  Bab- 
cock,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  3,  1906,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing: The  two  dredges  "Manhattan"  and  "Atlantic"  differ 
essentially  in  their  method  of  operation  from  the  Liverpool  type 
of  dredge  described  in  the  last  paragraph.  The  Liverpool  type 
of  dredges  dredged  while  stationary,  and  thereby  sunk  holes  to 
great  depths.  The  ridges  between  these  holes  did  not  wash 
away  to  the  extent  that  might  be  expected.  This  was  due  to  the 
nature  of  the  sand,  which  varied  from  medium  fine  to  coarse, 
was  hard  packed  and  possessed  much  stability.  Dredges  of 
this  type  were  successful  at  Liverpool,  England,  where  the  bottom 
is  a  fine  quicksand  which  ran  into  deep  holes  as  soon  as  they 
were  made. 

To  overcome  this  defect  the  government  vessels  were  designed 
to  dredge  while  proceeding  at  low  speed,  thus  removing  a  strip 
of  approximately  constant  depth  from  the  channel  bottom.  The 
following  relates  to  the  work  of  these  dredges  during  their  first 
season. 

These  vessels  were  of  the  same  plan,  each  being  steel,  twin- 
screw  steamers,  288  ft.  long,  48  ft.  wide,  with  two  self-contained 
sand-bins,  holding  about  2,300  cu.  yd.  when  fully  loaded.  Each 
dredge  was  equipped  with  two  20-in.  centrifugal  pumps,  20-in. 
suction  pipes,  and  4  boilers  each  14  ft,  diameter  Jby  12  ft.  long. 

After  certain  trials,  the  dredges  "  Manhattan  "  and  "  Atlantic  " 
began  actual  work  at  Ambrose  Channel  on  Feb.  8,  1905.  The 
material  was  excavated  to  a  depth  of  40  ft.  It  consisted  mainly 
of  coarse  and  fine  sand  and  gravel,  a  small  amount  of  clay,  some 
mud,  and  about  3%  of  miscellaneous  refuse  such  as  paving  blocks, 
timber,  iron,  chain,  etc. 

Each  dredge  had  two  drags,  which  made  two  furrows  each 
5  ft.  wide,  3  or  4  in.  deep,  and  about  52  ft.  apart.  With  the 
vessel  proceeding  at  speeds  of  1.5  to  3  miles  per  hr.,  a  load  of 
2,200  cu.  yd.  (about  1,800  cu.  yd.  place  measure)  was  removed 
in  a  length  of  15,000  to  20,000  ft.  The  courses  were  laid  out  so 
that  a  dredge  obtained  a  full  load  in  going  up  and  back  once. 

The  distance  to  the  dumping  grounds  was  about  8  miles.     The 


728  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

average  time  going  loaded  was  46  min.,  and  returning  empty  36 
min.,  a  total  of  82  min.  (or  28%  of  total  working  time)  for  an 
average  load  of  2,044  cu.  yd.  Up  to  Aug.,  1905,  dredging  was 
performed  during  the  day,  but  since  that  time  both  day  and 
night.  Night  work  is  about  90%  as  efficient  as  day  work. 

Up  to  July  1,  1905,  the  dredges  were  undergoing  many  alter- 
ations and  repairs.  During  8  months'  work  of  one  dredge  and  2 
months'  work  of  the  other  467,450  cu.  yd.  (46,745  cu.  yd.  per 
dredge  month)  were  removed  at  a  cost  of  9.9  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  From 
July  1,  1905,  to  May  31,  1906,  both  dredges,  working  11  months 
each,  removed  3,258,707  cu.  yd.  at  a  "  field  "  cost  of  5.3  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  The  itemized  cost  was  as  follows: 

Ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

Pumping     3.357 

Turning     0.206 

Going   loaded    0.835 

Dumping     0.223 

Returning   empty    0.653 


Total  per  cu.  yd 5.274 

It  will  be  noticed  that  about  one-third  of  the  total  working 
time  is  spent  in  travelling  and  dumping  the  load. 

Divided  according  to  items  of  expense,  the  cost  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

•f'V!-  Ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

Payroll     1.761 

Coal     1.408 

Water    ' 0.039 

Subsistence     0.476 

Engine-room    supplies    0.098 

Miscellaneous    supplies    0.150 

Repairs  and  renewals   1.342 


Total  per  cu.  yd 5.274 

These  vessels  are  very  sea- worthy  and  remain  at  work  as  long 
as  it  is  possible  to  dump  at  sea.  The  week's  work  begins  at  5 
A.  M.  Monday,  when  they  leave  their  docks.  At  noon  Saturday 
they  return  to  dock  and  that  night  or  on  Sunday  they  take  on 
coal  and  supplies,  clean  boilers,  etc.  During  the  period,  July  1, 
1905,  to  May  31,  1906,  out  of  670  days  of  24  hr.  each,  335.1  days 
(50%)  were  spent  actually  at  work,  138.1  days  (20.6%)  were  lost 
while  repairing,  11.5  days  (1.7%)  on  account  of  fog  and  snow, 
13.4  days  (2,0%)  on  account  of  storms,  46  days  (6.9%)  while 
taking  on  coal,  in  making  minor  repairs,  etc.,  3.7  days  (0.6%) 
on  account  of  miscellaneous  delays,  12.2  days  (1.8%)  in  July 
before  night  work  began,  and  110  days  (16.4%)  on  Sundays  and 
holidays. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  729 

The  estimated  total  cost  of  work  of  one  dredge  for  one  month 
is  given  below.  The  unit  cost  is  based  on  the  average  monthly 
output  of  one  dredge  during  the  twelve  months  ending  June  30, 
1906,  of  158,100  cu,  yd.  During  June,  1906,  the  two  dredges 
excavated  535,692  cu.  yd.  (267,846  cu.  yd.  each).  The  crew 
required  on  each  dredge  numbers  54  men,  the  wages  paid  being 
as  follows: 

Deck: 

1  engineer   inspector    $    166.66       9  oilers  at  $45   405.00 

1  master    175.00      9  stokers  at  $40    360.00 

1  mate    120.00 


3  dredgemen  at  $40  120.00  1  cook     60.00 

4  dredgemen  at  $30  120.00  }  cook     45.00 

6  deckhands   at   $35  210.00  1  c°ok     ••• 

7  deckhands   at  .$30  210.00  3  waiters  at  $20   60.00 

Engine  Room:  Carpenters: 

1  chief   engineman    150.00  1  (Vz    time    to    each    dredge) 

1  assistant   engineman    110.00          at  $60    30.00 

1  assistant   engineman    90.00 

1  assistant   engineman    75.00              Total     $2,701.66 

The  actual  pay  roll  has  varied  from  $2,406  to  $2,709,  the  aver- 
age being  about  $2,660.  The  deck  crew  works  12  hr.  per  day 
while  dredging  and  8  hr.  per  day  while  repairing.  The  engine 
room  men  and  the  computers  work  8  hr.  per  day.  The  fuel  used 
is  free  burning  bituminous  coal,  purchased  under  different  con- 
tracts at  prices  ranging  from  $3.01  to  $3.25  per  ton  of  2,240 
Ib. 

Per  month 


Payroll     $ 

Coal    2,480 

Water    60 

Subsistence     700 

Engine-room    supplies    150 

Other    supplies     250 

Casual    repairs    500 

Total  operating  expenses   : ' $  6,800 


Docking,   painting  —  2  times   per  year    $1,250 

Renewals  of  equipment,   per  year   12,150 

Miscellaneous,    per    year    1 1,000 

Total  maintenance  per  year    $14.400 

Total  maintenance  per  month    $1,200 

Depreciation   fund,   10%  on  $341,800   $34.180 

Interest  at  4%   13,672 

Insurance  at   2% 


Total  fixed  charges  per  year 

Total   fixed    charges   per   month $  4,500 

Grand  total  per  month    $12,500 


730  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Note  that  the  rate  of  interest  is  very  low.  Also  note  that  the 
dredge  is  assumed  to  work  12  months  every  year,  which  is  usu- 
ally unattainable  over  a  long  period  of  years. 

The  field  cost  of  dredging  already  stated  was  5.27  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.  The  cost  of  interest,  depreciation,  and  insurance  ($4,500) 
divided  by  the  average  monthly  output  of  158,100  cu.  yd.,  gives 
a  further  charge  of  2.85  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  which  brings  the  total 
cost  of  dredging  to  8.12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  which  is  slightly  less  than 
the  price  bid  by  a  contractor  of  9  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  It  should  be 
noted  that  the  cost  of  repairs  is  probably  less  than  the  cost 
of  repairs  on  an  older  boat. 

In  Professional  Memoirs,  January-March,  1909,  Capt.  H.  L. 
Wigmore  gives  further  cost  data  of  the  work  of  the  Manhattan 
for  1908  in  Ambrose  channel.  This  article  was  abstracted  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  22,  1909.  Below  is  given 
cost  of  operating  the  Manhattan,  with  further  data  showing  the 
cost  to  a  contractor  and  to  the  government.  In  calculating  the 
cost  to  a  contractor  the  cost  of  surveys  and  examinations  should 
not  be  considered,  but  the  cost  of  interest,  depreciation,  and  in- 
surance should  be.  All  of  these  items,  except  interest  and  in- 
surance, should  be  included  in  an  estimate  of  the  cost  to  the 
government. 

Pay  roll   : $31,891.63 

Coal     34,820.06 

Subsistence     12,390.46 

Supplies    4,704.84 

General  repairs    20,369.61 

Wharfage     777.50 

Total     ! $103,954.10 

The  total  yardage  of  the  "  Manhattan  "  for  the  period  from  June 
30,  1907,  to  June  30,  1908,  was  2,660,513  yd.  Taking  the  total 
cost  of  operation  as  $103,954.10,  which  includes  all  items  of  ex- 
pense which  would  be  borne  by  a  contractor,  we  have  a  cost 
per  yd.  of  $0.039 

Building  cost  of  "  Manhattan  "  was  $340,041.58. 

Ten  per  cent,  sinking  fund,  $34,004.16  =  per  yd .013 

Insurance  and  interest  taken  at  7%,  $20,802.91  =  per  yd 


Cost  to  a  contractor  .....................................................    $0.060 


There  should  be  added  an  allowance  of  12%%  in  this  case  for  over 
depth  in  dredging  for  which  the  contractor  is  not  paid  = 
per  yd  .................................................................  006 

Total    ....................  .........................................    $0.066 

Total   cost  to  the  United   States  was   as  follows   (excepting  cost  of 

vessel)  : 
For    cost    surveys    and    examinations    for    two    boats    $19,983.34    or 

$9,991.67,  chargeable  to  the  "  Manhattan  "—  per  cu.  yd  ...........    $0.004 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  731 

For  office  and  contingent  expenses  $6,752.15.  $3,376,075  for  the 
"  Manhattan."  To  this  should  be  added  $1,500  for  the  inspect- 
or's salary  — per  cu.  yd 002 

Operating  as  before  —  per  cu.  yd ..••' "*» 

Sinking  fund  as  before  —  per  cu.  yd uw 

Total  cost  to  the  United  States   $0.058 

Sea-Going  Hydraulic  Hopper  Dredge  for  North  Pacific  Bars. 
Engineering  News-Record,  Nov.  8,  1917,  describes  a  dredge  built 
to  meet  the  extreme  conditions  of  digging  and  seaway  encoun- 
tered on  the  sand  bars  of  the  river  entrances  of  the  North  Pacific, 
particularly  at  Coos  Bay,  Oregon. 

The  Col.  P.  S.  Michie  was  designed  in  the  office  of  the  chief  of 
engineers  and  placed  in  commission  in  the  spring  of  1914.  She 
was  constructed  in  the  yards  of  the  Seattle  Construction  and  Dry 
Dock  Co.  and  delivered  ready  for  service  in  16  months  from  date 
of  award  of  contract,  at  a  cost  of  $378,198.  The  dredge  is  of  steel 
construction,  has  a  length  of  244.6  ft.  over-all,  molded  amidship 
width  of  20  ft.;  draft,  light,  of  11  ft.,  draft,  loaded,  of  17  ft.; 
displacement,  light,  of  1,708  tons  and  displacement,  loaded,  of 
3,372  tons.  Her  speed,  light,  is  10  knots  and  loaded  8  knots, 
and  the  speed  maintained  while  in  operation  is  1^  knots;  en- 
gines, 1,780  hp. 

There  are  six  bins,  three  on  each  side  of  the  well,  having  a 
combined  capacity  of  1,400  cu.  yd.  These  bins  are  fitted  with 
overflow  weirs  which  dispose  of  all  surplus  water.  Openings  are 
also  provided  below  the  level  of  the  maximum  capacity  to  permit 
the  dredge  to  operate  on  a  lighter  draft  if  necessity  demands. 
A  trap  gate  in  the  bottom  of  the  bins  releases  the  material.  The 
bins  can  be  filled  or  dumped  with  dredges  singly,  collectively  or 
in  pairs.  In  order  to  keep  the  vessel  from  listing,  especially 
in  heavy  seas,  it  is  the  practice  to  empty  partly  the  two  for- 
ward hoppers,  then  to  dump  the  four  after  hoppers.  The  dredge 
actually  fills  the  hoppers  in  45  min.  and  it  is  able  to  dump  its 
entire  load  in  7  min. 

The  lower  end  of  the  dredge  arm  is  fitted  with  a  drag  head 
of  the  usual  type  used  by  sea-going  dredges.  The  first  drag 
head  used  was  made  of  ordinary  steel  and  was  in  serviceable 
condition  for  about  30  days  of  actual  use.  A  new  drag  made  of 
manganese  steel  has  seen  two  years  of  actual  service  and  has 
handled  as  many  as  27  cu.  yd.  of  material  per  min.  over  long 
periods  of  operation.  The  dredge  arm  has  been  operated  in  42  ft. 
depth  of  water  and  in  this  position  has  an  angle  of  30°  from  the 
vertical.  All  movements  of  the  dredge  arm,  pumping,  disposing 
of  material,  etc.,  are  mechanically  operated,  the  chief  operator's 


732 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  733 

station  being  located  conveniently  to  afford  a  clear  view  of  all 
movements. 

When  dredging  operations  began  in  1914  there  was  17  ft.  of 
water  on  the  bar.  The  following  is  a  record  of  the  first  season's 
work  of  the  Michie. 

The  unit  cost  of  dredging  for  the  season  was  14.6  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.,  of  which  the  labor  cost  =  6.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  and  fuel  oil  = 
3.1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  pumping  average  for  the  season  was  14.5 
cu.  yd.  per  min. 

The  cost  of  dredging  for  the  season  of  1915  was  5.13  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.,  of  which  the  labor  cost  was  1.95  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  and  fuel 
oil  1.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Operations  for  the  month  of  March  give 
a  record  well  worthy  of  consideration.  This  month  the  cost  of 
dredging  was  2.88  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  costs  given  include  all 
overhead  expenses,  including  a  2%  charge  for  Portland* office  ex- 
penses, but  do  not  include  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  dredge 
while  out  of  commission. 

Filling  Behind  Bulkheads.  The  cost  of  dredging  by  Seattle 
and  Lake  West  Waterway  Company  is  given  by  C.  H.  Rollins  in 
a  paper  read  before  the  Pacific  Northwestern  Society  of  Engi- 
neers, May,  1904. 

Dredging  was  performed  by  a  Bowers  pattern  dredge,  filling 
behind  bulkheads  of  brush  and  dikes  of  sand  with  straw  or  hay 
embedded  in  them.  The  outlet  for  the  waste  water  was  through 
vertical  sluice  boxes  from  the  bottom  of  which  other  horizontal 
boxes  extended  to  a  point  beyond  the  fill.  Other  bulkheads  were 
of  piles  and  planking.  The  brush  bulkheads  were  the  best  for 
they  were  semi-permanent.  Brush  bulkheads  were  in  good  con- 
dition after  being  in  place  9  years. 

Brush  bulkheads  were  constructed  as  follows:  Young  fir  brush 
was  so  placed  with  the  butts  out  as  to  give  a  slope  of  1  or  1^ 
to  1  to  the  face.  The  top  width  of  the  biflkhead  was  12  ft. 
Piles  were  driven  in  2  rows  10  ft.  apart,  piles  being  6  or  more 
ft.  apart  on  centers.  Planks  were  temporarily  spiked  to  the 
piles  to  hold  the  brush  in  place.  The  brush  was  kept  a  little 
above  the  fill  at  all  times.  This  type  of  bulkhead  permitted 
the  water  to  waste  rapidly  but  held  nearly  all  of  the  filling 
material. 

Temporary  Pile  and  Plank  Bulkheads  were  constructed  by  driv- 
ing piles  in  2  rows,  8  to  10  ft.  apart,  with  piles  at  8-ft.  centers. 
The  outer  row  of  piles  was  braced  with  1^-in.  planks  to  the 
inner  row,  and  the  inner  row  was  braced  with  planks  to  anchors 
in  the  fill.  Planks  were  spiked  to  the  inside  of  the  outer  row 
of  piles  for  half  their  height,  and  to  the  inner  row  of  piles 
for  the  remainder  of  the  height  of  the  fill.  The  planks  were 


734  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

1%  in.  (or  occasionally  3  in.)  thick.  This  type  of  bulkhead  was 
inexpensive  and  satisfactory. 

The  dredging  was  performed  by  two  20-in.  suction  dredges.  The 
Man  Diego  was  equipped  with  a  600-hp.  engine  and  a  rotary  cut- 
ter, and  could  dig  to  over  50  ft.  in  depth.  The  30-in.  discharge 
line  was  supported  at  the  shore  and  by  tackles  from  derrick 
scows.  The  Portland  was  equipped  with  800-hp.  engine  and  22-in. 
discharge. 

Hydraulic  Dredging  at  Oakland  Harbor,  Cal.  L.  J.  Le  Conte 
in  Transactions,  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  13 
(1884)  gives  the  cost  of  dredging  with  a  hydraulic  dredge. 
This  machine  was  equipped  with  a  rotary  cutter  for  work  in 
hard  material,  20-in.  suction  pipe,  a  centrifugal  pump,  two 
16  x  20-in.  pump  engines,  two  12  x  12-in.  cutter,  hoist,  and  winch 
engines,  and  two  100-hp.  boilers.  The  material  excavated  was 
sticky,  blue  clayey  mud.  The  percentage  of  solid  matter  dis- 
charged from  the  pipe  line  varied  up  to  40% ;  the  advisable 
maximum  percentage  was  15%. 

During  the  years  1883  to  1886  inclusive,  in  23  working  months, 
1,201,370  cu.  yd.  were  excavated,  an  average  of  52,233  cu.  yd.  per 
month.  The  length  of  the  discharge  pipe  line  varied  from  900 
to  3,900  ft.  The  maximum  monthly  output  was  during  Oct., 
1885,  when  85,902  cu.  yd.  were  discharged  in  269  engine-hr., 
through  3,400  ft.  of  pipe  line.  In  Apr.,  1884,  63,080  cu.  yd.  were 
discharged  in  275  engine-hr.  through  3,900  ft.  of  pipe. 

The  monthly  expenses  were  as  follows: 

Per  month 
1  captain $    200.00 

1  engineman     100.00 

2  firemen   at   $60    ^ 120.00 

1  mate    60.00 

2  guy-tenders  at  $40   80.00 

3  deckhands   at  $40   120.00 

1  cook    60.00 

Board  for  11  men  at  $15  165.00 

Coal,  62.5  tons  at  $9   562.50 

Oil,   25  gallons  at  $1 25.00 

Water,  1,500  gal.  at  1  ct 15.00 

Repairs  to  dredge  and  pipe  line 300.00 

Interest  on  plant,  $50,000  300.00 

Depreciation     208.50 

Insurance    167.00 

Taxes     50.00 

6  shore  men  at  $60  360.00 

52,233  cu.  yd.  at  5.5  ct $2,893.00 

Hydraulic  Dredging  at  Rockaway,  N.  Y.  Engineering  Record, 
Sept.  22,  1900,  contains  a  description  of  an  embankment  between 
Brooklyn  and  Rockaway,  New  York  City,  which  was  formed  of 
hydraulic  dredged  material.  The  embankment  was  70  ft.  wide 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  735 

and  5  ft.  above  high  water.  The  original  marsh  surface  was  at 
about  the  high  water  level,  and  the  material  was  mud  for  a 
depth  of  15  ft.,  with  coarse  sand  beneath. 

A  hydraulic  dredge  cut  a  channel  200  ft.  wide  and  35  ft.  deep, 
and  discharged  the  material  in  the  fill  in  a  direction  parallel  to 
the 'axis  of  the  fill,  and  between  longitudinal  turf  dikes.  The 
waste  water  percolated  through  the  turf,  leaving  the  embankment 
firm  enough  to  walk  upon  within  a  few  hours.  The  turf  of 
which  dikes  were  formed  was  cut  from  adjacent  salt  marshes,  and 
was  laid  up  like  masonry  with  a  base  as  wide  as  the  dike  was 
high,  and  a  top  2  ft.  wide.  The  outside  face  was  battered.  The 
ordinary  height  was  6  ft.  and  above  this  the  fill  was  retained 
by  temporary  wooden  hurdles,  made  in  sections  16  ft.  long 
and  3  ft.  high  and  by  a  horizontal  platform  3  ft.  wide  built  into 
the  fill  so  as  to  give  stability.  The  lumber  used  was  matched 
1-in.  hemlock,  nailed  to  3  x  4-in.  cross-pieces.  The  first  cost  «f 
each  16-ft.  hurdle  was  $4  to  $5,  and  it  cost  50  ct.  each  time  one 
was  shifted.  Turf  dikes  6  ft.  high  were  constructed  by  5  men 
at  the  rate  of  20  lin.  ft.  in  10  hr.,  or  nearly  3.6  cu.  yd.  of  turf 
wall  per  man  per  day. 

In  forming  the  embankment,  mud  was  deposited  first  and  the 
sand  on  top.  The  fill  was  made  9  ft.  high,  but  in  a  few  days 
settled  to  a  permanent  height  of  5  ft.  above  high  water.  The 
settlement  of  the  embankment  caused  an  upheaval  of  the  mud 
on  both  sides. 

The  dredge  had  a  16-in.  suction  pipe,  a  15-in.  centrifugal  pump 
with  a  diameter  of  7  ft.,  and  a  350-hp.  engine.  It  had  a  rated 
capacity  of  16,000  cu.  yd.  delivering  a  distance  of  500  ft.  in  32 
working  hr.,  or  500  cu.  yd.  per  hr,  when  conditions  were  favorable. 
This  .dredge  built  100  lin.  ft.  of  fill  in  10  hr.,  or  1,300  cu.  yd.  of 
5  ft.  fill.  In  one  month  a  90,000-cu.  yd.  fill  was  made,  the  dredge 
working  2  daily  shifts  of  12-hr,  each.  This  was  at  the  rate,  of 
about  1,700  cu.  yd.  per  shift,  or  150  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  When  de- 
livering material  a  distance  of  1,100  ft.  to  an'  elevation  of  20  ft. 
the  discharge  contained  up  to  30%  of  solid  material. 

Cost  with  Hydraulic  Dredges  on  the  Massena  Canal.  Engi- 
neering Xews,  Oct.  30,  1902,  gives  the  following  data  relative  to 
the  work  of  centrifugal  pump  dredges  on  the  Massena  Canal, 
from  a  paper  read  before  the  International  Navigation  Congress 
by  John  Bogart. 

Dredge  No.  1  was  equipped  with  a  12-in.  centrifugal  pump,  a 
rotary  cutter,  a  compound  condensing  engine  of  125  hp.,  and 
12-in.  suction  and  discharge  pipe.  This  machine  handled  soft 
clay,  loam  and  sand,  but  could  not  dredge  indurated  clay.  The 
material  was  dredged  at  depths  up  to  22  ft.,  and  discharged  30 


736  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ft.  above  the  water  level  through  1,200  ft.  of  pipe.  The  discnarge 
averaged  25%  solid  material,  the  range  being  from  7  to  30%. 

Dredge  No.  2  was  similar  to  No.  1  except  that  it  was  larger. 
It  was  equipped  with  18-in.  suction  and  discharge  pipe.  The 
material  handled  and  the  distance  it  was  conveyed  were  exactly 
the  same  as  for  No.  1. 

Each  dredge  worked  two  shifts  of  11  hr.  daily.  Dredge  No.  1 
required  the  following  crew  per  shift:  1  captain,  1  engineman, 
1  oiler,  1  fireman,  1  deckhand  foreman,  3  laborers  at  15  ct.  per 
hr.  The  total  pay  of  18  men  for  11  hr.  was  $17195.  Dredge 
No.  2  required  one  more  man  (a  spudman),  and  the  total  pay 
per  shift  was  $20.95. . 

Dredge  No.  1  worked  209  days  each  season.  Careful  observa- 
tions for  194  days  showed  the  average  daily  output  to  be  1,125 
cu.  yd.  per  day.  Dredge  No.  2  worked  two  seasons  and  removed 
290,780  cu.  yd.,  or  an  average  of  1,544  cu.  yd.  per  day.  The 
daily  (2  shifts)  cost  was  as  follows: 

12-in.  dredge  18-in.  dredge 

Labor  and  supervision   $35.90  $41.90 

Coal  at  $3  per  ton   27.00  54.00 

Oil,  waste,  etc 5.00  8.00 

Care  during  winter  at  $209  1.00  1.00 

Interest,   depreciation  and  repairs   26.80  40.19 


Total   per   day    $95.70  $145.09 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.,  total,  ct 8.50  9.40 

(Dredge    No.    1    cost    $40,000;    dredge    No.    2    cost    $60,000. 
Interest  at  4%;   depreciation  and  repairs  at  10%.) 

Suction  Dredge  at  Warroad  River,  Minn.  At  Lake  of  the 
Woods,  Minn.,  a  plant  consisting  of  a  suction  dredge,  wood  barge, 
pipe  line  and  floats,  and  small  boats,  total  cost  $29,130,  was"  used 
to  excavate  a  navigable  tributary,  the  Warroad  River.  The  work 
of  this  outfit  is  described  by  Emile  Low  in  Engineering  News, 
Nov.  29,  1906. 

The  dredge  hull  was  100  ft.  long,  27  ft.  wide  and  8.5  ft.  deep 
amidship.  The  total  length,  including  the  ladder  and  revolving 
cutter,  at  the  bow  and  the  stern  paddle-wheel,  was  185  ft.  The 
hull  contained  a  sand  bin  amidship  with  a  capacity  of  100  cu.  yd. 
The  machinery  included  two  12-in.  centrifugal  pumps,  one  16-hp. 
cutter  engine,  one  20-hp.  hoist  engine,  two  10  x  60-in.  stern  wheel 
engines,  one  6  x  10-in.  duplex  force  pump,  and  four  hand-power 
worm  gears  for  operating  the  spuds.  Steam  was  supplied  by  two 
75-hp.  marine  boilers. 

From  May  7  to  June  30,  1904,  this  dredge  excavated  a  channel 
1,380  ft.  long,  100  ft.  wide,  and  an  average  of  8  ft.  deep,  a  total 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  737 

of  8,625  cu.  yd.,  at  a  total  operating  cost,  including  fuel,  of 
21.67  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Storms  caused  a  loss  of  5.5  days.  From 
July  1  to  Oct.  29,  1904,  a  total  of  26,923  cu.  yd.,  or  a  daily  aver- 
age of  only  259  cu.  yd.,  were  dredged.  Storms  caused  a  loss  of 
12.3  days.  The  material  dredged  was  equal  quantities  of  hard- 
pan  and  mud  with  fibrous  roots  of  bullrush,  etc. 

The  total  excavation  for  the  twelve  months  preceding  June  30, 
1905,  was  55,205  cu.  yd.  The  cost,  including  fuel,  was  13.03  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

Dredging  Silt  with  a  Small  Centrifugal  Outfit.  In  order  to 
remove  the  mud  from  the  bottom  of  a  Pittsburg  reservoir,  a  dredg- 
ing plant  of  simple  construction  was  used.  F.  B.  Marsh,  in  Engi- 
neering Record,  Sept.  3,  1904,  gives  the  following: 

Two  50-hp.  boilers,  located  on  a  dividing  wall  in  the  reservoir, 
and  protected  by  board  covering,  supplied  steam  through  a  line  of 
4-in.  pipe  to  the  engine.  The  engine  was  of  75  hp.,  and  was  in- 
stalled with  an  8-in.  Morris  Centrifugal  pump  and  the  necessary 
suction  pipes  and  other  equipment,  on  a  float,  20  x  30  ft.  in  size. 
The  steam  pipe  was  of  wrought  iron  with  a  40-ft.  section  having 
at  each  end  a  flexible  ball-and-socket  joint  between  two  quarter- 
bends.  This  pipe,  supported  on  the  surface  of  the  water  by  floats, 
permitted  the  dredge  to  swing  freely.  Rubber  pipe  connections 
were  unsuccessful. 

The  suction  pipe  consisted  of  a  10-ft.  length  of  rubber  hose  with 
a  22-ft.  length  of  wrought  iron  8-in.  pipe  to  which  the  mouth- 
piece was  attached.  This  mouthpiece  was  a  45°  bend  enlarging 
to  12-in.,  and  turned  down  so  as  to  rest  on  the  mud.  The  dis- 
charge pipe  from  the  pump  to  the  embankment  was  10-in.,  and 
the  remaining  pipe  that  carried  the  dredged  material  over  the 
embankment  was  8-in.  Fully  10%  of  solid  matter  was  carried. 
The  lift  was  from  16  to  18  ft.,  the  suction  about  7  ft. 

About  55,000  cu.  yd.  were  dredged  at  an  operating  cost  of  about 
10  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  or  a  total  cost,  including  the^cost  of  equipment, 
of  25  ct. 

Cost  at  Wilmington,  Cal.  Engineering  Xews,  Aug.  16,  1906, 
gives  the  following:  A  hydraulic  dredge  was  used  in  the  harbor 
of  Wilmington,  Cal.  The  dredge  was  placed  in  commission  Apr. 
1,  1905,  and  from  that  time  until  June  30,  1905  (3  mos.)  it 
dredged  227,464  cu.  yd.  of  sand  with  shells  and  a  small  per- 
centage of  clay,  cobbles,  disintegrated  sandstone  and  very  com- 
pact and  hard  mud.  The  dredge  was  laid  up  16  days  during  this 
period,  leaving  an  actual  working  period  of  2.5  months.  The 
rate  of  dredging  was  therefore  91,000  cu.  yd.  per  month. 

The  cost  of  the  work  during  this  period  was  as  follows:      i,r% 


738  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Routine  office  work,  labor   $     673 

Care  of  plant  and  property,  labor   180 

Surveys,    labor   and    supplies    156 

Towing,  dispatch  work,  labor,  fuel,  supplies 316 

Alterations    and    repairs :  supt.,     labor,     fuel,    water, 

lubricants,    supplies    10,085 

Deterioration  of  plant  and  property   (estimated) 2,264 


Total    $16,106 

The  original  cost  of  this  dredging  plant  was  as  follows: 

20-in.  suction  dredge.     "  San  Pedro  "  600  hp.  engines    $  99,453 

Gasoline  launch,  30  ft.  long,  16  hp.  engine  1,733 

Discharge  pipe  line    3,023 

Rubber    sleeves 1,275 

24  pontoons;   1  water  boat,  34  ft.  long;  1  oil  boat  34 

ft.  long ;  1  derrick  boat  29.5  x  11  ft 6,501 

Skiffs     .  154 


Total  cost  of  plant  $112,139 

Hydraulic  Dredging  on  N.  Y.  Barge  Canal.  The  following 
data  of  the  cost  of  certain  work  on  contract  No.  4  of  the  New 
York  State  Barge  Canal,  are  given  by  Emile  Low  in  Engineering 
News,  Dec.  5,  1907:  This  work  was  performed  by  means  of  an 
hydraulic  dredge.  The  depths  of  cutting  ranged  from  15  to  25 
ft.,  the  spoil  banks  being  on  the  sides  of  the  canal. 

The  dredge  Oneida  had  a  hull  97x17.5x10  ft.  in  size  and  a 
light  draft  of  5.5  ft.  The  suction  pipes  were  two  in  number, 
and  each  was  19.25  in.  diameter.  The  cutters  were  operated  by 
two  independent,  compound,  vertical,  reversing  engines  of  21 
hp.  The  main  engines  were  of  750  hp.  The  pump  was  centrif- 
ugal in  type  with  a  runner  6.5  ft.  in  diameter.  Steam  was  fur- 
nished by  two  boilers  working  at  200-lb.  pressure.  The  discharge 
pipe  was  26-in.  The  machine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  14.  The 
dredge  as  illustrated  was  not  entirely  stable  and  it  was  necessary 
to  add  a  pontoon  6  ft.  wide  to  each  side. 

In  the  beginning  of  Oct.,  1906,  one  daily  shift  of  8  hr.  was 
woked,  and  later  two  daily  shifts  of  8  hr.  each  were  worked.  In 
Nov.,  1906,  three  shifts  of  8  hr.  each  were  worked.  The  working 
force  per  shift  was  as  follows: 

Per  month 

1  operator     $100 

1  engineman 100 

1  engineman    80 

3  firemen    @    $70    210 

1  spudman     60 

1  oiler 50 

4  ditch  hands  @   $50  200 

In  addition  a  gang  was  employed  to  shift  the  discharge  pipe 
and  repair  the  levees  surrounding  the  spoil  banks.  There  is  also 
a  night  watchman  and  an  engineman  with  a  gasoline  launch. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING 


739 


740          HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Much  difficulty  was  experienced  in  building  the  levees  on  ac- 
count of  the  numerous  windings  of  the  stream,  which  necessitated 
the  construction  of  bridges  over  which  the  excavator  was  trans- 
ported. The  cost  for  the  labor  employed  during  October  and  No- 
vember is  given  below.  As  high  as  10,000  cu.  yd.  of  quicksand 
were  pumped  in  24  hr.,  and  some  12,000  to  17,000  cu.  vd.  of  other 
material  were  removed  in  the  same  period  of  time. 

Chief  engineman,  55  days  at  $150  per  month   $    288.88 

Chief  operator,   55  days  at  $135  per  month   260.00 

Engineman,  129  days  at  $100  per  month   445.93 

Engineman,  129  days  at  $80  per  month   356.74 

Operators,  4  days  at  $130  per  month   19.26 

Operators,  125  days  at  $100  per  month  431.11 

Firemen,  387  days  at  $70  per  month   936.44 

Spudmen,  129  days  at  $60  per  month   267.55 

Oilers,  125  days  at  $50  per  month  215.55 

Deck  hands,  516  days  at  $50  per  month  891.84 

Foremen,  58.4  days  at  $2  per  day  116.75 

Foremen,  34.3  days  at  $3  per  day   102.75 

Laborers,  1,277  days  at  $1.60  per  day  2,043.20 

Tug  enginemen,  30  days  at  $80  per  month  80.00 

Night  watchman,  30  days  at  $1.60  per  day  48.00 


Total  for  two  months   $6,504.00 

Cu.  yd.  dredged    '. 183,055 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 3.55  ct. 

Filling  Park  Land  by  Dredging  at  Chicago.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Feb.  22,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

The  work  of  increasing  the  area  of  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago,  by 
means  of  filling  in  the  submerged  lands  along  the  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan  from  Diversey  Parkway  northward,  and  creating  an  ad- 
dition to  the  present  park  of  197.54  acres. 

The  30-in.  hydraulic  dredge  Francis  T.  Simmons  was  purchased 
in  1907  for  the  work  of  making  the  fill.  It  has  now  been  in 
operation  four  seasons  and  has  made  about  1,800,000  cu.  yd.  of 
fill,  making  a  total  of  68  acres  of  new  land. 

The  dredge  is  of  the  open  end  type.  The  hull  is  of  steel  and  is 
148  ft.  long  by  38  ft.  wide,  by  101^  ft.  deep.  The  main  pump 
has  30-in.  suction  and  discharge  and  the  main  engines  are  of 
triple  expansion  marine  type  of  1,200  i."  hp.  There  are  two 
double  ended  marine  boilers  11  ft.  6  in.  x  18  ft.  long  with  8  cor- 
rugated furnaces.  These  were  fitted  at  the  beginning  of  last 
season  with  eight  Jones  Underfeed  stokers  which  have  eliminated 
the  complaints  formerly  made  on  account  of  the  smoke  and  have 
brought  about  a  more  efficient  combustion.  The  installation  of 
engine  room  auxiliaries  includes  condenser,  independent  air  pump, 
independent  circulating  pump,  fire  and  bilge  pumps,  and  an  elec- 
tric light  outfit.  The  condenser  is  of  sufficient  size  to  receive  the 
exhaust  steam  from  the  cutter  engines  as  well  as  from  the  main 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  741 

engines  and  all  auxiliary  engines.  The  rotary  cutter  is  of  a 
type  adapted  to  hard  and  clay  material  capable  of  penetration 
with  a  pick,  and  can  handle  soft  and  sticky  clay  without  clog- 
ging. The  cutting  edges  are  of  hard  steel  and  are  removable. 
These  will  probably  be  changed  before  beginning  next  season's 
work  as  they  have  now  worn  down  after  two  seasons'  service. 
It  is  likely  that  manganese  steel  will  be  substituted.  The  dredge 
is  anchored  by  heavy  spuds  operated  by  power.  One  of  the  spuds 
is  used  as  a  pivot  about  which  the  dredge  makes  a  radial  cut  175 
ft.  wide  at  one  time.  The  maximum  depth  of  the  cut  is  35  ft. 
The  dredge  is  provided  with  a  complete  repair  shop  and  with 
living  quarters  for  the  crew.  See  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Dec.  5,  1907,  for  the  design  of  the  dredge.  Considerable  comment 
was  made  upon  the  use  of  a  hydraulic  dredge  in  Lake  Michigan 
when  this  work  was  started,  because  it  was  predicted  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  maintain  a  flexible  discharge  pipe  line  in 
the  waves,  and  that  more  time  would  be  lost  on  account  of  the 
weather  than  is  the  case  with  other  types  of  dredges.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  the  proposition  has  been  reversed  and  with  the  im- 
proved design  of  the  discharge  pipe,  the  dredge  suffers  less  delay 
on  account  of  weather  than  a  barge  loading  dredge. 

Pipe  Line.  The  form  of  pipe  line  adopted  (Fig.  15)  is  that 
of  a  central  conduit,  30  in.  in  diameter  carried  by  two  cylindrical 
air  chambers  33  in.  in  diameter,  the  three  being  rigidly  held 
together  by  the  frame.  In  this  way  no  bolts  or  rivets  are  put 
into  the  air  chambers  and  they  may  readily  be  taken  apart.  The 
sections  are  95  ft.  long,  it  having  been  found  that  shorter  sec- 
tions did  not  operate  in  a  rough  sea  as  well  as  the  longer  ones. 
The  connections  between  the  sections  of  discharge  pipe  are  joined 
with  the  usual  rubber  sleeve,  but  the  pontoons  are  connected 
with  an  arrangement  which  embodies  the  ball-and-socket  prin- 
ciple, not  in  the  pipe  itself,  but  in  a  strong,  steel  frame  above  the 
pipe.  This  has  proved  entirely  successful  and  the  practical  re- 
sult is  that  the  dredge  is  capable  of  continuing  at  work  in  all  but 
the  heaviest  weather.  The  ball  end  of  the  joint  is  solidly  bolted 
to  the  wood  frames  on  the  pipe,  while  "the  socket  end  is  fitted 
to  slide  in  a  casing  or  frame  and  its  movement  is  resisted  by 
springs,  as  shown.  These  springs  are  heavy  car  springs,  and  are 
two  in  number.  The  springs  are  carried  between  spring  plates 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  are  compressed  for  either  thrust  or 
pull  of  the  drawbar,  the  whole  arrangement  is  built  in  the  very 
strongest  manner  of  steel,  and  each  point  is  strong  enough 
vertically  to  carry  half  the  weight  of  an  entire  pontoon  upon  it. 
In  other  words,  should  the  entire  buoyancy  be  removed  from  one 
pontoon  for  50  ft.  of  its  length  by  the  trough  of  a  wave,  its 


742  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

weight   would    be    supported    upon    the    adjoining    pontoon    with 
safety. 

In  order  to  provide  flexibility  of  the  pipe  at  the  point  of  leav- 
ing the  dredge,  a  swivel  elbow  is  employed  and  the  first  length 
of  pipe  is  short  and  connected  to  the  elbow  by  a  pair  of  hinges. 
The  axis  of  the  hinges  is  horizontal  while  that  of  the  swivel  elbow 
is  vertical;  thus  the  movement  of  the  pipe  is  universal.  The  pipe 
leaves  the  dredge  at  the  corner  in  order  to  permit  the  pipe  to 
radiate  from  the  dredge  at  any  angle  through  three-fourths  of  a 
circle.  The  horizontal  hinges  at  the  swivel  elbow  will  permit  the 
main  pontoons  to  have  a  vertical  or  wave  movement  of  4  ft. 
The  pipe  is  attached  at  one  end,  to  the  dredge,  and  at  the  land 
end  to  a  terminal  scow  which  is  fitted  with  a  steam  winch,  by 
which  its  own  anchorage  is  controlled.  This  detail  of  passing  the 
discharge  line  onto  the  land  has  been  worked  out  in  the  practice 
of  the  last  two  years  so  that  it  is  expected  in  the  coming  season 
to  profit  by  the  results.  The  method  devised  for  future  use  is  to 
anchor  the  terminal  scow  at  the  farthest  point  of  fill,  and,  as  the 
fill  is  made,  to  back  the  terminal  scow  away,  thus  eliminating 
the  use  of  shore  pipe  entirely,  the  stopping  of  the  dredge,  and 
preventing  a  loss  of  time  due  to  adding  shore  pipe.  The  length 
of  the  overhang  of  the  discharge  pipe  beyond  the  terminal  scow 
has  been  made  60  ft.  in  place  of  30  ft.  This  change  was  made 
to  prevent  the  scow  from  grounding  on  material  flowing  back 
under  it  from  the  discharge,  a  trouble  which  has  previously  caused 
some  loss  of  time.  Experiments  were  made  of  passing  a  pipe 
through  the  breakwater,  as  this  was  a  more  direct  line  from 
the  dredge  to  the  fill  when  the  dredge  was  working  in  the  open 
lake.  At  first  the  terminal  scow  was  tied  up  to  the  breakwater 
and  connected  to  the  land  pipe.  This  was  found  to  be  unsatis- 
factory because  the  scow  was  too  easily  affected  by  the  wave  ac- 
tion and  was  endangered  by  constantly  bumping  against  the  break- 
water. A  scheme  was  evolved  by  which  the  scow  was  done  away 
with  entirely,  and  the  pontoons  were  connected  directly  to  the 
pipe  projecting  through  the  breakwater  from  the  land  side.  The 
first  floating  pontoon  was  guyed  to  the  breakwater  from  the  far 
end,  enough  slack  in  the  cables  being  allowed  to  permit  the  pon- 
toon to  take  a  reasonable  angle  to  its  connection.  The  cables 
were  fastened  together  at  the  middle  with  a  special  clip  which 
could  be  loosed  with  one  blow  of  a  small  bar  so  that  a  quick 
release  could  be  obtained  in  case  of  necessity.  At  the  time  of 
exceedingly  rough  weather  the  dredge  with  its  trailing  pontoons 
could  then  be  towed  safely  and  easily  into  the  harbor. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  difficulties  attending  dredging  work  are 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  743 


744  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

much  greater  for  work  on  the  Great  Lakes  than  for  work  on 
smaller  lakes  or  upon  other  inland  waters.  The  time  lost  on  ac- 
count of  weather  is  less  than  by  a  scow  loading  dredge  because 
such  dredges  are  compelled  to  stop  work  when  the  sea  becomes 
only  so  rough  as  to  cause  hard  bumping  between  the  scow  and 
dredge.  The  time  lost  by  the  Francis  T.  Simmons  on  account  of 
weather  during  the  past  dredging  season  of  7  mos.,  has  averaged 
18.2%.  In  1909  the  average  was  9%,  in  1908,  14.4%,  and'in  1907 
it  was  23.2%.  During  the  1910  season  (Apr.  to  Oct.  inclusive), 
there  were  4,320  working  hr.,  of  which  60.2%  was  spent  in  pump- 
ing, and  39.8%  lost.  The  following  record  for  September  is 
typical : 

TIME  LOST  BY  DELAYS 

September,   1910  Hr. 

Total  available  time   600 

Dredge  worked   381 

Delays     219 

Weather 57 

Short  pipe   32 

Suction  pipe,  pumping  and  plug  11 

Pontoon   line    32 

Swinging  cables    15 

Main    engine    24 

Spud    engine    ^ 

Cutter   engine    

Cutter   shaft    

Moving  dredge  to  new  cut  5 

Towing   and    preparation    34 

Miscellaneous    1 

Stones     7 

During  the  month  of  September  the  dredge  worked  11  days  from 
a  position  outside  the  breakwater  protection  and  11  days  in  the 
yacht  harbor.  The  balance  of  the  time  was  taken  up  by  bad 
weather,  Sundays  and  holidays* 

The  cost  of  the  work  for  the  season  of  1910  is  shown  below. 
The  items  of  tug  service  are  calculated  at  actual  cost  per  hr. 
of  service.  The  cost  of  operation  of  the  tugs  and  other  aux- 
iliary machinery  is  given  later. 

During  the  season  of  1910,  the  total  yardage  was  570,243, 
the  dredge  being  in  commission  4,320  hr.,  and  the  cost  was  as 
follows : 


Operation:  Per  cu.  yd. 

Labor     $0.0243 

Fuel 0300 

Supplies,  tools,  sleeves, — ,  etc 0076 

Commissary  labor  and  supplies 0104 

Field  repairs,  labor  and  material 0106 

Tug  service    0238 

Derrick  service    000;i 

Motor    boat    0010 

Insurance     uuou 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  745 

Winter  repairs  and   fitting  up: 

Labor    0093 

Material     0037 

Fuel  commissary  and  tools  0018 

Tug    service    0013 

Totals 

Operation    1142 

Repairs     .0161 

Operation  and  repairs    $0.1303 

The  repairs  shown  with  the  operating  expenses  include  the 
minor  repairs  made  during  operation,  which  those  shown  under 
the  head  of  winter  repairs  are  for  repairs  made  during  the  win- 
ter season  in  preparation  for  the  work  of  the  summer  of  1910. 
Some  of  the  field  repairs  included  the  relining  of  several  pon- 
toon discharge  pipes.  This  -work  costs  about  $225  per  pontoon, 
$125  for  material  and  $100  for  labor.  The  pipe  is  relined  with  a 
strip  of  %-in.  sheet  steel,  36  in.  in  width,  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
the  pontoon  to  fit  the  circumference.  The  pontoons  are  95  ft. 
long.  When  relined  they  are  expected  to  last  three  of  four  sea- 
sons. The  winter  repairs  consisted  of  overhauling  the  engines, 
boilers,  furnaces,  stokers,  and  replacing  steam  pipe  connections. 
The  engines  were  relined,  the  shafts  rebabitted  and  rebushed. 
The  heaviest  wear,  however,  is  on  the  cutter  mechanism.  The 
cutter  ran  two  years  without  renewal  of  blades.  The  next  blades 
put  in,  however,  will  probably  be  of  manganese  steel  and  are  ex- 
pected to  last  longer.  The  centrifugal  pump  runner  lasts  about 
two  seasons  and  costs  $600.  It  is  of  cast  steel  with  a  steel  lin- 
ing on  the  blades.  The  other  repairs  consist  of  cleaning  and 
scraping  the  steel  hull  and  painting. 

Table  I  is  a  summary  of  the  costs  and  performance  of  the 
dredge  for  the  past  four  seasons,  or  since  the  dredge  was  built. 
It  must  be  noted  here  that  the  yardage  as  given  for  the  years 
1907-8  and  9  was  calculated  from  the  cut,  while  that  for  1910 
has  been  calculated  from  the  total  amount  in  place.  For  this 
reason  the  season  of  1910,  which  is  believed  to  have  been  the  best 
season's  work  yet  done,  does  not  show  well  in  the  comparison. 

The  operating  crew  of  the  dredge  is  as  follows: 

Per  month 

1  chief   operator    $150.00 

1  assistant   operator    125.00 

1  chief  engineman 150.00 

1  assistant   chief   engineman    110.00 

4  oilers    66.00 

4  firemen    66.00 

4  coal    passers    , 55.00 

2  spudmen 66.00 

1  janitor     55.00 

8  deckhands     55.00 


746 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


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METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  747 

Commissary : 

1  steward 86.00 

1  second    cook    40.00 

1  porter    40.00 

The  men  receive  their  board  in  addition  to  the  wages  listed. 
They  work  two  12-hr,  shifts.  For  overtime  they  are  paid  time- 
and-a-half  and  if  worked  Sundays  (which  is  extremely  seldom), 
they  get  double  time.  All  overtime  is  paid  for  in  addition  to  and 
not  considering  their  regular  wage.  This  is  in  accordance  with 
the  union  rules  on  the  great  lakes. 

The  dredge  is  working  in  very  stiff  gumbo  clay  which  is  cov- 
ered with  a  layer  of  from  3  to  5  ft.  of  sand.  The  depth  of  the 
dredging  at  Chicago  is  from  18  to  35  ft.  and  the  material  was 
deposited  through  about  2,000  ft.  of  pipe. 

Cost  of  Dredge.  The  following  table  gives  the  list  of  items 
which  together  make  up  the  cost  of  the  dredge  as  it  was  put  in 
operation  in  1910: 

Engineering,   plans,    inspection,   etc $    9,816.45 

Contract   (1907)  with  2.000  ft.  pontoons  151,402.19 

Terminal  pontoon  scow   (1907)    1,227.88 

8  Jones  underfeed  stokers  (1908)   6,700.00 

6  pontoons    (1908)    10,485.00 

Miscellaneous     874.04 


Total     $180,505.56 

Cost  of  Tenders.  In  connection  with  the  dredging  work  and 
other  construction  tributary  to  the  Park  Extension  work,  a  fleet 
of  tugs,  derricks  and  other  floating  apparatus  was  employed.  The 
cost  of  operation  of  each  of  these  for  the  past  year  is  given  below, 
together  with  the  original  cost,  maintenance  cost,  and  a  brief  de- 
scription of  the  apparatus. 

The  tug  Keystone  has  a  steel  hull,  87^  ft.  long,  19  ft.  beam, 
and  11  ft.  deep.  She  is  of  94  gross  ton  weight,  and  was  built  in 
1891.  She  contains  1  fore  and  aft  compound  condensing  engine 
with  18x34-in.  cylinders  of  30  in.  stroke,  and  <nie  fire  box  marine 
boiler  14  ft.  long  by  102  in.  in  diameter  carrying  steam  at  125 
Ib.  The  crew  is  as  follows: 

Per  month 
1  captain      $165.00 

1  engineman    120.00 

2  firemen  at  65.00 

1  deckhand     65.00 

1  scowman 65.00 

1  watchman      66.00 

1  cook    including    supplies    225.50 

This  tug  was  in  commission  12  hr.  per  day.  Board  was  fur- 
nished the  men  in  addition  to  the  regular  wages.  The  tug  was 
purchased  by  the  Park  Commission  in  1905  at  a  cost  of  $13,983.19, 


748  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

including  improvements,  and  was  fitted  with  Jones  underfeed 
stokers  in  1910  at  a  cost  of  $2,025,  making  its  total  cost  $16,- 
008.19.  It  has  been  in  commission  2,348  hr.  The  cost  of  opera- 
tion has  been  as  follows: 

Cost 

Cost  per  hr. 

Labor    operation    $5,485.63  $2.336 

840  tons  coal  2,772.50  1.180 

Supplies      915.56  .390 

Insurance 127.50  .055 

Labor   repairs    1,057.76  .450 

Material  repairs  .-v 903.06  .385 


Total  cost  of  operation   $9,301.19  $3,961 

Summarizing  we  get  the  following  costs: 

Total  cost  of  repairs    $1,960.82 

Cost  of  operation  per  hr 3.961 

Cost  of  operation  per  day   47.55 

Cost  of  repairs  per  hr .835 

Cost  of  repairs  per  day  10.05 

Cost  of  operation  and  repairs  per  hr 4.80 

Cost  of  operation  and  repairs  per  day  57.60 

This  tug  was  used  mostly  for  towing  scows  loaded  with  loam 
for  park  purposes,  but  89  hr.  of  its  time  have  been  charged  to  the 
dredging. 

The  tug  Richard  B,  another  member  of  the  fleet,  is  76  ft.  long, 
17  ft.  beam,  and  7  ft.  in  depth.  She  has  a  wood  hull  and  is  rated 
at  63  gross  tons.  She  is  equipped  with  one  fore  and  aft  com- 
pound condensing  engine  10  x  20-in.  cylinder  with  14-in.  stroke. 
Her  boiler  is  Scotch  Marine  type,  14  ft.  long  by  96  in.  in  diameter, 
and  carries  125  Ib.  of  steam.  She  was  built  in  1906.  Her  crew 
consists  of  a  captain  at  $145,  an  engineman  at  $120^  a  fireman 
and  a  lineman  each  at  $65.  The  tug  was  purchased  by  the  Park 
Commission  in  1905  for  $8,744.55,  which  price  included  some  re- 
pairs and  improvements  made  on  it,  before  placing  it  in  com- 
mission. The  cost  of  operation  and  repairs  during  the  season 
of  1910  were  as  follows: 

Hours  in   commission    1,118 

Hours   leased    732 

-     Hours  on  park  extension   386 

Cost 

Labor  operation,   386  hr $    476.88 

Fuel,  386  hr 315.75 

Supplies 104.03 

Insurance    95.00 

Labor   repairs    (winter)    511.35 

Material   repairs    534.41 

Towing   repairs    21.76 

Total  operation,   386  hr 991.66 

Total  repairs,  1,118  hr 1,067.52 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  749 


Total  operation  and  repairs 2,059.18 

Total  cost  per  hr ; . . .  3.53 

Total  cost  per  day  42.36 

The  time  of  this  tug  was  charged  to  the  dredge  work  for  139 
hr.  It  was  in  commission  12  hr.  a  day. 

The  tug  Hausler,  the  last  of  the  three  tugs  belonging  to  the 
fleet,  is  72  ft.  long,  18  ft.  beam,  9  ft.  deep,  and  is  rated  at  61 
gross  tons.  She  was  built  in  1893  of  wood.  Her  machinery  con- 
sists of  1  vertical  non-condensing  engine,  22  x  44-in.  cylinder  with 
24-in.  stroke.  She  has  1  fire  box  marine  boiler,  14  ft.  long  x  96 
in.  in  diameter,  carrying  135  Ib.  of  steam.  Her  crew,  a  double 
crew,  during  the  past  season  each  consisted  of  a  captain  at  $165, 
an  engineman  at  $120,  and  two  firemen  and  one  deckhand  at  $65. 
She  was  in  commission  24  hr.  per  day.  This  tug  was  purchased 
in  1908  for  $10,500.  The  cost  of  operation  and  repairs  for  the 
season  of  1910  is  as  follows,  for  5,537.5  hr.  in  commission: 


Cost 

Total  per  hr. 

Labor    operation    $8,283.92  $1.496 

Fuel,   773  tons    2,903.00  .524 

Supplies 369.65  .667 

Insurance 250.00  .045 

Labor   repairs    1,317.26  .238 

Material    repairs    1,897.63  .343 

Towing   repairs    14.12 

Total    operation    11,806.57  2.13 

Total  repairs    3,224.01  .59 

Total  cost  15,035.58  2.72 

This  tug  devoted  nearly  all  its  time  to  the  dredge. 

The  motor  boat  which  was  used  for  transportation  of  the  men 

and  for  other  purposes  was  purchased  in  1907  for  $1,150  and 

operated  for  7^  months  during  the  season  of  1910.  Its  cost  for 
the  season,  time  in  commission  7^  months,  was  as  follows: 

Labor    operation     $449.14 

Labor    repairs    62.80 

Supplies     264.36 

Derrick,  2  hours  at  $1.60  3.20 


Total  cost   $779.50 

Cost  per   month    .  103.92 

Cost  per  day   4.00 

About  146  days  of  the  motor  boat's  time  was  charged  to  the 
dredge. 

The  floating  derrick,  which  was  employed  for  various  duties  on 
all  the  work,  was  purchased  in  1905  at  a  cost  of  $5,287.26.  Its 
cost  of  operation  for  the  past  season  is  as  follows: 


750  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Hours  in  commission  1,783.5 

Labor   operation    $1,871.29 

Fuel  and  supplies   599.07 

Insurance    100.00 

Labor  repairs    268.70 

Towing      17.62 

Total    $2,856.68 

Total  cost  of  repairs  286.32 

Total  cost  of  operation   2,570.36 

Total  cost  per  hr 1.60 

Total  cost  per  day  16.00 

The  derrick  was  in  commission  10  hr.  per  day  and  was  oper- 
ated by  a  crew  consisting  of  an  engineer  and  fireman  with  a 
varying  number  of  deckhands  —  usually  about  four. 

Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.  9,  1913,  gives  the  following 
additional  data: 

A  total  of  3,662,525  cu.  yd.  of  hydraulic  dredge  fill  has  been 
completed  in  the  work  of  reclaiming  for  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago, 
an  area  of  200  acres  from  Lake  Michigan.  The  average  cost  of 
this  fill  has  been  14^  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Altogether  139.06  acres  have 
been  reclaimed. 

The  dredging  was  done  by  the  30-in.  hydraulic  pipe  line  dredge 
built  in  1907  and  in  commission  from  April  8  to  Nov.  16,  1912, 
a  period  of  4,524  hr.,  of  which  2,954  hr.,  or  65%  of  the  time,  was 
employed  in  pumping.  The  weather  throughout  the  season  was 
very  unfavorable  for  dredge  operation  outside  of  the  breakwater 
and  work  was  confined  within  the  yacht  harbor  about  half  the 
season.  The  yardage  dredged  in  1912  was  899,701  cu.  yd.  The 
time  report  of  the  dredge  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

Total  working  hours 4,524 

Hours   delay : 

Weather,   10%   451 

Other  causes,  25%  1,119 


Total  delays,  135%  1,570 

Time  pumping  2,954 

The  cost  of  operating  the  dredge  is  given  below.  In  this  table 
the  items  "  repairs  "  include  only  those  repairs  made  during  the 
operating  season.  The  cost  of  the  more  extensive  overhauling 
repairs  made  during  the  season  during  which  the  dredge  was  out 
of  commission  are  shown. 

The  items  for  tug  service,  derrick,  motor  boat  scows,  etc.,  are 
prorated  from  the  accounts  showing  the  cost  of  operating  these 
pieces  of  plant.  The  cost  of  operating  a  derrick,  or  a  tug,  for  ex- 
ample, is  kept  account  of  throughout  the  season  and  the  cost  per 
hr.  is  obtained.  Its  time  is  then  distributed  to  the  various  jobs 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  751 

upon  which  itjias  served  and  charged  against  each  job  at  its 
calculated  cost  per  hr.  The  cost  of  operation  for  899,700  cu.  yd. 
was  as  follows: 

Labor  operating $16,506 

Commissary : 

Labor    1,500 

Supplies     5,560 

Total    $7,065 

Repairs : 

Labor    $3,873 

Materials   8,444 


Total    $12,317 

Attendance  : 

Tug    service    -. $18,804 

Motor    boat    853 

Scows    410 

Teams     40 

Derrick     1,703 


Total    $21.810 

Fuel 17,901 

Dredge   supplies    4,783 

Administration     2,473 

Insurance    4,250 


Grand  total  at  9.7  ct $87,105 

COST  OF  OVERHAULING  REPAIRS  DURING  WINTER 

Item 

Labor    $  8,667 

Fuel    1,195 

Materials     4,587 

Dredge   supplies    443 

Commissary  supplies    564 

Service,  tugs,  derrick,  teams  782 

Total   repairs *...     $16.238 

Repairs  per  cu.  yd.  excavation   *. 1.8  ct. 

The  ground  on  which  the  Panama  Pacific  International  Ex- 
position was  built  was  submerged  in  many  places,  the  average 
high  tide-level  being  about  elevation  —  5.5.  ft.  and  the  average 
elevation  of  the  non-submerged  section  of  the  height  was  about 
+  1.5  ft.  About  1,300,000  cu.  yd.  of  fill  were  pumped  into  the 
submerged  area,  bringing  the  surface  to  elevation  —  2.75.  The 
material  in  the  fill  averaged  from  16  to  17%  sand,  the  remainder 
being  mud  and  silt.  Due  to  the  superior  weight  and  density 
of  this  material  it  crushed  its  way  2  to  5  ft.  into  the  soft  sand 
and  ooze  of  the  old  bottom  to  such  an  extent  that  where  the  or- 
iginal sounding  showed  elevation  —  15  the  actual  bottom  of  the 
fill  was  nearer  elevation  —  20. 


752 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Breaking  Up  Clay  for  Dredging.  This  is  described  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Feb.  J2,  1908.  The  foundation  walls  for 
a  bridge  were  sunk  through  sand  and  clay,  the  latter  being  dark 
blue  and  very  hard.  It  was  brittle  when  quite  dry,  but  like 
leather  when  under  water.  A  dredge  was  used  to  remove  the 
overlying  sand  but  could  make  no  impression  on  the  clay.  Ac- 
cordingly the  following  method  of  breaking  up  the  clay  was  em- 
ployed: Five  double-headed  rails  each  20  ft.  long,  and  weighing 
GO  Ib.  per  yd.,  were  riveted  together.  Two  outer  rails  were 
splayed  outward  like  a  trident  and  were  sharpened.  The  center 
rail  was  also  sharpened,  and  the  two  others  were  cut  off  at  about 
2y2  ft.  from  the  end.  This  arrangement  was  worked  up  and  down 


Fig'  16. 


Scraper  for  Lowering  Sand  Bars. 


by  a  steam  hoist,  and,  being  iop  heavy,  when  it  was  driven  into 
the  clay  it  tended  to  fall  over,  thus  breaking  up  the  clay.  In 
this  manner  a  hole  1  ft.  deep  and  13^  ft.  in  diameter  could  be 
dug  and  dredged  in  24  hr. 

Scraper  for  Lowering  the  Crest  of  Sandbars.  For  temporarily 
increasing  the  depth  on  a  sandbar  in  the  Mississippi  River, 
scrapers  were  used,  Fig.  16.  This  device  was  invented  by  Col. 
Stephen  H.  Long,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.  It  consisted 
of  a  triangular  frame  of  oak  timber,  with  buckets  or  cutters  of 
boiler  iron  bolted  to  the  lower  side.  It  was  attached  by  bolts 
to  the  sides  of  a  boat  and  was  raised  or  lowered  by  two  ropes,  one 
of  which  was  fastened  to  the  bow  of  the  boat  and  passed  under 
a  pulley  near  the  lower  end  of  the  frame;  thence  over  a  pulley 
on  a  bow  sprit  projecting  from  the  boat,  and  thence  to  the  forward 
steam  capstan.  The  other  rope  was  attached  to  the  apex  of  the 
triangular  frame,  passed  over  a  pulley  connected  to  the  shear 
boom  and  thence  to  an  aft  capstan.  The  method  of  operating 
this  scraper  was  to  move  the  boat  to  the  head  of  the  shoal  to  be 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  753 

dredged,  and  lower  the  scraper  on  the  bar.  The  steamer  was 
then  backed  so  as  to  drag  the  scraper  over  the  bar,  the  floats 
floating  with  the  stern  down  stream.  After  .having  been  dragged 
across  the  bar,  the  scraper  was  raised  out  of  the  water  and  the 
steamer  returned  to  the  initial  point.  The  operation  was  then 
repeated  until  the  desired  depth  was  obtained.  The  buckets  cut 
up  and  loosened  the  material  on  the  bar  and  then  conveyed  it 
down  stream  and  deposited  it  in  deep  water,  being  assisted  in  the 
movement  of  the  material  by  the  river  current.  These  scrapers 
are  effective  for  temporarily  increasing  the  depth  on  a  bar;  but 
for  work  of  permanent  character,  the  ordinary  dipper  dredge  is 
more  economical. 

Sweeping  and  Cleaning  Up  a  Dredged  Channel.  A  combined 
diving,  sweeping  and  derrick  scow,  used  in  cleaning  up  a  dredged 
channel  in  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  River  channel  improve- 
ment at  Philadelphia,  is  described  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Apr.  10,  1907.  A  small  dump  scow,  carrying  a  hoisting  engine 
and  derrick,  \vas  used  for  the  work.  The  middle  pocket  of  the 
scow  was  floored  over  a  few  feet  above  the  water  line  and  housed 
in.  Two  small  winding  drums,  fitted  with  cranks,  ratchets  and 
pawls,  \vere  placed  at  the  two  corners  of  the  stern  or  hoisting  end 
of  the  scow.  Upon  each  drum  was  wound  about  40  ft.  of  light 
steel  wire  hawser,  the  ends  of  which  were  connected  to  a  steel 
sweeping  bar,  1  in.  by  6  in.  by  30  ft.  in  length.  Both  hawsers 
were  graduated  at  the  required  lengths  from  the  cross  or  sweep- 
ing bar  in  alternate  black  and  white  foot  marks  corresponding 
to  the  marks  on  the  dredging  tide  gage.  Bow,  stern,  starboard 
breast  and  port  breast  anchors  held  the  scow  in  position,  the  scow 
being  moved  over  the  shoal  places  by  the  action  of  the  current,  the 
rate  and  direction  of  motion  being  controlled  by  the  anchor  lines. 
In  operation,  the  scow  was  brought  to  the  desired  position  by  the 
anchor  lines,  and  the  sweeping  bar  lowered  to  the*  desired  depth  as 
indicated  by  the  height  of  water  on  the  tide  gage.  The  diver  then 
descended  and  grasping  the  sweeping  bar,  walked  along  the  bot- 
tom with  the  current.  When  the  bar  struck  an  obstruction  above 
the  grade  line,  the  watchmen  in  charge  of  the  winding  drums  were 
aware  of  the  fact,  as  well  as  the  diver.  The  movement  of  the 
scow  was  stopped  instantly  and  the  diver  removed  the  obstruction, 
tools  being  lowered  to  him  if  necessary.  He  then  placed  a  chain 
around  it  and  attached  it  to  the  derrick  hoist,  by  means  of 
which  it  was  lifted  to  the  deck.  The  work  was  done  in  an  en- 
tirely satisfactory  manner,  at  a  cost  said  to  be  not  more  than  one- 
half  of  that  of  operating  a  dredge  in  an  effort  to  perform  like 
work.  Two  divers  were  employed,  working  6-hr,  shifts. 

Cost,  Life  and  Repairs  of  Barges,  Tow-Boats,   and   Dredges. 


754  HANDBOOK  OF  EAKTH  EXCAVATION 

The  following  is  taken  from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July 
17,  1912,  being  an  abstract  of  an  article  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Durham 
in  Professional  Memoirs: 

During  a  period  of  30  years  (1881-1911)  the  upper  Mississippi 
improvement  has  owned  and  employed  282  barges  (scow),  12 
barges  (model),  90  quarter-boats,  office-boats  and  store-boats,  3 
steam  drill-boats,  4  dipper  dredges,  5  hydraulic  dredges,  7  pile 
drivers,  23  dump  boats,  3  snag-boats,  16  tow-boats  of  various 
sizes,  and  a  very  large  number  of  small  steam  and  gasoline 
launches,  motor  and  ordinary  skiffs,  pontoons,  and  other  small 
pieces. 

Scow  Barges.  100x20x41^  ft.  is  the  standard  size  of  all 
100-ft.  barges  hereafter  mentioned.  This  district  also  uses  a 
standard  barge,  110x24x5  ft,,  of  practically  the  same  con- 
struction as  the  100-ft.  barge,  and  for  the  purposes  of  this  article 
the  same  design  applies  to  all  barges  and  to  quarter-boat  and 
drill-boat  hulls,  except  the  model  barges  and  those  bottom  planked 
fore  and  after. 

The  barges  used  in  the  earliest  years  of  this  improvement  for 
carrying  rock  and  brush,  were  mostly  of  smaller  size  (80x16x4 
ft.)  than  those  at  present  employed,  where  built  of  white  pine, 
and  with  calking  and  nominal  repairs,  gave  good  service  for 
periods  ranging  from  8  to  11  years.  The  first  cost  of  these 
averaged  $675  in  1882. 

Early  in  the  improvement  six  oak  model  barges,  135x26x5^ 
ft.,  were  built  on  the  Ohio  River,  three  by  Howard,  of  Jefferson- 
ville,  Ind.,  and  three  by  Cutting,  of  Metropolis,  Til.  These  barges, 
numbered  60-62  and  88-90,  were  built  in  1882  at  $3.500  each, 
and  were  not  condemned  until  1901,  but  for  five  or  six  years  pre- 
vious the  repairs  were  very  heavy.  These  barges  were  in  use 
18  years. 

Sixteen  barges  ( 100  x  20  x  4  ft.)  of  white  pine  cost  $770  each 
in  1891,  and  had  a  life  of  7  years,  during  which  the  repairs 
averaged  $42  a  year  per  barge. 

Nine  barges  (100x20x4  ft.)  of  Douglas  fir  cost  $800  each  in 
1892,  and  had  a  life  of  15  years,  during  which  the  repairs 
averaged  $70  a  year. 

Six  white  pine  barges  (120x20x5)  cost  $1,300  each,  in  1801, 
and  had  a  life  of  21  years  during  which  they  rebuilt  once;  but 
the  entire  repairs  and  rebuilding  averaged  only  $12  each  per 
year. 

Dump  Scows.  Twelve  dump  scows  (78x  18  ft.)  of  8  side  pock- 
ets; each  cost  $1,650,  built  from  1885  to  1896.  Their  useful  life 
averaged  8  years,  whether  of  oak  or  fir.  The  annual  repairs 
averaged  $140  a  year,  or  nearly  9%. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  755 

Tow  Boats.  Two  large  tow  boats  built  in  1881,  cost  $12,000 
each.  Their  hulls  were  100  x  19  ft.,  boiler  22  ft.  x  42  in.  After 
30  years'  service  they  were  "fair"  (needing  extensive  repairs). 
The  two  hulls  were  replaced  in  1895  and  1899,  the  repairs  for 
each  boat  being  about  $5,000  for  each  of  those  years.  Inclusive 
of  these  new  hulls,  and  new  boilers  in  1895  for  one  of  the  boats 
($3,000),  the  average  annual  repairs  over  the  period  of  30 
years  were  $1,000  per  boat  per  year,  or  about  8%  of  the  first 
cost. 

Two  small  tug  boats  were  built  in  1885,  at  a  cost  of  about 
$3,800  each.  At  the  end  of  25  years  the  annual  repairs  on  each 
had  averaged  $460,  inclusive  of  hull  renewals. 

Two  small  tug  boats  were  built  in  1889  at  a  cost  of  $4,000 
each;  the  hull  being  oak,  67x12x3  ft.,  boiler  10  ft.  x  34  in., 
cylinders  6x28  in.  After  21  years  they  were  in  good  condition, 
the  repairs  during  that  period  having  averaged  $450  each  per 
year,  including  three  hull  renewals,  or  1}£  hulls  per  boat  in  21 
years.  A  similar  tug  boat  with  a  steel  hull  cost  $5,100  in  1889, 
and  its  repairs  averaged  $360  a  year  for  25  years,  or  7% 
annually. 

Dredges.  The  "  Ajax "  is  a  dipper  dredge  built  in  1876,  oak 
hull  (80x30x8  ft.),  at  a  cost  of  $11,300.  The  hull  was  re- 
newed in  1894.  At  the  end  of  1910  it  was  in  good  condition,  the 
repairs  and  renewals  having  averaged  $1,030  a  year  for  34  years, 
or  9%  yearly. 

The  Vulcan  dipper  dredge,  built  1883,  cost  $19,450,  and  its  an- 
nual repairs  up  to  end  of  1910  had  averaged  $1,350,  including  hull 
renewals.  It  has  oak  hull,  80x30x8  ft.;  .nominal  repairs  to 
1890;  hull  rebuilt  in  1892-1893  and  1908-1909;  condition  now 
good,  although  annual  repairs  have  been  large  for  the  past  eight 
years. 

The  Phoenix,  built  1885,  oak  hull,  80x8  ft.;  nominal  repairs 
to  1890,  hull  rebuilt  in  1895-1896;  burned  and  entirely  rebuilt 
using  a  portion  of  the  old  machinery  in  1908-J909,  at  a  cost  of 
$19,581,  now  in  good  condition.  First  cost  was  $19,525,  and 
the  annual  cost  of  repairs  and  renewals  has  averaged  $1,600. 

The  Hecla,  15-in.  suction  dredge,  with  eleven  pontoons,  built 
by  United  States  in  1901;  hull,  fir  and  oak,  120x26x5  ft.;  re- 
built 1909-1910;  good  condition.  Its  first  cost  was  $27,700,  and 
the  repairs  have  averaged  $2,300  a  year  for  9  years,  or  about 
8.3%. 

The  cost  of  repairs  and  renewals  by  years  will  be  found  in  the 
article  from  which  the  foregoing  is  abstracted. 

Cost  of  Repairing  Barges.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr. 
24,  1912,  gives  the  following:  A  comparison  of  costs  of  repairs 


756 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


to  barges  constructed  of  treated  and  untreated  timber  is  made 
in  a  paper  presented  to  the  American  Wood  Preservers'  Asso- 
ciation, by  A.  E.  Hageboeck,  United  States  Inspector  at  Rock 
Island,  111.  Some  200  barges  are  now  maintained  for  river  im- 
provement work  in  the  Rock  Island  District,  and  records  of  the 
maintenance  costs  of  these  barges,  which  are  all  of  a  standard 
size  (100x20x4  ft.  7  in.),  are  had  for  the  last  20  years.  The 
comparative  costs  given  by  Mr.  Hageboeck  are,  therefore,  based 
on  unusually  comprehensive  records. 

In  constructing  light  draft  barges  it  has  been  the  policy  to 
use  pressure  creosoted  fir,  as  fir  can  be  obtained  in  long  lengths 
at  a  reasonable  cost.  Long  timbers  are  especially  desirable  in 


u 


0  /   e  J  4  5  6    7  6  9  10  II  tf  13  HIS  16  17  IS 

Years  (n  Service 

Fig.  17.     Average  Cost  of  Repairs  and  Life  for  Untreated  Douglas 
Fir  Barges. 

barge  construction,  as  they  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  number 
of  gunwale  joints  which  are  always  the  first  to  cause  trouble 
by  leaking.  Besides  being  cheaper  in  cost,  both  before  and  after 
creosoting,  the  fir  is  lighter,  resulting  in  a  draft  of  but  9  in. 
for  a  standard  barge  100x20x4  ft.  7  in. 

Kinds  of  Treatment  Used  in  Barge  Construction.  The  first 
creosoted  barges  used  in  this  country  were  built  in  1900  of  pres- 
sure treated  yellow  pine  by  the  New  Orleans  office  of  the  U.  S. 
Engineer  Corps.  These  barges  are  today  in  a  perfect  state  of 
preservation,  and  in  all  probability  will  be  used  for  10  to  12 
years  longer.  The  cost  of  repairs  has  been  light,  and  the  results 
so  satisfactory  that  no  untreated  barges  are  now  built  by  that 
office. 

The  Rock  Island  District  formerly  used  the  open-tank  treat- 
ment. The  penetration  was  usually  superficial,  but  the  cost  is 


METH6DS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  757 

only  5%  of  the  total  cost  of  a  fir  barge.  Last  fall  the  writer 
inspected  a  large  number  of  these  fir  barges  built  in  1908,  and 
in  no  case  was  any  evidence  of  decay  found  on  the  treated  tim- 
bers, while  in  a  number  of  cases  the  untreated  timbers  had 
reached  an  advanced  stage  of  decay.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that 
the  small  cost  of  this  treatment  will  pay  good  returns  on  the 
money  invested.  In  the  case  of  90%  heart  Long  Leaf  Pine,  the 
same  conditions  exist,  as  the  penetration  on  the  heart  surfaces 
is  usually  superficial.  With  Short  Leaf  and  Lobolly  pine  it  has 
been  our  experience  that  so  much  oil  is  required  to  saturate  the 
sap  that  it  often  costs  more  than  a  10-lb.  pressure  treatment. 
For  treating  barge  timbers  the  pressure  treatment  has  a  number 
of  advantages  that  make  it  a  far  more  economical  treatment. 
First,  from  a  treating  standpoint,  it  is  possible  to  treat  either 
green  or  seasoned  lumber.  Second,  the  exact  quantity  of  oil 
injected  can  be  ascertained  by  the  temperature  and  gage  read- 
ings. Third,  the  entire  treatment  can  be  regulated  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  each  particular  charge.  Fourth,  it  is  possible  to 
plug  the  ends  of  the  timbers  and  thereby  retard  the  absorption 
of  moisture.  Fifth,  the  penetration  of  oil  is  far  more  uniform. 
The  last  twro  factors  tend  to  eliminate  the  so-called  "  working  " 
of  the  timbers.  This  is  an  important  item  in  barge  construc- 
tion, as  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  barge  built  of  green, 
untreated  lumber  will  usually  cause  trouble  from  leaking,  due  to 
the  subsequent  shrinkage  of  the  timber  as  it  dries,  and  the 
consequent  opening  of  the  seams  and  loosening  of  the  oakum. 
Even  after  the  lumber  has  once  become  dry  it  readily  absorbs 
moisture  during  a  wet  period,  and  again  gives  it  up  during  a 
dry  period,  and  as  a  result  an  untreated  Jbarge  is  re-calked  every 
year  after  its  fourth  or  fifth  year  in  service.  The  pressure  treat- 
ment has  largely  eliminated  this  re-calking  and  so  materially 
reduced  the  cost  of  repairs. 

Life  of  Untreated  Yellow  Pine  Barges.  On  the  Mississippi 
River,  between  St.  Paul  and  St.  Louis,  untreated  yellow  pine  has 
been  use;!  but  little,  and  the  writer  has  been  unable  to  obtain 
any  accurate  records  of  its  lasting  qualities.  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  unless  timber,  practically  free  from  sap  is  obtained, 
its  life  would  be  exceedingly  short.  On  the  Lower  Mississippi 
River  a  yellow  pine  untreated  barge  containing  a  minimum  pro- 
portion of  sappy  timber  is  past  economical  repairs  at  the  end 
of  10  years. 

Life  of  Pressure-Treated  Yellow  Pine  Barges.  Pressure-treated 
yellow  pine,  barges  have  been  used  on  the  lower  river  for  12  years. 
These  barges  are  today  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation,  and 
without  doubt  are  good  for  an  additional  life  of  10  years.  It 


758  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

has  been  found  necessary  to  re-calk  the  barges  after  two  years' 
service,  but  otherwise  the  repairs  have  been  small,  and  but  little 
further  re-calking  seems  necessary  during  the  life  of  the  barge. 
One  reason  given  for  this  re-calking  is  that  the  creosote  oil  acts 
on  the  oakum  and  "  burns  "  it  out.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  lumber  in  these  barges  was  treated  while  in  a  green 
condition,  and,  the  real  necessity  for  re-calking  is  due  to  the 
subsequent  shrinkage  of  the  timber  and  consequent  opening  of  the 
seams  and  loosening  of  the  oakum. 

On  the  Lower  Mississippi  River,  where  there  is  always  a  good 
stage  of  water,  light  draft  is  not  a  controlling  factor,  and  so 
barges  120  x  30  x  6  ft.  are  in  general  use.  The  original  cost  of 
these  untreated  yellow  pine  barges,  built  in  the  early  90's,  was 
about  $3,000;  the  cost  of  repairs  during  the  life  of  10  years 
averaged  $2,006  per  barge. 

The  original  cost  of  similar  barges  built  of  pressure  creosoted 
yellow  pine  was  $4,000;  the  annual  cost  of  repairs  on  10  barges 
averaged  $557  each.  The  life  of  the  untreated  barge  is  10  years, 
as  against  22  years  for  the  treated  barge. 

Life  of  Untreated  Douglas  Fir  Barge  and  Cost  of  Repairs. 
With  few  exceptions  the  necessity  for  repairs  to  an  untreated 
barge  are  due  to  decay  and  not  to  mechanical  abrasions.  Ordi- 
narily the  decks  of  barges  used  for  rock  transportation  will  first 
decay  on  the  bottom  side  at  the  points  of  crossing  other  timbers, 
and  in  this  weakened  condition  are  easily  broken. 

It  has  been  necessary  to  replace  plank  originally  2i/2  in.  thick, 
which  after  eight  years  of  service  were  2%  in.  thick,  because  of 
their  decayed  condition,  and  not  because  of  wear.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  evidence  of  decay  on  untreated  barges  after 
three  years  of  service. 

The  repair  costs  used  in  Fig.  17  have  been  obtained  from  the 
plant  records  of  the  U.  S.  Engineer  office  at  Rock  Island,  111., 
covering  Douglas  fir  barges  in  use  for  the  past  twenty  years  in 
connection  with  the  work  of  improving  the  Upper  Mississippi 
River,  between  St.  Paul  and  St.  Louis.  In  the  past  untreated 
fir  barges  were  kept  in  service  10  to  17  years,  the  average  life 
being  15  years.  The  diagram  is  intended  to  show  the  usual  cost 
of  repairs  from  year  to  year  during  the  life  of  an  untreated 
Douglas  fir  barge.  New  barges  are,  as  a  rule,  used  for  rip-rap 
rock  transportation,  this  service  requiring  a  substantial  craft. 
From  the  diagram  it  will  be  noted  that  during  the  sixth  and 
seventh  years  the  barges  required  extensive  repairs,  the  cost 
ranging  from  $200  to  $300  per  barge;  that  with  repairs  costing 
about  $75  per  year  they  continued  in  hard  service  to  the  tenth 
or  twelfth  year;  that  they  then  required  large  repairs  and  had 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  759 

to  be  taken  from  rock  work  and  placed  in  the  brush  carrying 
service,  which  is  much  less  severe  on  account  of  the  large  de- 
crease in  weight  per  cu.  ft.  of  load.  From  this  time  on  to  the 
end  the  cost  of  repairs  per  barge  is  largely  increased;  and  it  is 
debatable  whether  it  would  not  be  fully  as  economical  to  abandon 
the  barge  at  about  the  tenth  or  twelfth  year. 

Life  of  Pressure-Treated  Douglas  Fir  Barges  and  Cost  of  Re- 
pairs. It  seems  safe  to  estimate  the  life  of  creosoted  fir  barges 
at  20  years,  since  untreated  barges  have  given  an  average  life 
of  15  years.  The  major  portion  of  the  repairs  on  an  untreated 
barge  are  for  calking  and  repairs  to  deck,  rake  and  gunwale  joints 
on  account  of  decay.  As  the  present  tendency  is  to  air  season 
the  fir  before  treatment,  it  seems  natural  to  believe  that  the 
barges  will  give  a  long  service  without  recalking,  as  was  the  case 
of  the  creosoted  barges  used  on  the  lower  river,  as  cited  above. 
As  an  additional  precaution  it  is  thought  advisable  to  protect 
the  creosoted  deck  with  a  1-in.  wearing  surface  of  untreated  ma- 
terial. The  repairs  to  the  deck  are,  therefore,  confined  to  the 
occasional  relaying  of  this  protection. 

The  average  cost  of  repairs  on  31  fir  barges  (100x20x4.5  ft.) 
used  on  the  Upper  Mississippi  River  was  $73  per  year  per  barge 
during  an  average  life  of  15  years.  The  original  cost  of  such 
an  untreated  barge  built  today  would  be  approximately  $1,200. 
On  this  basis,  with  interest  at  5%,  the  cost  per  untreated  fir 
barge  per  year  would  be  $236,  as  compared  with  $177  yearly 
cost  for  a  creosoted  fir  barge,  or  a  difference  of  $59  per  year 
in  favor  of  the  creosoted  barge.  The  first  cost  of  a  treated  barge 
of  this  size,  is  $1,500,  and  its  annual  repairs  $20.  The  first  cost 
of  a  steel  barge  of  this  size  is  $4,000,  and  its  life  may  be  esti- 
mated at  25  years. 

The  figure  for  interest  on  repairs  was  obtained"  in  this  way : 
First,  the  average  cost  per  year  for  repairs  on  31  average  un- 
treated barges  was  obtained,  and  the  interest  figured  from  the 
time  the  repairs  were  made  until  the  barge  was  condemned. 
The  figure  for  interest  on  repairs  of  the  creosoted  barges  was 
obtained  by  proportion. 

Cost  of  Year's  Operation  of  Marine  Plant  for  Construction  of 
Lincoln  Park  Extension,  Chicago,  111.  The  cost  of  operation  and 
repairs  during  the  year  1912  for  three  tug  boats,  a  pile  driver, 
a  derrick  and  a  motor  boat  is  given  in  the  accompanying  table 
which  are  taken  from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  March  26, 
1913.  This  plant  was  used  in  connection  with  the  dredging  and 
breakwater  construction  for  the  extension  of  Lincoln  Park, 
Chicago. 

The  tug  Keystone  is  the  largest  of  the  three  tugs  and  is  rated 


760  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

at  94  gross  tons.  She  was  built  in  1891  and  has  a  steel  hull, 
87}£  ft.  long,  19-ft.  beam,  and  11  ft.  deep.  She  is  equipped  with 
one  fore  and  aft  compound  condensing  engine  with  lS.\34-in. 
cylinders  of  30-in.  stroke,  and  one  fire  box  marine  boiler  30  ft. 
long  by  102  in.  in  diameter. 

TABLE  I.  OPERATION  AND  REPAIRS  —  TUG  "  KEYSTONE  " 

In  commission  2,125  hours 

Operation :  Totals 

Labor     $  5,284.74 

Fuel    3,469.15 

Supplies    1,105.12 

Insurance    147.00 

Miscellaneous     1.93 


Total     .........................................     $10,007.94 

Repairs  : 

Labor     ..  ..............................................  $  2,975.45 

Material    ..............................................  4,239.04 

Service  of  other  plant  ...............................  485.63 

Total    repairs    ................................     $7,700.12 

Total  operation  and  repairs   ........................      17,708.06 

Total  cost  per  hr  ............................. 

The  tug  Richard  B  was  built  in  1906.  She  has  a  wood  hull 
76  ft.  long,  17-ft.  beam  and  7  ft.  in  depth,  and  is  rated  at  63 
gross  tons.  Her  engine  is  fore  and  aft  compound  condensing, 
with  10x20-in.  cylinder,  and  14-in.  stroke.  Her  boiler  is  of 
the  Scotch  Marine  type,  14  fL  long  by  96  in.  in  diameter. 

TABLE    II.    OPERATION   AND   REPAIRS  —  TUG    "  RICHARD   B  " 

In  commission,  2,963  hours 

Operation  :  Totals 

Labor     ................................................     $  4,619.47 

Fuel    ..................................................        l-467-45 

Supplies     ............................................. 

Insurance    ............................................ 

Total  operation    ..............................     $  6,914.48 

Repairs  : 
Labor     ................................................    $1.061.00 

Material    ..............................................        l>  «S 

Service  of  other  plant  ...............................   !  i 

Total    repairs    ................................     $2.602.32 


Total  operation  and  repairs 
Total  cost  per  hr 


The  tug  Hausler  was  built  in  1893  of  wood  and  was  purchased 
for  its  present  work  in  1908  for  $10,500.  She  is  rated  at  61 
gross  tons  and  is  equipped  with  one  vertical  non-condensing  en- 


METHOD     AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  761 

gine,  22  x  44  in.,  24-in.  stroke.  She  has  one  fire  box  marine 
boiler,  14  ft.  long  by  t)6-in.  diameter,  and  carries  135  Ib.  of  steam. 
The  other  tugs  each  carry  125  Ib.  of  steam. 

TABLE   III.    OPERATION   AND   REPAIRS  —  TUG   "  HAUSLER  " 

In  commission  5,730  hours 
Operation :  Totals 

Labor     $  9,532.94 

Fuel    3,464.30 

Supplies    1,112.14 

Insurance     288.25 

— ^ . 

Total     $14,397.63 

Repairs : 

Labor     $  1,628.05 

Material    1,692.74 

Service  of  other  plant  151.57 

Totals     $  3,472.36 

Total  operation   and  repairs   17,869.99 

Total  cost  per  hr 3.12 

Pile  driver  No.  1  is  a  floating  driver  which  was  used  for 
constructing  breakwater.  This  piece  of  plant  was  in  commission 
878  hr.  and  Table  IV  shows  the  expense  incurred. 

TABLE   IV.    OPERATION  AND  REPAIRS  —  PILE   DRIVER  NO.   I 

In  commission  848  hours 

Operation :  Totals 

Labor $  4,601.92 

Fuel    176.59 

Supplies      217.37 

Insurance    97.00 


Total $  5,092.88 

Repairs : 

Labor     $  1,255.20 

Material     239.72 

Service  of  other  plant  76.32 


Total  repairs   *. .  $  1,571.24 

Total  operation  and  repairs  ?  6,664.12 

Total  cost  per  hr 7.59 

n.%r/        o  No 

TABLE    V.    OPERATION   AND    REPAIRS  —  PILE    DRIVER   NO.    2 

In  commission  717  hours 

Operation :  Totals 

Labor $  3,809.62 

Fuel    127.30 

Supplies    163.08 

Insurance    97.00 


Total  operation    $  4,197.00 


762      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Repairs : 

Labor     $  1,121.55 

Material    183.94 

Service  of  other  plant 107.83 

Total  repairs   $  1,413.32 

Total  operation  and  repairs  $  5,610.32 

Total  cost  per  hr 7.82 

The  cost  of  the  season's  vork  of  Pile  Driver  No.  2  is  shown 
in  Table  V. 

The  derrick  was  in  commission  1,910  hr.  and  served  to  handle 
stone  from  barges,  and  for  handling  materials  on  all  parts  of 
the  work.  The  cost  for  the  season  is  shown  in  Table  VI. 

TABLE  VI.    OPERATION  AND  REPAIRS  TO  DERRICK 

In  commission  691  hours  crew  of  2  men 
In  commission  200  hours  crew  of  4  men 
In  commission  1,019  hours  crew  of  6  men 
£(,.«'; 

Operation :  Total 

Labor,   watching   $    321.67 

Fuel    288.06 

Supplies 226.31 

Insurance    22.00 


Total    $    798.04 

Repairs : 

Labor     $    345.60 

Material    236.93 


Total     $    582.53 

Total  operation  and  repairs : 

Except  operating  labor   '. . .  $1,380  57 

Total  with  2  men  691  hr 771.13 

Total  with  4  men  200  hr 502.70 

Total  with  6  men  1,019  hr 3,391.87 

The  motor  boat  which  served  all  the  work  was  in  commission 
eight  months.  This  boat  was  purchased  by  the  Park  Commission 
in  1907  for  $1,150.  Its  cost  for  the  season  is  shown  in  Table 
VII. 

TABLE  VII.  COST  OF*  OPERATING  MOTOR  BOAT 

Operation :  Totals 

Labor  operating   $    496.10 

Labor   watching    80.42 

Supplies     546.91 


Total $1,123.43 

Cost  per  day  4.68 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  763 

Repairs : 

Labor     $    247.95 

Material     299.05 

Tug   and   derrick    35.16 

Total    |   582.16 

Total  operation  and  repairs   ". .    $1,705.59 

Cost  per  day   2.42 

Total  operation  and  repairs  per  day  7.10 

Method  of  Measuring  the  Displacement  of  Material  in  Scow 
Barges.  A  method  of  measuring  materials  delivered  on  deck 
scows,  described  by  Mr.  Howard  J.  Cole  in  the  Journal  of  the 
American  Society  of  Engineering  Contractors,  is  given  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  May  1,  1912,  as  follows: 

The  exact  dimensions  of  the  scow  were  measured  by  steel  tape 
and  the  point  A'  plumbed  up  from  A,  see  Fig.  18,  similarly  B', 
B"  and  A"  were  obtained,  and  the  distance  A'  B','  A"  B",  A.'  A" 


___  . 

Fig.  18.     Displacement  Diagram  of  a  Scow  Barge. 

and  B'  B"  likewise  measured  by  steel  tape;  the  depths  A  A'  and 
B  B'  and  corresponding  depths  on  the  other  side  of  the  boat 
were  carefully  measured  by  a  graduated  rule  and  noted  on  a 
sketch  of  the  boat.  When  the  latter  was  empty  the  point  C' 
was  plumbed  up  from  (7,  D'  from  D,  and  again  on  the  further 
side,  and  the  four  dimensions  corresponding  to  the  loaded  meas- 
urements recorded.  From  a  comparison  of  the  depths  (light  and 
loaded),  and  with  the  complete  measurements  taken,  the  dis- 
placement was  computed  as  hereafter  shown. 

The  length  A'  B'  and  A'  A",  and  the  other  two  corresponding 
measurements  were  obtained  direct  on  the  scow  deck,  and  the 
depths  were  obtained  by  taking  the  difference  between  the  read- 
ings loaded  and  light  and  the  displacement  thus  figured. 

By  averaging  the  lengths  A'  B'  and  A"  B"  and  multiplying  by 
the  width  A'  A",  also  averaging  the  lengths  C'  D'  and  C"  D" 
and  multiplying  by  the  width  C'  C"  and  multiplying  the  average 
of  these  two  by  an  average  of  the  differences  between  the  load 
lines  (C"  C — A'  A,  etc.)  at  the  four  corners,  the  cubic  feet  of 
displacement  is  obtained,  which  multiplied  by  62.5  and  divided 
by  2,000,  gives  the  displacement  in  net  tons. 


7fi4  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

This  can  be  expressed  in  a  simpler  manner  as  follows: 

Area  of  boat  Area  of  boat 

loaded   water   lines    +    light   water   lines  distance 

X     between  the    X 

two  planes 

62.5 


=:  Displacement 


2,000  in    tons. 

Bibliography.  "  Hand  Book  of  Construction  Plant,"  R.  T.  Dana. 
— "  Excavating  Machinery,"  A.  B.  McDaniel. — "  Earth  and  Rock 
Excavation,"  Charles  Prelini. — "The  United  States  Public 
Works,"  W.  M.  Black. — "  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining,"  Wilson. 
— "  Improvement  of  Rivers,"  Vol.  I,  B.  F.  Thomas  and  D.  A. 
WTatt. — "  Dredges  and  Dredging,"  Charles  Prelini. 

Government  Dredging.  Some  Data  on  Dredging  Bars  in  the 
Columbia  River,  Engineering  and  Contracting,  August  21,  1912. — 
Results  of  Operation  of  Seven  Bucket  Dredges  in  U.  S.  River  and 
Harbor  Improvement  in  1912,  Eng.  and  Con.,  July  16,  1913. — 
Cost  ofJExcavating  4,151,000  cu.  yd.  of  Material  with  51  Dipper 
and  Bucket  Dredges  in  1911,  Eng.  and  Con.,  Oct.  16,  1912. — 
Records  and  Cost  of  Work  of  Dipper  Dredges  Operated  by  the 
U.  S.  Engineers  in  River  and  Harbor  Improvement,  1911-1912, 
Eng.  and  Con.,  Aug.  13,  1913. —  Cost  of  Dredging  32,000,000  cu. 
yd  of  Material  With  Sea-Going  Government  Dredges  in  1911, 
Eng.  and  Con.,  Sept.  25,  1912.— Cost  of  Dredging  29,708,465  cu. 
yd.  of  Material  with  24  Seagoing  Hopper  Dredges  During  1912, 
Eng.  and  Con.,  April  30,  1913. —  Methods  and  Costs  of  Operating 
Hydraulic  Pipe  Line  Dredges  on  the  Upper  Mississippi  River, 
Eng.  and  Con.,  Sept.  24,  1913. —  Dredges  and  Dredging  in  Mobile 
Harbor,  Alabama ;  Records  and  Cost  of  Dredging  Work,  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  March  20,  1912. —  Cost  of  Dredging  21,016,- 
512  cu.  yd.  of  Material  with  38  Hydraulic  Pipe  Line  Dredges 
During  1912,  Eng.  and  Con.,  April  23,  1913. —  Cost  of  Dredging 
20,000,000  cu.  yd.  of  Material  in  1911  with  39  Hydraulic  Pipe 
Line  Dredges,  Eng.  and  Con.,  Oct.  9,  1912. 

Gold  Dredging.  *'  Gold  Dredging  in  California,"  Report  of 
State  Minerologist,  Lewis  E.  Aubury. —  The  California  Gold 
Dredge,  Robert  E.  Cranston,  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  March  9, 
1912. —  Method  and  Cost  of  Gold  Dredging  by  the  Elevator 
Bucket,  Eng.  and  Con.,  Nov.  4,  1908. —  Some  Costs  of  Gold 
Dredging  and  Records  of  Dredge  Operation  of  Interest  to  Dredg- 
ing Contractors,  Eng.  and  Con.,  Nov.  16.  1910. —  Recent  Exam- 
ples of  California  Gold  Dredges  with  Costs  of  Dredging,  Eng.  and 
Con.,  Apr.  12,  1912. —  Notes  on  Dredging  and  Its  Cost  in  British 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  DREDGING  765 

Guiana,  Eng.  and  Con.,  Sept.  21,  1910.—  Cost  of  Electrical  Power 
for  Dredges,  Eng.  and  Con.,  Jan.  10,  1912. —  Methods  of  Restor- 
ing Soil  on  Dredged  Areas  and  Cost  of  Gold  Dredging  in  Aus- 
tralia, Eng  and  Con.,  March  13,  1912. —  Cost  of  Dredging  and 
Hydraulic  Excavation  in  Australia,  Eng.  and  Con.,  July  10,  1912. 
—  Some  Dredging  Costs  Based  on  Actual  Dredging  Experience, 
Eng.  and  Con.,  Sept.  20,  1916. 


Jbiinoi  *»d 


CHAPTER  XVI 
METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 

The  words  trench  and  ditch  are  often  used  synonymously,  but 
as  treated  here  each  word  has  a  distinct  meaning.  Trenches  are 
long  and  comparatively  narrow  excavations  in  the  ground  that 
are  partly  or  entirely  refilled  with  pipes,  conduits,  or  masonry, 
or  are  backfilled  with  the  excavated  soil  or  other  suitable  back- 
filling material.  Ditches  are  similar  excavations  that  are  left 
open  after  being  dug  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  or  holding  water. 
The  methods  and  cost  of  constructing  them  are  treated  in  Chap- 
ter XVII.  Wide  ditches  are  often  called  canals.  Tranches  are 
dug  for  sewers,  water  pipes,  and  conduits,  and  for  foundations  of 
retaining  walls  and  similar  structures. 

The  main  items  of  work  in  trenching  are  (1)  excavation,  (2) 
sheeting  (in  trenches  in  caving  ground),  (3)  pumping  (in  wet 
soil),  (4)  pipe  laying,  and  (5)  backfill.  The  fourth  item  does 
not  strictly  belong  under  the  head  of  excavation.  However,  in 
pipe  sewer  trenches,  the  last  one  or  two  feet  (in  depth)  of 
trench  are  generally  dug  by  the  pipe  layers  and  is  thrown  back  on 
the  pipe  already  laid.  Thus,  as  cost  records  are  often  kept,  a 
small  part  of  the  cost  of  sewer  trenching  is  included  under  pipe 
laying.  In  water  pipe  work,  the  trench  is  generally  dug  com- 
pletely except  for  the  bell  holes  before  the  pipe  is  laid.  Bell 
holes  are  usually  excavated  after  the  pipe  has  been  laid  in  the 
trench.  In  conduit  construction  the  earth  is  almost  invariably 
excavated  entirely  before  the  conduits  are  laid. 

References.  In  my  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data  "  will  be  found 
methods  and  detailed  cost  of  trenching  for  water  pipe  and  sewers, 
accompanied  by  costs  of  pipe  laying,  etc. 

Excavation  by  Hand.  Hand  excavation  is  the  most  common 
method  of  digging  trenches  but  there  are  many  cases  in  which 
hand  work  is  resorted  to  where  machine  excavation  would  pay 
handsomely. 

In  trenches  up  to  6  or  8  ft.  in  depth  the  material  is  first 
shoveled  from  the  trench  to  the  surface,  and  then,  as  the  spoil 
pile  grows  larger,  it  must  be  shoveled  away  from  the  edge  of  the 
trench.  A  good  foreman  will  see  that  the  material  from  the 
first  few  feet  of  trench  is  thrown  far  away  from  the  edge.  At- 
tention to  this  matter  will  often  eliminate  a  second  handling  of 
the  excavated  material.  The  distance  from  the  trench  at  which 
the  first  portion  of  the  spoil  must  be  thrown  may  be  approx- 
imately determined  by  multiplying  the  height  of  the  trench  by  its 
width  and  dividing  by  2.  In  trenches  from  about  6  to  12  ft.  deep 
the  material  must  first  be  thrown  to  a  staging,  thence  to  the 
surface,  and  finally  shoveled  back  from  the  edge  of  the  trench, 

766 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  767 

thus  being  handled  three  times.  In  trenches  12  to  18  ft.  deep 
the  material  must  be  handled  four  times.  The  earth  from 
trenches  of  greater  depths  should  not  ordinarily  be  removed  on 
stages  but  should  be  handled  in  buckets  by  a  derrick  or  other 
machine. 

Methods  of  Excavating  Trenches  by  Hand.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  June  2,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

Men  should  never  be  placed  indiscriminately  at  work  in  a 
trench.  After  opening  a  section  of  a  trench,  especially  where 
there  is  water,  the  most  rapid  digger  should  be  placed  first,  then 
the  next  best  and  so  on  down  the  line.  This  will  allow  the 
water  to  run  towards  the  lowest  part  of  the  trench  and  one  set 
of  pumps  will  suffice  to  handle  it,  as  well  as  let  the  timbering 
or  shoring  be  carried  on  in  its  regular  order.  If  the  men  were 
placed  indiscriminately  the  better  men  would  carry  their  sections 
to  a  greater  depth  quicker  than  the  poorer  workmen,  causing 
the  water  to  settle  in  their  pits,  thus  impeding  the  work  and  in- 
creasing the  cost. 

There  are  several  methods  of  placing  the  men  at  work  in  a 
trench.  The  most  common  one  is  to  have  the  men  spaced  only 
a  few  feet  apart  so  that  the  foreman  can  watch  them.  Some- 
times a  certain  number  of  men  are  detailed  to  do  the  picking 
while  the  rest  are  shoveling.  This  arrangement  cannot  be  recom- 
mended, especially  in  narrow  trenches,  as  the  pickers  often  in- 
terfere with  the  shovelers,  and  in  moving  from  place  to  place  the 
pickers  tramp  over  the  loosened  earth  and  compact  it.  At  times 
a  shoveler  will  be  kept  waiting  for  a  man  to  do  his  picking.  The 
better  way  is  to  let  each  man  do  his  own  picking  and  shoveling, 
unless  the  trench  is  wide  enough  for  two  men  to  work  side  by 
side,  then,  one  man  will  loosen  the  earth,  taking  only  a  part  of 
his  time  for  this,  and  the  rest  of  his  time  will  be  used  up  in 
shoveling.  The  men  will  also  alternate  on  picking,  thus  "  spell- 
ing "  themselves,  without  loss  of  time. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  of  spacing  men  in  a 
trench  are  ( 1 )  that  the  foreman  can  watch  the  men  easier  than 
when  they  are  scattered,  and  (2)  that  the  follow  up  work,  such 
as  laying  pipe,  can  be  kept  close  to  the  men  excavating,  thus 
keeping  the  amount  of  open  trench  at  a  minimum.  The  first 
reason  should  not  be  given  consideration.  The  second  reason 
is  often  a  valid  one.  However,  by  reducing  the  number  of  men 
in  the  excavating  gang,  and  increasing  the  amount  of  work  done 
by  each  man,  this  can  be  overcome.  This  brings  us  to  con- 
sideration of  a  second  method  of  spacing  men  in  a  trench. 

The  trench  or  ditch  is  staked  off  in  sections,  according  to  its 
width  and  depth,  25  or  50  ft.  long.  These  sections  should  al- 


768  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ways  be  short  enough  to  be  finished  in  a  day,  as  it  has  a  good 
effect  on  a  man  to  complete  a  task  in  a  day  and  not  have  to  start 
on  an  old  job  the  next  morning.  Then,  too,  in  case  of  rain  at 
night,  the  water  can  drain  to  the  low  part  of  the  trench.  By 
this  method  one  man  does  his  own  picking  and  shoveling  and  he 
cannot  interfere  with  another  man's  work.  In  a  wide  trench  or 
ditch  two  men  can  be  placed  in  a  section  to  work  side  by  side, 
or  with  a  narrow  trench  a  long  section  can  be  given  to  two  men, 
the  men  working  from  each  end  of  the  section  towards  the 
center.  Men  working  in  pairs  generally  do  better  work  than 
when  working  alone.  The  slow  man  will  try  to  keep  up  with  the 
faster  man's  pace,  or  if  each  work  at  the  same  rate,  each  spurs 
the  other  on  to  increased  efforts. 

In  working  men  in  sections,  a  stake  should  be  driven  at  the 
end  of  each  section  and  numbered,  as  1,  2,  3,  and  so  on.  Each 
section  should  be  of  the  same  length,  or  contain  the  same  yard- 
age. This  permits  a  record  to  be  kept  of  each  man's  work,  or  if 
the  men  are  working  in  pairs,  of  each  team's  work.  Then  the 
number  of  cubic  yards  excavated  by  each  man  is  known  for  each 
day's  work. 

By  this  method  it  will  be  found  that  in  a  trench  not  over  4 
or  5  ft.  deep  a  man  will  average  10  to  12  cu.  yd.  in  a  10-hr, 
day,  while  by  the  other  method  a  man  will  seldom  excavate  over 
8  or  10  cu.  yd.  This  method  can  be  effectively  applied  where 
the  men  are  paid  a  bonus  for  yardage  in  excess  of  a  specified 
daily  amount. 

Another  method  of  placing  men  in  a  trench  is  to  have  one 
man  excavating  the  first  12  or  15  in.,  with  another  man  fol- 
lowing taking  out  another  layer,  and  so  on  down  in  layers  until 
the  total  depth  is  obtained.  The  advantages  claimed  for  this 
method  are  that  the  men  do  not  interfere  with  one  another,  the 
amount  of  trench  kept  open  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  no 
matter  at  what  time  a  rain  occurs,  the  water  will  always  run 
to  the  lowest  point  in  tlie  trench.  However,  this  method,  like 
the  one  first  described,  makes  it  difficult  to  obtain  the  best  work 
from  the  men,  and  the  same  advantages  can  be  obtained  by  the 
second  method  described. 

Excavating  a  trench  by  layers  in  successive  steps  is  to  be  com- 
mended, but  in  using  the  second  method  of  spacing  men  in  a 
trench,  and  giving  them  sections  to  take  out,  this  method  of  dig- 
ging a  trench  by  stepping  it  down  can  be  adopted  for  each  sec- 
tion. Fig.  1  shows  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  trench  to  be  5 
ft.  deep  and  illustrates  how  it  can  be  carried  down  in  steps. 
It  is  evident  that  a  man  working  by  this  method  always  has  a 
small  breast,  both  to  pick  and  shovel  against,  except  when  he 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


769 


starts  his  section,  where  for  a  short  time  he  must  pick  and 
shovel  from  the  top.  With  a  small  breast  he  throws  down  more 
dirt  with  his  pick  and  he  also  gets  a  much  larger  shovelful,  as 
he  throws  the  dirt  out.  Then,  too,  stepping  from  one  step  to 
another  and  casting  the  material  out  from  different  depths  rests 


r 


-.j'0" -- 


Fig.    1.     Longitudinal   Section   of   a  Trench   Showing  Method   of 
Excavating    It    in    Successive    Steps 

the  man  without  his  stopping  work.  With  this  method,  if  it 
raina  the  water  all  goes  to  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  where  it  can 
be  quickly  pumped  out  of  each  section. 

Tools  for  Hand  Trenching.  Except  in  very  shallow  trenches 
or  ditches,  or  in  confined  places  where  the  action  of  a  man  is 
interfered  with  by  the  sides  of  the  trench  or  by  braces,  a  long 
handled  shovel  should  be  used.  The  workman  not  only  conserves 
his  energy  because  he  does  not  bend  down  so  often  or  so  far,  but 
he  is  able  to  cast  the  earth  higher  and  farther  than  with  a  short- 
handled  shovel.  In  sand  or  other  easy  soil  a  square  edged  shovel 
should  be  used.  In  firm  soil  or  loam  and  in  hard,  compact 
earth  or  gravel,  a  round  pointed  shovel  is  preferred,  but  in  clay 
a  spade  is  far  more  efficient.  A  shovel  holds  a  greater  quantity 
of  loose  material  than  a  spade,  but  clay  generally  holds  together 
well  and  as  great  a  quantity  is  held  on  a  spade  as  on  a  shovel. 
The  spade,  moreover,  is  stronger  and  easier,  to  drive  into  firm 
clay.  For  loosening  the  material  a  pick  and  not  a  mattock  should 
be  used.  With  a  pick  a  much  larger  amount  of  material  is  loos- 
ened at  each  blow.  A  pick  breaks  out  a  pyramid  while  a  mat- 
tock breaks  out  a  truncated  pyramid  and  one  of  smaller  base  and 
altitude.  In  the  stiff  Chicago  clays  a  draw  knife  is  often  used 
to  shave  off  pieces.  In  a  stiff  clay  this  is  a  more  efficient  tool 
than  is  either  a  pick  or  a  mattock.  In  trenches  the  men  should 
be  prevented  from  dressing  the  sides  of  the  trench.  If  given 
a  mattock  an  Italian  will  trim  the  sides  until  they  look  as  if 
sandpapered. 

Cost  of  Digging  Trenches  by  Hand  on  Long  Island.  The  ma- 
terial in  general  consisted  of  1  it.  of  topsoil,  3  ft.  of  hard  packed 


770      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

clay  requiring  picking,  and  the  remainder  of  fine  sand  and  gravel. 
Nests  of  stones,  averaging  1  ft.  in  diameter,  were  sometimes 
encountered.  After  the  trench  had  passed  a  depth  of  4  ft.  a  man 
was  stationed  on  the  bank  to  cast  back  the  earth  shoveled  out  by 
the  bottom  men.  At  a  depth  of  6  or  7  ft.  a  staging  was  gener- 
ally required,  and  after  passing  a  depth  of  12  ft.  a  second  staging 
was  necessary.  For  slight  depths  the  trench  was  braced  with 
vertical  plank  held  apart  by  Dunn  braces,  but  when  sand  was 
reached  sheeting  was  required.  Stones  were  removed  by  a  chain- 
hoist  and  small  tripod.  The  last  foot  of  trench  was  dug  by  the 
pipe  layer  and  charged  to  pipe  laying.  The  wages  paid  were  as 
follows:  Foremen,  $4.00  per  10-hr,  day;  laborers,  17  ct.  per  hr.; 
waterboy,  $1  per  day.  A  proportion  of  the  wages  of  foremen 
and  Waterboys  is  charged  to  the  excavation.  The  following  costs 
give  the  results  of  48  time  studies.  From  these  observations  it 
was  found  that  in  10  hr.  one  man  will  excavate  9.23  cu.  yd.  in 
trenches  up  to  6  ft.  in  depth;  7.37  cu.  yd.  in  trenches  6  to  12  ft. 
deep;  and  6.38  cu.  yd.  in  trenches  12  to  18  ft.  deep. 

Victor  Windett,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June,  1911, 
states  that  one  man  dug  10.5  cu.  yd.  per  day  in  trenches  (in 
Indiana)  up  to  6  ft.  deep;  7.2  cu.  yd.  per  day  in  trenches  6  to 
12  ft.  deep;  3.7  cu.  yd.  in  trenches  12  to  18  ft.  deep;  and  2.6  cu. 
yd.  in  deeper  trenches.  It  would  appear  that  pumping  was  re- 
quired in  all  of  the  deeper  trenches  recorded  by  Mr.  Windett,  and 
this  probably  accounts  for  the  low  output  at  depths  over  12  ft. 
On  the  Long  Island  work  no  pumping  was  required.  The  costs  are 
given  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE 
Cost  of  Hand  Dug  Trenches;   Depths  up  to  6  ft.;   Material  Handled  Twice 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 20.9  ct. 

Cost  per  lin.   ft 11.4  ct. 

Average   cut    5ft.  4  in. 

Average  width    33  in. 

Average  No.  of  men  in  gang  10.3 

Cost  of  Hand  Dug  Trenches;   Depths  6  to  12  ft.;   Material  Handled  Three 

Times 

Cost  per  cu.  yd 24.8  ct. 

Cost  per  lin.  ft '. 21.8  ct. 

Average    cut     . 8  ft.  3  in. 

Average   width    34.4  in. 

Average  No.  of  men  in  gang  12.3 

Cost  of  Hand  Dug  Trenches;   Depths  12  to  18  ft.;   Material  Handled  Four 

Times 

Cost  per  cu.   yd 28.2  ct. 

Cost  per  lin.  ft 46.8  ct. 

Average   cut    14.11  ft. 

Average  width    36  in. 

Average  No.  of  men  in  gang  14.3 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  771 

A  Platform  for  Retaining  Earth,  from  Trenches.  In  a  paper 
road  before  the  American  Railway  Master  Mechanics  Association 
(1894)  R.  C.  P.  Coggeshall  described  a  portable  platform  used 
to  hold  the  earth  from  trenches.  This  platform  consisted  of 
^-in.  spruce  boards  secured  to  3  x  4-in.  joists.  It  was  in  two 
sections,  each  6x12  ft.,  hinged  so  that  one  was  horizontal  and 
the  other  vertical,  held  in  position  by  braces.  This  platform 
caused  the  laborers  to  take  greater  care  when  throwing  up  the 
earth  so  that  it  needed  no  rehandling,  and  also  obviated  the 
necessity  of  trimming  the  back  slope  to  permit  vehicles  to  pass. 
In  backfilling,  a  certain  amount  of  earth  could  be  dumped  by  lift- 
ing the  platform.  Experiments  on  two  300-ft.  lengths  of  8-in. 
pipe  trench,  5  ft.  deep,  showed  that  the  cost  of  trenching,  in- 
cluding cartage,  with  the  platform  was  14.7  ct.  per  lin.  ft.,  and 
without  it,  19.3  ct.,  a  saving  of  24%. 

Cost  of  Sewer  Trenches.  J.  G.  Palmer  gives  the  following 
cost  data  in  Engineering  News,  June  25,  1908: 

A  sewer  was  built  in  1905  from  the  new  laboratories  of  the 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  across  the  mall 
to  the  public  sewer  at  13th  St.  The  work  was  done  by  day 
labor  (negroes)  who  are  said  to  have  been  efficient  and  well  man- 
aged, but  it  will  be  noted  that  they  were  excessively  managed, 
for  the  item  of  "  general  expense  "  was  inordinately  high. 

The  trench  was  3  ft.  wide,  except  at  manholes  where  the  exca- 
vation was  6  ft.  square.  The  ground  was  10  ft.  of  clay,  under 
which  was  10  ft.  of  fine  sand  and  loam,  and  below  that  was  coarse 
gravel  containing  many  boulders  of  "  one  man  "  size.  No  water 
was  encountered.  All  excavation  was  done  with  picks  and 
shovels.  The  trench  was  braced  with  screw  jacks  between 
2  x  12-in.  planks  placed  horizontally,  and  spaced  2  ft.  c.  to  c. 
below  the  clay.  The  labor  of  bracing  is  included  in  the  item  of 
excavating. 

An  eight  hour  day  was  worked.  The  first  section  was  8.7  ft. 
deep,  3  ft.  wide,  820  ft.  long,  and  contained  4  manholes.  The 
cost  of  the  trenching  was: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Excavation,  laborers  at  $1.50  $0.50 

Lumber  at  $18  per  M 0.08 

Tools    ($50) 0.06 

Total    $0.64 

General  Expense: 

Foreman,    at  $5.00    $0.12 

Clerk,   at  $1.50   0.04 

Watchman,    at  $1.50    0.04 

Waterboy,    at  $1.00    0.01 

Carpenter 0.02 

Total   general   expenses    $0.23 

Grand    total    $0.87 


772  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  was  about  1  cu.  yd.  of  excavation 
per  lin.  ft.  of  trench. 

The  second  section  was  23.5  ft.  deep,  3  ft.  wide,  838  ft.  long, 
and  contained  4  manholes.  The  cost  was: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Excavation,  laborers  at  $1.50  $0.68 

Lumber  at  $18  per  M 0.03 

Tools   ($50) 0.02 

Total     $0.73 

-•'  '  '"•  •'  ;   •'•"•      ,^unbi(i>iiM*l       •  ;: 

General  Expenses: 

Foreman,    at   $5.00    $0.08 

Clerk     0.03 

Watchman     0.03 

Waterboy     0.02 

Total  general  expense    $0.16 

Grand    total     $0.89 

Cost  of  Trenching,  Astoria,  Ore.  Mr.  A.  L.  Adams  states  in 
Transactions  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  (1896)  that  in 
trenching  for  the  Astoria  (Oregon)  Waterworks,  in  1896,  the 
first  contractor  averaged  only  7  to  8  cu.  yd.  per  man  per  day. 
Later  on  another  contractor,  even  in  the  rainy  season,  averaged 
nearly  10  cu.  yd.  per  man  per  10-hr,  day  of  trenching  (including 
backfilling),  at  a  cost  (including  foreman)  of  171/4  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.,  wages  being  $1.70  a  day.  The  material  was  yellow  clay  dug 
with  mattocks  and  shovels. 

Cost  of  Trenching  at  Holyoke,  Mass.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Sept.  16,  1908,  gives  the  following  account  of  concrete 
block  sewers  that  were  constructed  in  Holyoke  during  1908,  the 
sewer  proper  being  built  by  contract  and  the  excavation  and 
backfilling  being  done  by  day  labor  under  the  direction  of  the 
city  engineer. 

This  is  a  very  expensive  method  of  constructing  small  sewers, 
for  two  reasons :  First,  as  in  all  kinds  of  construction  work, 
day  laborers  employed  by  a  government  are  very  rarely  as  effi- 
cient as  men  working  for  a  contractor.  Second,  in  construction 
of  this  character,  where  the  work  of  the  trenchmen  and  the 
masons  must  be  co-ordinated  if  economical  results  are  to*  be  ob- 
tained, it  is  necessary  to  have  no  division  of  authority  or  re- 
sponsibility. By  properly  performing  their  respective  duties 
trenchmen  can  save  the  masons  much  labor,  and  the  masons  can 
save  much  unnecessary  trenching.  It  cannot  be  disputed  that  in 
almost  every  case  there  is  a  stronger  incentive  for  the  con- 
tractor's men  to  do  efficient  work  than  for  the  city's  employees. 

The  following  wages  were  paid  for  an  8-hr,  day: 

Foreman,    per    8-hr $3.50 

Laborers,    per    8-hr $2.00 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  773 

One  trench  was  dug  14  ft.  deep  and  4.5  ft.  wide,  through  sand 
and  clay  not  a  difficult  material.  The  soil  was  thrown  on  the 
side  of  the  trench  and  used  for  backfilling.  There  were  exca- 
vated from  this  trench  2.33  cu.  yd.  per  lin.  ft.  The  cost  per  cu. 
yd.  was  $1.21,  and  the  cost  per  lin.  ft.  was  $2.82. 

Another  trench  was  14  ft.  deep  and  about  6  ft.  wide,  the 
material  being  the  same  as  in  the  first  trench.  There  were  3.11 
cu.  yd.  per  lin.  ft.  The  cost  of  excavating  and  backfilling  was 
$1.25  per  cu.  yd.,  and  the  cost  per  lin.  ft.  was  $3.90. 

Costs  at  Fredericton,  N.  B.  From  information  furnished  by 
A.  K.  Grimmer,  City  Engineer,  and  published  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Aug.  25,  1909,  the  following  data  are  taken  re- 
garding two  pipe  sewers  built  in  1908,  at  Fredericton,  N.  B. 
The  work  was  done  by  day  labor.  Foremen  received  30  ct.  per 
hr.  and  laborers  18  ct.  per  hr.  A  9-hr,  day  was  worked. 

Location  Waterloo  Rd.  Phoenix  Sq. 

Length,    ft 495  811 

Size   of  pipe,    in 8  8 

Cut  depth,   ft 9.7  5.8 

Cu.  yd.  of  excavation    533.5  522.5 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.  excavation   $0.515  $0.374 

The  Waterloo  Road  sewer  trench  had  to  be  close  sheeted,  the 
material  being  sand  and  the  bottom  4  ft.  wide.  The  Phoenix 
Square  trench  was  in  sand  and  loam  and  had  to  be  braced  every 
4  to  6  ft.  The  material  was  dry. 

The  cost  of  sheeting  and  bracing  is  included  in  the  above 
costs. 

Costs  of  Sewer  Work  in  Baltimore,  Md.  The  following  data 
are  from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  city  engineer  of  Baltimore, 
Md.,  for  1909.  A  more  complete  abstract  of  this  report  will  be 
found  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  3,  1910. 

COSTS    OF    EXCAVATION    ON    VARIOUS    SEWERS    IN    BALTIMORE 

(For  hand  excavation  except  where  noted,  cost  of  bracing  and  backfill  is 
included.) 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Eastern  Ave.  sewer,  2,928  cu.  yd , $1.19 

Eastern  Ave.  sewer,  1,624  cu.  yd.   (machine  excavation)  1.46 

Race  St.  sewer,   662  cu.  yd 1.25 

Monroe  St.  sewer,   1,112  cu.  yd 1.08 

Hollins  St.  sewer,  129  cu.  yd 0.64 

Seventh  St.  sewer,  177  cu.  yd 1.36 

Singluff  Ave.  sewer,  209  cu.  yd 1.12 

University    Parkway    and    Wickford    Road   drains,    527 

cu.   yd 0.85 

Clifton  Park  sewer,  961.6  cu.  yd 0.93 

Cedar  Ave.  sewer,  732  cu.  yd 1.16 

Water  Main  and  Conduit  Trenches.  Trenches  for  water  mains 
and  conduits  differ  from  sewer  trenches  in  that  the  trench  usu- 
ally has  a  constant  depth,  which  is  relatively  shallow. 


774  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Excavating  for  Electrical  Conduits  at  Baltimore,  Md.  Chas. 
E.  Phelps,  Jr.,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Baltimore  Electrical  Com- 
mission, is  authority  for  the  following  data  given  in  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Mar.  11,  1908: 

The  figures  show  the  cost  of  excavation  from  the  inception  of 
the  work  until  June,  1907,  a  period  of  nearly  9  years.  The  cost 
includes  all  the  labor,  both  men  and  teams,  timbering  drainage, 
clearing  away  of  obstruction,  such  as  old  pipes,  etc.,  and  back- 
filling, but  does  not  include  paving.  The  wages  paid  to  men  and 
teams  for  an  eight-hour  day  were  as  follows,  foreman,  1899-1903, 
37%  ct.  per  hr.;  1903  to  1907,  43%  ct.  per  hr.  Gang  boss,  31% 
ct.  per  hr.  Two-horse  teams,  1900  and  1901,  37%  ct.  per  hr.; 
1901-1903,  405/£  ct.  per  hr. ;  1903  to  1905,  45%  ct.  per  hr.;  1906 
and  1907,  50  ct.  per  hr.  One-horse  cart  used  in  1899,  31%  ct.  per 
hr.  Laborers,  20%  ct.  per  hr.  throughout  the  9  yr. 

The  excavation  work  was  entirely  in  earth,  which  was  sand, 
clay,  the  debris  of  filled  in  ground,  and  black  mud  on  the  streets 
near  the  harbor.  The  trunk  lines  of  the  conduits  are  mostly 
in  the  streets  or  alleys,  but  many  of  the  distributing  ducts  are 
laid  under  the  sidewalks,  and  frequently  on  both  side  of  the 
street.  In  the  low  sections  of  the  city  many  of  the  trenches  had 
to  be  underdrained.  These  ditches  needed  shoring,  likewise  those 
dug  through  sand.  But  little  timbering  was  done  through  the 
other  materials,  especially  for  the  distributing  ducts,  which  were 
uniformly  about  3  ft.  deep  and  2  ft.  wide,  making  about  14  cu. 
yd.  of  excavation  per  lineal  foot  of  trench,  including  the  excava- 
tion for  service  and  distribution  boxes,  which  are  from  60  to  70 
ft.  apart. 

The  trenches  for  the  trunk  lines  are  from  3  to  12  ft.  deep, 
being  on  an  average  of  6  ft.  and  varying  from  2  to  4  ft.  in  width, 
or  an  average  of  3  ft.  This  means  an  average  of  2-3  cu.  yd.  of 
excavation  per  lineal  foot  of  trench,  exclusive  of  manholes. 
These  are  so  far  apart,  that  the  extra  excavation  will  increase  the 
average  but  little. 

The  per  cent,  of  labor  of  the  total  cost  varied  somewhat  for 
each  year,  running  as  low  as  81%  for  the  main  trunk  lines, 
where  much  shoring  had  to  be  done,  and  the  trenches  were  wet, 
up  to  97%,  where  little  shoring  was  needed,  averaging  95%. 
For  the  distributing  lines  the  per  cent,  of  labor  of  the  total  cost 
of  excavation  averaged  97%,  varying  from  94%  to  98%.  These 
percentages  include  labor,  both  men  and  teams. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  price  paid  for  teams  and  also  for 
foremen  has  increased,  yet,  with  the  exception  of  the  year  1903, 
the  cost  of  excavation  has  steadily  decreased.  This,  too,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  the  amount  excavated  has  decreased.  This  is  due 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  775 

primarily  to  the  work  of  every  year  being  farther  and  farther 
from  the  center  of  the  city.  In  the  central  district  of  the  city, 
the  excavation  is  more  difficult,  owing  to  the  pipes,  sewers  and 
other  obstructions  being  larger  and  more  numerous. 

The  cost  of  excavation  also  includes  the  cost  of  watching,  this 
item  being  large,  on  account  of  the  short  working  day,  and  the 
fact  that  two  8-hr,  shifts  must  be  made  of  the  watching.  This 
doubles  the  cost  of  this  item. 

Two  horse  dump  wagons  are  used  for  hauling  the  excess  ma- 
terial away  from  the  trench.  These  wagons  are  of  a  nominal 
capacity  of  2  cu.  yd.,  but  the  average  load  is  about  1^  cu.  yd. 
place  measurement.  Each  team  averages  five  trips  to  the  dump 
per  day,  thus  hauling  7y2  cu.  yd.  All  work  was  done  by  day 
labor.  The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  trench  was  as  follows: 

31,097  cu    yd.  in  1899 $2.61 


11,862  cu 
7,155  cu 
6,559  cu 

11,590  cu 


yd.  in  1900 1.87 

yd.  in  1901     1.88 

yd.  in  1902     1.82 


yd.  in  1903  1.94 

1,120  cu.  yd.  in  1904  1.97 

15,476  cu.  yd.  in  1905  1.65 

9,984  cu.  yd.  in  1906 1.53 

5,687  cu.  yd.  in  1907  1.49 

..-•''  t_.   .'  ^^^ 

Trenching  for  Tile  Drains.  The  following  relates  to  work  on- 
an  extensive  scale  at  the  experimental  farm  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota.  An  abstract  of  a  bulletin  on  this  subject  is  given 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  21,  1908.  The  tools  used 
for  this  work  are  a  skeleton  or  muck  spade  for  removing  the 
earth.  This  spade  has  a  blade  18  in.  in  length,  made  of  three 
prongs  with  a  solid  cutting  edge  at  the  lower  end.  A  cut  the 
full  length  of  the  blade  is  taken,  the  slice  of  earth  cut  being 
comparatively  thin.  The  top  of  the  spade  is  pushed  slightly 
forward  to  break  the  cut  loose.  It  is  then  raised  and  the  ma- 
terial thrown  out.  The  loose  dirt  which  falls  in  the  trench,, 
known  as  crumbs,  is  thrown  out  by  a  long-ha*ndled,  round-pointed 
shovel.  The  last  cut  of  the  spade  reaches  to  within  2  or  3  in. 
of  the  grade  line  and  is  just  wide  enough  at  the  bottom  to  admit 
the  tile.  The  bottom  is  cleaned  out  and  dressed  to  fit  the  lower 
half  of  the  tile  with  the  tile  scoop. 

The  tile  scoop  is  a  long-handled  tool,  semi-circular  in  shape, 
16  in.  in  length  and  made  in  sizes  to  fit  the  various  tile  up  to 
8  in.  When  over  that  size  the  finishing  is  usually  done  with  the 
long-handled  shovel.  The  tile  scoop  is  operated  by  standing  in 
the  trench  and  drawing  toward  the  workman.  The  bottom  of  the 
trench  behind  this  tool  is  smooth  and  conforms  to  the  lower  half 
of  the  tile.  In  trenching  by  hand,  unless  the  trench  is  deep,  or. 


776 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  digging  hard,  two  men  work  together.  One  takes  out  the 
top  spading,  the  other  the  bottom  and  finishes  the  trench.  On 
deep  trenches  there  is  usually  a  man  at  work  on  each  spading  in 
depth,  the  trench  being  carried  along  in  steps.  Many  tile 
ditchers  throw  the  excavated  earth  on  both  sides  of  the  trench, 
while  others  prefer  to  throw  it  all  on  one  side;  however,  this  is 
a  matter  of  little  importance  in  most  localities. 

The  contract  prices  on   a   certain   job   involving  the   laying   of 
11,430    ft.    of    tile    drain    were    arrived    at    in    accordance    with 


Fig 


Forms   of    Tile    Trench    on    Experimental    Farm   of   the 
University    of    Minnesota. 


the  common  rule  of  tile  construction,  i.e.,  a  fixed  price  for  all 
trenches  averaging  3  ft.  or  under  in  depth  plus  an  additional 
sum  for  each  inch  additional  average.  The  average  is  found  by 
dividing  the  sum  of  the  cuts  at  all  the  stakes  by  the  total  num- 
ber of  stakes.  In  this  case  the  price  was  40  ct.  per  rod  for  3-ft. 
work,  then  1  ct.  for  each  additional  inch  up  to  4  ft.  work,  then 
2  ct.  per  inch  for  each  additional  inch.  This  gives  prices  for 
various  depths  as  follows  (cost  of  trenching,  laying  tile,  and 
blinding,  included)  : 

3-ft.  trenching,  40  ct.  per  rod  or  $2.42  per  100  ft. 
3.5-ft.  trenching,  46  ct.  per  rod  or  $2.79  per  100  ft. 
4-ft.  trenching,  52  ct.  per  rod  or  $3.15  per  100  ft. 
4.5-ft.  trenching  64  ct.  per  rod  or  $3.88  per  100  ft. 
5-ft.  trenching,  76  ct.  per  rod  or  $4.60  per  100  ft. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  777 

The  average  work  done  by  one  man  per  day  was  100  ft.  of  3-ft. 
trench;  95  ft.  of  3^-ft.  trench,  and  80  ft.  of  5-ft.  trench.  Un- 
skilled labor  cost  the  contractor  $2  per  day. 

The  cost  of  backfilling  tile  trenches  by  hand  was  as  follows 
per  100  ft. 

Trench  4.5  ft.  deep,  3.75  hr.  at  20  ct.  per  hr $0.75 

Trench  3.0  ft.  deep,  2.8  hr.  at  20  ct,  per  hr 56 

Trench  2.0  ft.  deep,  2.0  hr.  at  20  ct.  per  hr 40 

The  cost  of  backfilling  by  dragscraper  was: 

Team  with  driver  55  min.  at  45  ct.  per  hr $0.42 

Scraper  holder,  55  min.  at  20  ct.  per  hr 18 

Total  per  100  ft.,  trench  3.5  ft.  deep  $0.60 

The  cost  of  filling  100  ft.  of  trench  with  grader  was: 

Two  teams   with   drivers   on  plow,    6  min.   each   at   45 

ct.   an  hr $0.090 

1  man  to  hold  plow,  6  min.  at  20  ct.  an  hr 0.020 


Total  per  100  ft $0.110 

The  cost  of  backfilling  100  ft.  of  trench  with  a  plow  was  as 
follows : 

2  teams   with   drivers   on   grader,    10   min.   each   at   45 

ct.  an  hr $0.150 

1  man  operating  grader,  10  min.  at  20  ct.  an  hr 0.033 

Wear  and  tear  of  machinery   0.027 

Total   per   100   ft $0.320 

The  cost  of  plow  and  grader  work  is  the  average  of  all  the 
ditches  filled  in  this  manner.  They  varied  in  depth  from  2.5  to 
5  ft.,  with  an  average  of  3.5  ft. 

Cost  of  Tile  Drainage  in  California.  The.  following  from  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Oct.  13,  1909,  is  an  abstract  of  Bul- 
letin 217  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  The 
cost  of  2,300  ft.  of  6-in.  tile  drains  on  the  Dore  tract  in  Cali- 
fornia was  as  follows,  the  excavation  being  in  dry  ground  to  an 
average  depth  of  4.5  ft. 

Digging  trenches  and  laying  tile  — 

92  days,  afr  $2.50  per  day  $230.00 

9  days,   at  $3.00  per  day    27.00 

$257.00 
Filling  trenches  — 

Two  men  and  team,  6%  days  at  $6.00  per  day 39.00 

Man  with  shovel  in  vines,  1  day  at  $2.50  per  day 2.50 


Total 


778  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

There  were  2,300  ft.  of  6-in.  tile  laid.  All  of  this  was  in  vine- 
yard where  the  dirt  had  to  be  thrown  away  from  the  vines.  In 
filling  the  ditches  a  filling  scraper  was  used,  and  the  vines  in- 
terfered with  this  work  considerably.  However,  the  cost  of 
filling  this  2,300  ft.,  $41.50,  gives  1.8  ct.  per  foot.  The  cost  of 
digging  the  trenches  and  laying  the  tile  was  11.2  ct.  per  foot. 
The  tile  cost  13.3  ct.  per  foot.  This  gives  a  total  of  26.3  ct.  per 
foot  for  tile  and  all  work  connected  with  laying  it  and  filling 
the  trenches.  To  this  must  be  added  2  ct.  for  cable  inserted  in 
all  tile,  and  3.7  ct.  for  wooden  sand  boxes,  making  a  total  of  32 
ct.  per  ft.  Sand  boxes  were  spaced  300  ft.  apart,  contained  215 
ft.  B.  M.,  and  cost  $11  each. 

Use  of  Derricks  and  Locomotive  Cranes.  These  are  used  to  a 
considerable  extent  on  trench  work.  For  small  but  deep  exca- 
vations in  crowded  city  streets  a  hand  operated  derrick  is  well 
fitted  to  the  requirements.  Such  derricks  must  be  of  light  weight 
and  easily  moved  and  set  up.  Where  the  trench  is  continuous 
and  there  is  room  for  its  operation,  a  small  steam  operated  der- 
rick is  frequently  mounted  on  rollers  and  carried  along  with  the 
excavation.  Its  track  may  be  directly  over  the  trench,  on  the 
trench  timbering  or  it  may  be  carried  along  one  side  of  the 
trench,  provision  being  made  in  the  timbering  for  the  additional 
load. 

A  locomotive  crane  is  of  still  greater  value,  owing  to  its  speed 
and  increased  range  of  work.  With  a  crane  it  is  possible  to  carry 
excavated  material  for  back  fill  back  along  the  trench.  Steam 
operated  derricks  and  cranes  are  usually  used  on  trench  work 
to  handle  skips  or  bottom  dump  buckets  that  are  filled  by 
hand. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  orange- 
peel  bucket  will  excavate  soft  material  very  rapidly  and  that  it 
will  work  well  even  after  the  shoring  is  placed  in  the  trench. 
The  material  under  the  braces  can  be  shoveled  to  where  the 
bucket  can  pick  it  up. 

Use  of  Dragline  Excavators.  These  are  not  adapted  to  work 
in  confined  areas.  A  dragline  bucket  cannot  be  used  to  cut 
close  to  line  nor  can  it  be  operated  where  immediate  timbering 
is  necessary.  It  is  well  adapted  for  the  first  rough  work  on 
fairly  large  trenches  in  the  open,  especially  where  these  do  not 
require  shoring.  The  bulk  of  excavation  on  certain  trenches  for 
the  cut  and  cover  section  of  the  Catskill  Aqueduct  was  taken  out 
by  drag-lines.  These  were  afterwards  trimmed  to  line  and  grade 
by  hand,  the  additional  material  being  handled  in  bottom  dump 
buckets  by  a  locomotive  crane. 

Another  machine  which  has  been  used  with  success  in  trenches 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  779 

is  a  traveling  swinging  derrick,  operating  an  orange-peel  bucket. 
This  machine  moves  on  solid  ground  ahead  of  the  trench. 

Victor  Windett,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting)  June  5,  1911, 
gives  the  output  with  this  machine  on  several  jobs  in  Indiana. 

With  a  %-yd.  bucket,  operated  by  a  power  swinging  56  ft. 
boom,  the  best  day's  work  done  was  920  cu.  yd.  excavated  in  10 
hr.  This  was  in  a  trench  sheeted  by  pile  driving  ahead  of  the 
digging.  The  braces  were  placed  8  ft.  centers,  as  the  depth  of 
the  digging  required,  in  a  trench  14  ft.  wide  by  12  ft.  deep. 
The  spoil  in  part  was  loaded  on  3-yd.  cars  and  in  part  dumped 
on  the  ground  50  ft.  away.  The  soil  was  alluvial  river  deposit. 

In  excavating  for  the  Plaquemine,  La.,  lock  approach  there 
was  used  a  3-cu.  yd.  orange-peel  bucket  hung  from  a  boom  85 
ft.  long  and  loading  on  flat  cars  on  a  trestle  20  ft.  above  the 
working  level.  This  boom  was  swung  by  gravity.  The  earth  was 
wet  Mississippi  river  alluvium.  This  bucket  was  changed  in 
favor  of  a  2-cu.  yd.  bucket  because  the  larger  bucket  overloaded 
the  machine.  The  3-cu.  yd.  bucket  would,  at  times,  take  loads 
of  approximately  4i£  cu.  yd.  heaped  up  over  the  bull  wheel,  which 
strained  the  timber  framework. 

The  digger  discharged  its  load  onto  flat  cars  on  a  trestle  ad- 
jacent to  the  work.  The  average  haul  for  a  loaded  train  was 
approximately  400  ft.  Two  light  engines  would  handle  3  cars. 
Unloading  was  done  by  a  Lidgerwood  plow  working  between 
stakes  on  the  sides  of  the  car.  The  3-cu.  yd.  bucket  would  place 
a  load  on  the  cars  in  55  sec.  With  delays  due  to  all  causes 
the  average  output  of  the  machine  was  1,320  cu.  yd.  in  a  day 
of  10  hr.  The  labor  cost  was  $0.19  per  cu.  yd.  of  earth  dug,  in- 
cluding operating,  maintenance,  transportation  of  spoil  and  un- 
loading. The  maintenance  of  the  trestle  was  a  considerable  item. 

For  trench  work  a  %-cu.  yd.  orange-peel  bucket  is  about  as 
large  as  can  be  economically  used,  because  a  larger  bucket  re- 
quires too  much  room,  and  would  also  require  the  bracing  to  be 
spaced  farther  apart  than  8  ft.  centers;  this  would  necessitate 
timbers  too  heavy  to  be  handled  easily  by  the  trenching  gang. 

Cost  of  Trenching  with  a  Derrick  at  Big  Rapids,  Mich.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Sept.  8,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

A  trench  4  ft.  wide,  from  14  ft.  to  17.25  ft.  deep,  and  1,000  ft. 
long,  was  excavated  for  a  15-in.  pipe  sewer.  The  material  was 
gravel  and  boulders.  As  much  as  3  cords  of  stone  were  removed 
from  400  ft.  of  trench,  many  boulders  requiring  a  3,000-lb.  chain- 
fall  to  handle  them.  The  gravel  was  treacherous  and  required 
two  to  three  sections  of  sheeting  with  three  or  four  rangers. 

The  first  4  to  G  ft.  of  trench  were  excavated  by  means  of  a  drag 
scraper,  fitted  with  inside  bars  and  bail  to  enable  it  to  cut  ver- 


780  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

tical  sides.  A  team  and  driver  did  all  this  digging  and  back- 
filling. The  remainder  of  the  trench  was  excavated  by  a  No.  1 
Parker  derrick.  This  derrick  reduced  the  cost  from  78  to  59  ct. 
per  lin.  ft.,  and  the  crew  from  27  men  required  for  hand  work 
to  16  men  with  the  derrick.  The  buckets  held  %  cu.  yd.,  and  01 
to  68  buckets  per  hr,  were  handled  by  4  loaders,  1  dump  man, 
1  derrick  man,  and  a  horse  and  driver.  It  required  no  more  than 
7  min.  to  move  the  derrick  ahead  16  to  32  ft. 
The  daily  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows: 

1  foreman     $  2.00 

1  scraper  team  and  driver  3.75 

1  man  holding  scraper   1.50 

1  man    dumping   scraper    1.50 

2  men  pulling  sheeting  and  carrying  it  ahead  at  $1.50.  3.00 

man  setting  top  section  of  sheeting   1.50 

man    tending    derrick    1.50 

horse  and  driver  on  haul  line   2.50 

men  filling  2  buckets  at  $1.50  6.00 

man    laying   pipe 2.00 

pipelayer's    helper    1.50 

Total  per   day    $26.75 

This  gang  completed  from  46  to  54  ft.  of  sewer  per  day;  this 
gives  a  labor  cost  of  58.2  ct.  to  49.5  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  sewer. 

Deep  Trenching  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  A  description  of  the 
methods  pursued  in  constructing  the  Green  Avenue  relief  sewer, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  is  contained  in  Engineering  Record,  Sept.  1, 
1900. 

This  sewer  was  constructed  of  brick  and  was  78  in.  in  diameter. 
The  invert  was  situated  35  to  40  ft.  below  street  level.  When  the 
depth  exceeded  35  ft.  it  was  customary  to  tunnel.  The  soil  was 
of  loam  with  a  preponderance  of  fine  soil.  A  track  of  15-ft.  gage 
spanned  the  sewer  and  on  this  traveled  a  car  carrying  a  derrick. 
This  derrick  was  equipped  with  a  25-ft.  boom,  and  the  buckets 
of  earth  were  conveyed  by  it  to  a  dump  car  alongside  the  trench. 

The  trench  was  dug  in  sections  25  ft.  long,  11  ft.  wide  and  4 
ft.  deep.  Then  the  sheeting  was  started.  A  4x10  in.  ranger 
was  placed  at  the  bottom,  and  the  sheet  piling  of  2-in.  planks,  16 
ft.  long,  was  started.  Two  men  with  wooden  mauls  diove  down 
this  sheeting  as  fast  as  6  men  with  shovels  lowered  the  trench. 
The  trench  was  excavated  in  4  ft.  benches,  two  men  setting  the 
rangers  and  sheeting  as  the  work  proceeded.  The  braces  were  of 
4xlO-in.  timber,  and  after  being  cut  exactly  to  length  were  set 
in  place  with  one  end  a  foot  or  two  to  one  side  of  the  proper 
position.  The  braces  were  later  driven  horizontally  into  place 
and  wedged  there.  A  cleat  was  nailed  across  the  brace  at  each 
end  before  it  was  put  in  position  in  order  to  prevent  the  brace 
from  falling  down.  (See  Fig.  3.)  Cleats  were  also  nailed  to  the 


METHODS  AND  COST. OF  TRENCHING 


781 


782  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

sheet  piling  after  it  was  down  to  grade  in  order  to  hold  up 
the  rangers.  The  rangers  were  all  25  ft.  long,  and  were  set  with 
their  joints  opposite.  Braces  were  8  ft.  apart  except  at  the  ends 
of  the  rangers:  here  the  braces  were  placed  2  ft.  each  side  of  a 
joint. 

Excavation  and  timbering  were  carried  on  in  three  places  by 
three  gangs  of  12  men  each,  in  addition  to  the  man  on  each 
derrick,  and  6  men  on  the  dump  and  at  backfilling.  The  whole 
force  completed  25  to  30  lin.  ft.  of  trench  in  8  hr.  The  trench 
being  10.5  ft.  wide  at  bottom,  13  ft.  wide  at  top,  and  35  to  40 
ft.  deep,  the  gangs  of  36  shovelers  and  timbermen  excavated  480 
cu.  yd.  per  day  or  about  15  cu.  yd.  per  man  per  day.  However, 
since  one-third  of  the  men  were  timbering,  the  shovelers  actually 
loaded  20  cu.  yd.  per  man  per  day.  Including  the  backfillers  and 
engineers,  the  total  force  was  45  men,  and,  putting  the  coal  con- 
sumption as  equal  to  3  men,  the  equivalent  of  48  men  dug  at  the 
rate  of  10  cu.  yd.  per  man  per  day.  This  was  excellent  work. 
The  trench  was  perfectly  dry,  the  sand  being  moist  enough  to 
stand  well  on  a  face  5  ft.  high. 

The  sewer  gang  proper  comprised  2  men  laying  flooring  plank 
and  adjusting  centers,  4  to  6  brick  layers,  2  hod-carriers,  2  mor- 
tar mixers,  2  men  lowering  mortar  and  2  men  lowering  brick. 
These  14  men  laid  26  ft.  of  sewer  (20,800  brick)  in  8  hr. 

Use  of  a  Derrick  and  Cars.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb. 
28,  1912,  gives  the  following: 

A  trench  carrying  a  discharge  pipe  for  an  addition  to  the 
power  plant  of  the  Indiana  Michigan  Power  Electric  Co.,  South 
Bend,  Ind.,  was  excavated  30  ft.  deep  and  8  ft.  wide  at  the  top 
with  a  derrick.  The  materials  encountered  consisted  of  sand  and 
gravel  to  a  depth  of  about  10  ft.,  and  clay  to  about  5  ft.  in 
depth.  With  blue  clay,  containing  occasional  pockets  of  quick- 
sand beneath,  sheeting  plank,  2  in.  thick  and  12  ft.  long  were 
used.  The  earth  and  clay  were  excavated  by  hand,  and  thrown 
into  car  bodies  of  %-cu.  yd.  capacity,  V-shaped  and  fitted  with 
legs,  so  that  they  would  stand  upright  on  the  ground  or  could 
be  used  'on  the  cars.  These  car  bodies  were  hoisted  by  a  der- 
rick and  placed  on  car  trucks  and  run  back  for  backfilling  the 
trench. 

The  derrick  was  equipped  with  a  stiff  leg  arrangement  which 
"  would  set  on  a  portable  frame  straddling  the  trench,  and  was 
supported  on  a  track,  upon  which  it  could  be  run  back  and  forth 
over  the  work.  The  portable  frame  was  built  high  enough  to 
allow  the  cars  to  pass  under  it,  the  track  for  these  cars  was 
laid  on  stringers  supported  by  the  trench  frame.  Only  one  car 
truck  was  used,  but  3  or  4  car  bodies  were  kept  in  operation. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  783 

At  the  bottom  of  the  trench  a  42-in.  concrete  pipe  was  laid,  and 
the  earth  was  tamped  in  around  it,  nearly  up  to  the  center  point. 
This  was  further  backfilled  to  a  depth  of  about  5  ft.,  at  which 
depth  the  36-in.  pipe  was  laid  and  backfilled  in  the  same  man- 
ner. About  25  ft.  of  pipe  trench  were  excavated  and  filled  in  a 
10-hr,  day,  with  a  gang  of  30  men. 

Derrick  and  Orange-Peel  on  Louisville  Sewer  Work.  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Jan.  29,  1910,  gives  the  following: 

Fig.  4  shows  a  derrick  owned  by  the  American  Engineering  & 
Construction  Co.  of  Chicago,  used  on  one  of  their  sewer  contracts 
at  Louisville,  Ky.  The  work  was  the  construction  of  a  large 
concrete  sewer  14  ft.  in  diameter  and  4,230  ft.  in  length.  The 
depth  of  sewer  averaged  39.3  ft.,  and  the  average  number  of  cubic 
yards  of  excavation  per  lineal  foot  was  26.5.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  work  a  steam  shovel  was  used  for  the  first  cut,  but  was 
abandoned  as  it  was  soon  seen  that  the  derrick  could  do  the 
work  required.  The  derrick  took  out  the  excavation  to  within 
14  ft.  of  the  bottom,  and  the  balance  was  taken  out  with  a  Pot- 
ter machine  and  carried  back  for  backfill.  The  derrick  was 
equipped  with  an  orange-peel  bucket.  The  spoil  material  was 
deposited  in  wagons  and  was  hauled  away  under  a  sub-contract 
at  11  ct.  per  cu,  yd.  The  rest  of  the  material  excavated  by  the 
derrick  was  dumped  into  Koppel  cars,  located  alongside  the 
trench  and  hauled  directly  to  the  backfill. 

The  derrick  is  a  stiff  leg,  mounted  on  a  portable  turntable. 
The  power  plant  consisting  of  a  30-hp.  boiler  and  a  7  x  10-in. 
engine  operating  three  drums,  is  mounted  on  the  turntable  in 
such  a  position  as  to  balance  the  weight  of  the  derrick  and  boom. 
The  drums  are  equipped  with  two  sets  of  gears  permitting  ar- 
rangement for  a  dragline  bucket,  if  desired.  The  entire  outfit 
cost  about  $6,500.  The  output  of  the  derrick  was  about  63,000 
cu.  yd.  and  averaged  1,500  cu.  yd.  per  week.  The  maximum  out- 
put in  one  day  was  about  850  cu.  yd.  or  1,200  swings  with  the 
%-cu.  yd.  orange-peel  bucket  working  in  sand. 

The  derrick  was  formerly  known  as  a  Kearns  derrick  and  the 
patents  on  the  swinging  arrangement  are  held  by  the  Lidger- 
wood  Manufacturing  Co. 

Trenching  with  a  Grab  Bucket  in  Wet  Ground.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Sept.  28,  1910,  gives  the  following: 

In  trenching  through  sand  for  a  sewer  at  Gary,  Ind.,  a 
V-shaped  trench  with  sides  at  the  natural  slope  of  the  material 
is  found  more  economic  than  a  narrow  sheeted  trench.  The 
depth  of  cut  ranges  from  3  ft.  to  22^  ft.  and  averages  14^  ft., 
and  from  2  to  3  ft.  of  the  bottom  is  below  ground  water  level,  so 
that  the  conditions  are  such  as  would  ordinarily  be  considered  as 


784 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  785 

calling  for  a  sheeted  trench.  At  Gary  there  were  no  restrictions 
on  the  allowable  width  of  trench,  as  the  work  was  through  open 
country,  and  the  decision  as  to  methods  rested  entirely  on  ques- 
tions of  comparative  cost.  The  contractor  decided  upon  a  method 
of  bleeding  the  ground  of  the  water  by  means  of  well  points  and 
opening  a  V-shaped  cut  of  such  width  as  might  be  necessary 
to  get  the  depths  required,  using  a  grab  bucket  excavator.  The 
result  has  been  that  the  amount  of  excavation  has  been  twice 
the  volume  required  for  a  sheeted  trench,  but  this  100%  extra 
of  digging  has  cost  less  than  timber  and  sheeting  labor  would 
have  cost. 

Briefly,  the  method  of  work  is  to  make  a  cut  with  a  grab 
bucket  operated  from  a  derrick  running  ahead  of  the  cut,  letting 
the  sides  of  the  cut  curve  to  slope.  The  grab  bucket  makes  the 
cut  roughly  to  grade.  The  next  operation  is  to  sink  a  row  of 
well  points  on  each  side  of  the  trench  bottom  and  connect  them 
with  a  pump;  the  ground  water  is  drawn  out  low  enough  to  per- 
mit the  trench  bottom  to  be  trimmed  and  the  sewer  concrete  to 
be  placed. 

The  derrick  is  a  rig  built  by  the  contractor  of  old  timbers, 
and  of  such  machinery  as  was  at  hand.  The  engine  is  7  x  10-in., 
with  vertical  boiler.  A  swinging  engine  is  also  used.  The  ma- 
chine rests  upon  a  turntable,  which  in  turn  travels  forward  on 
rollers.  When  desired  to  move,  a  line  is  led  out  to  a  tree  or 
stump  and  fastened ;  the  other  end  is  turned  over  a  nigger-head 
on  the  engine  and  the  machine  pulled  ahead  as  desired.  The 
swinging  of  the  boom  is  rapid  and  is  accomplished  by  a  cable 
which  runs  around  the  circular  rail  upon  which  the  machine 
turns.  The  cable  passes  around  this  rail  in  the  same  manner  as 
on  the  bull  wheel  of  a  derrick.  An  engineer  and  fireman  operate 
the  derrick.  Two  laborers  prepare  the  ways  for  the  rollers,  and 
do  the  other  necessary  work  around  it,  such  as  carrying  coal  and 
supplies. 

The  Andersen-Evans  (Chicago)  grab  bucket  is  of  a  new  type, 
differing  from  the  ordinary  clam  shell  buckets  in  that  the  dif- 
ferential drum  is  not  fastened  to  an  extension  of  the  scoop  but 
is  carried  by  a  separate  frame.  The  scoops  swing  from  hinges 
on  this  frame  and  when  opened  up  an  unusually  wide  opening 
is  secured.  The  separation  of  the  pivots  gives  an  excellent  cut- 
ting motion  and  it  is  especially  noticeable  that  a  full  bucket  of 
materi.il  is  always  secured  when  digging  under  water.  This  is 
unusual  in  such  compacted  material  as  sand  under  water. 

After  the  trench  has  been  excavated  to  grade  by  the  grab 
and  the  material  deposited  on  both  sides,  the  pump  men  begin 
the  installation  of  the  well  points.  Two  3-in.  pipes  about  100 


786  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ft.  long  are  laid  along  the  trench,  one  on  each  side  of  the  im- 
mediate area  to  be  unwatered.  A  valve  with  two  nipples  is 
located  at  4  ft.  intervals  all  along  these  mains  and  rubber  hose 
connections  are  made  between  the  mains  and  the  points.  The 
points  consist  of  l^-in-  galvanized  pipes,  which  are  jetted  into 
the  sand  at  2 -ft.  intervals.  They  have  a  metal  point  at  the 
lower  end  and  above  the  lower  end  for  2  ft.  they  are  perforated 
with  }&-in.  holes  and  screened  with  fine  wire  mesh.  It  requires 
the  time  of  4  to  6  men  to  set  these  points  ahead  of  the  concrete 
work  and  to  pull  them  after  the  invert  has  been  put  in.  A  small 
steam  pump  is  attached  to  the  3-in.  mains  and  the  elevation  of 
the  ground  water  is  lowered  below  the  bottom  of  the  sewer  and 
the  ground  is  trimmed  to  the  circular  shape  fitting  the  invert. 

The  progress  on  the  work  for  10  days  is  an  indication  of  the 
success  with  which  it'  is  being  carried  on.  The  average  number 
of  lineal  feet  of  completed  sewer  (not  back  filled)  was  1)3  ft.  per 
day.  The  smallest  day's  work  was  69  lin.  ft.  and  the  greatest 
was  124  lin.  ft. 

Trenching  with  a  Dragline  Excavator.  The  use  of  a  drag- 
line bucket  for  excavating  a  trench  for  a  water  main  at  Bal- 
timore, Md.,  is  described  by  J.  C.  Lathrop,  in  Engineering  News, 
Nov.  19,  1914.  The  work  on  which  this  machine-  was  used  was 
a  trench  about  1,700  ft.  long,  the  average  depth  being  15  ft., 
varying  from  12  ft.  at  one  end  to  20  ft.  at  the  other,  and  the 
width  18  ft.  A  dragline  bucket  with  a  capacity  of  22  cii.  ft. 
pulled  up  an  incline  by  a  hoisting  engine,  dumped  into  a  bin 
and  delivered  to  carts  or  wagons.  The  total  amount  of  earth 
removed  by  this  method  was  about  13,000  cu.  yd.,  one-fourth  of 
which  was  hauled  away  to  allow  for  the  space  occupied  by  the 
pipe  in  the  trench.  The  balance  was  piled  up  at  one  side  of  the 
trench  to  form  an  embankment  upon  which  was  placed  track  for 
a  locomotive  and  for  the  locomotive  crane  used  to  handle  the 
concrete  pipe  sections. 

A  drag-scraper  bucket  was  used  in  place  of  a  steam  shovel  be- 
cause of  the  character  of  the  material,  it  being  necessary  to  sheet 
the  bank  as  the  excavation  proceeded.  Rangers  or  waling  strips, 
6  by  8  in.  by  16  ft.,  were  held  in  place  and  cross-braced  by 
other  6  by  8-in.  timbers.  The  sheeting  were  driven  by  two  small 
steam  hammers  carried  by  blocks  and  falls,  hung  from  steel 
cables  directly  over  each  line  of  sheeting.  Steam  for  the  ham- 
mers was  supplied  by  the  hoist  engine  boiler  and  a  traction 
engine. 

As  high  an  output  as  250  bucketfuls  were  removed  in  a  working 
day  at  the  average  rate  of  a  round  trip  in  2  min. 

Trenching  with  Steam  Shovels.     Steam  shovels  have  been  used 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  787 

for  some  years  for  trench  excavation,  and  each  year  shows  more 
efficient  work  done  by  them.  When  shovels  were  built  of  the 
old  crane  type  they  did  not  have  as  great  an  angle  of  swing  as 
the  present  trench  digging  shovels  have,  with  the  result  that  the 
dirt  was  piled  up  so  close  to  the  trench  as  to  interfere  not  only 
with  the  work  of  excavation  but  also  with  the  other  work  that 
had  to  be  done  in  the  trench.  The  modern  boom  shovel  was  an 
improvement  over  the  crane  type,  but  the  great  improvement 
came  in  steam  shovels  for  trench  work  when  the  full  circle  re- 
volving shovel  was  introduced. 

When-  the  trench  is  of  such  dimensions  that  a  small  shovel 
can  be  used,  revolving  or  full-swing  shovels  will  prove  much 
more  advantageous  than  standard  machines.  Some  of  the  prin- 
cipal advantages  of  the  revolving  type  of  shovel  over  the  ordi- 
nary type  are  as  follows:  First,  the  revolving  shovel  can  start 
a  cut,  moving  gradually  along  until  the  required  depth  is 
reached,  then  turn  around  and  excavate  the  "  heel  "  that  is  left, 
whereas  the  cut  for  the  standard  shovel  must  be  started  by  hand. 
Second,  in  the  standard  type  of  machine  the  steering  wheels  are 
in  the  rear,  and  some  skill  is  required  to  steer  the  machine  and 
keep  it  exactly  over  the  trench,  whereas  with  the  revolving 
shovel  the  steering  wheels  can  be  placed  at  the  front  end.  Third, 
where  conditions  are  favorable,  the  excavation  and  backfill  can 
be  made  at  the  same  time.  Fourth,  with  this  type  of  shovel  the 
excavated  material  can  be  kept  well  away  from  the  trench  and  a 
large  amount  of  material  piled  up  on  the  bank.  As  the  pile  be- 
comes high,  the  dipper  of  the  shovel  is  used  as  a  ram,  pushing 
off  the  top  of  the  pile  of  earth,  and  away  from  the  trench. 

Naturally,  when  the  soil  is  sandy  or  in  a  material  that  has  a 
tendency  to  cave,  close  sheeting  and  heavy  bracing  are  required 
to  enable  the  banks  to  carry  the  weight  directly  above  them. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  sheet  directly  beneath  a  shovel,  digging 
must  cease.  This  makes  the  percentage  of  idle  time  high,  and 
the  cost  excessive  in  any  but  firm,  hard  ground.  In  ordinary 
soils  a  trench  excavator  will  generally  prove  a  more  economical 
machine.  On  the  other  hand,  in  hard  clay  and  boulders  the 
steam  shovel  is  a  most  effective  tool. 

As  a  steam  shovel  works  into,  instead  of  away  from,  the  ma- 
terial it  is  excavating,  it  must  be  carried  by  the  banks  of  the 
trench  already  excavated.  The  machine  straddles  the  trench, 
being  carried  on  heavy  timbers  lying  transversely  beneath  it. 
With  wide  trenches,  heavier,  firmer  timbers,  or  timber  and  steel 
platforms,  must  be  used,  and  the  shovel  removed  from  its  trucks 
and  placed  on  rollers  or  on  caterpillar  wheels. 

For  trench  excavation  the  regular  length  dipper  arm  is  taken 


788      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

off  the  shovel  and  a  much  longer  dipper  arm  substituted. 
Trenches  are  dug  with  these  long  dipper  arms  from  14  to  18  ft. 
deep,  while  in  a  few  cases  they  have  been  taken  to  a  depth  of 
from  20  to  22  ft. 

Shovels  meant  for  trench  work  vary  in  weight  from  25  to  45 
tons.  Heavier  shovels  than  these  are  apt  to  cave  in  the  sides  of 
the  trench,  and  are  difficult  to  move.  Even  a  45-ton  shovel  is 
often  too  heavy  for  this  class  of  excavation.  Such  weight  shovels 
are  usually  mounted  on  traction  wheels,  although  they  can  be 
mounted  on  railroad  trucks.  However,  for  trench  work  heavy 
shovels  are  generally  taken  off  their  trucks  and  mounted  on  sills. 
Truss  rods  are  not  used  unless  the  trench  is  wide.  Timbers, 
or  timbers  that  are  trussed  to  give  them  additional  strength, 
12x12  in.,  are  generally  used  for  this  purpose.  Some  ^con- 
tractors have  made  it  a  practice  to  build  a  platform  across  the 
trench  and  to  place  the  shovel,  mounted  on  its  traction  wheels, 
on  this  platform.  This  practice  is  wrong  when  the  trench  is  very 
deep  and  of  considerable  length.  The  shovel  is  raised  a  foot  or 
so  higher  than  it  would  be  were  the  wheels  removed.  However, 
when  the  shovel  must  often  be  moved  from  one  stretch  of  sewer 
to  another,  it  should  be  left  on  its  wheels  and  sectional  plat- 
forms used  for  supporting  it  above  the  trench. 

In  Fig.  5  the  usual  method  of  mounting  a  shovel  for  narrow 
trench  work  is  shown.  Heavy  planks  should  always  be  laid 
down  for  the  rollers  to  run  on.  It  is  generally  well  to  have  the 
rollers  long  enough  to  admit  of  two  holes  being ,  bored  through 
the  ends  so  that  bars  can  be  used  to  straighten  up  the  rollers 
when  necessary,  and  also  to  move  the  machine  by  means  of  bars. 
However,  the  machine  is  not  moved  in  that  manner  except  when 
steam  is  not  up.  In  Fig.  5,  a  small  drum  is  shown  beneath  the 
machine.  From  this  drum  a  hauling  line  Js  run  to  a  dead  man 
placed  several  hundred  feet  ahead  of  the  machine,  and  the  shovel 
is  moved  by  its  own  steam  by  winding  up  this  line  on  the  drum. 

The  shovel  roughly  shapes  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  and  the 
work  is  completed  by  a  small  gang  of  men  working  under  the 
body  of  the  machine.  They  cast  the  earth  ahead  so  as  to  enable 
the  shovel  to  remove  it. 

The  shovel  is  mounted  very  low  for  deep  digging.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  carry  the  truss  rods  below  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground  in  trench  digging,  as  they  will  not  interfere  with  the 
work  if  they  are  properly  placed  on  the  timbers.  When  the 
shovel  is  to  be  moved  over  the  ground  from  one  trench  to  an- 
other, the  whole  frame  can  be  jacked  up  and  timbers  placed  over 
the  rollers,  thus  raising  the  frame  to  such  a  height,  so  that  the 
truss  rods  will  not  interfere  with  the  ground  as  the  shovel  is 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TKENCHING 


789 


I 


790  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

moved.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  why  heavy  12-in.  steel  I 
beams  should  not  be  used  in  place  of  the  timber,  thus  doing  away 
with  the  truss  rods,  and  channel  irons  could  be  used  on  each  side 
in  place  of  the  longitudinal  timbers,  thus  allowing  the  shovel 
to  be  mounted  lower. 

Shovels  of  the  revolving  type  are  best  for  the  excavation  of 
narrow  trenches.  Instead  of  mounting  the  shovels  on  a  skele- 
ton frame,  a  platform  can  be  built  to  hold  the  turntable,  thus 
adding  to  the  height.  However,  with  steel  beams,  this  height 
could  be  reduced.  A  good  motto  to  follow  is  to  keep  the  shovel 
low.  No  matter  how  the  machine  is  mounted,  arrangements 
should  be  made  to  hold  the  shovel  in  its  position  while  digging, 
for  in  hard  excavation,  unless  this  is  done  the  shovel  will  back 
away  from  the  breast  and  much  time  is  lost. 

Additional  Points  in  Using  a  Steam  Shovel.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  July  19,  1916,  gives  the  following:  In  digging 
large  trenches,  the  following  hints  may  be  useful. 

First. — Change  the  position  of  the  levers  that  operate  the 
shovel,  placing  them  about  5  ft.  outside  the  shovel-house,  on  an 
extension  platform  built  for  the  purpose.  Standing  there  the 
operator  can  see  the  bottom  of  the  trench  even  where  it  is  25 
ft.  or  more  deep. 

Second. —  Remove  the  traction  wheels  and  mount  the  shovel 
on  rollers  that  rest  on  timbers  laid  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
trench.  The  shovel  is  shifted  by  means  of  a  cable  anchored  to 
a  deadman,  and  operated  by  the  main  engines.  A  60-ton  or  70- 
ton  shovel  can  be  moved  on  rollers  120  ft.  per  hour  over  level 
ground. 

Third. —  Ordinarily  it  is  best  to  excavate  a  deep  trench  (18  ft. 
or  more  deep)  in  two  "lifts"  or  benches.  Work  one  day  on  the 
upper  bench,  then  back  up  and  work  the  next  day  on  the  lower 
lift. 

In  the  upper  "bench"  use  two  50-ft.  I  beams  as  "rangers"  to 
support  the  "  sheeting  "  of  vertical  planks.  One  I  beam  is  placed 
horizontally  on  each  side  of  the  trench,  about  half  way  up  the 
"  lift,"  and  jackscrew  braces  every  20  ft.  hold  the  I  beams  and 
sheeting  in  place.  Regular .  timber  rangers  and  braces  are  also 
used,  but  some  of  these  must  be  temporarily  removed  when  the 
shovel  is  digging  out  the  lower  bench  or  lift,  and  then  it  is  that 
the  I  beams  hold  the  sheeting  in  place.  When  the  shovel  is 
shifted  forward  (15  ft.  or  so),  the  I  beams  are  fastened  to  the 
shovel  and  moved  forward  with  it,  after  loosening  the  jackscrews 
that  hold  the  I  beams  apart.  It  takes  about  half  an  hour  to  shift 
a  large  shovel  forward  15  ft.  on  rollers. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  791 

Sheeting  and  Bracing  Under  Steam  Shovels.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  June  14,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

Sheet  planking  should  be  cut  to  the  proper  length  as  they  can- 
not be  driven  but  must  be  placed  after  the  trench  has  been  dug 
the  full  depth.  When  the  shovel  is  carried  on  a  permanent  plat- 
form this  serves  as  a  convenient  carrying  place  for  the  shoring 
also.  If  the  banks  will  stand  up  without  shoring  it  is  cheaper 
to  do  that  afterward.  However,  the  pressure  on  the  banks  caused 
by  a  shovel  is  great,  and  no  chances  should  be  taken.  In  very 
treacherous  ground  the  shoring  should  always  be  kept  up  close  to 
the  point  of  digging,  but  it  is  permissible  to  brace  the  trench 
temporarily  and  to  put  in  the  permanent  shoring  after  the  shovel 
has  passed. 

Bracing  must  be  accomplished  very  rapidly  or  the  shovel  will 
be  materially  delayed.  As  soon  as  the  dipper  enters  the  trench 
for  its  last  stroke  the  operator  blows  the  whistle  arid  the  sheet- 
ing men  prepare  to  act.  When  the  upward  stroke  of  the  shovel 
is  half  completed  these  men  quickly  plaee  the  stringers  and  braces. 
The  work  calls  for  great  speed  as  a  cave-in  may  occur  in  a  few 
seconds. 

In  some  cases  the  trench  is  braced,  in  the  portion  being  exca- 
vated, by  two  stiff  steel  beams  with  a  cross  brace  at  each  end. 
The  rear  end  of  these  beams  is  carried  by  chains  hung  from  the 
frame  of  the  shovel,  and  the  forward  end  rests  on  the  ground. 
These  beams  are  used  at  a  depth  of  2  ft.  or  so  below  the  ground 
surface.  In  moving  these  beams  ahead  the  forward  chain  at- 
tached to  them  is  caught  over  the  dipper  and  pulled  ahead  by  a 
forward  stroke  of  the  dipper,  as  in  Fig.  6. 

Sometimes,  especially  when  the  soil  is  soft  and  alluvial  or  in 
sand,  the  sheeting  can  be  driven  along  the  line  of  the  proposed 
trench,  and  the  material  afterwards  excavated  with  a  steam 
shovel.  The  cost  of  steam  shovel  operations  under  such  con- 
ditions was  a-s  follows: 

In  New  Orleans,  using  a  half-yard  dipper  25-ton  steam  shovel 
over  a  trench  14  ft.  wide  and  12  ft.  deep,  855  lin.  ft.  of  trench, 
or  5,320  cu.  yd.  of  earth,  were  dug  in  55  hr.  of  work.  The 
soil  was  alluvial  river  mud  in  an  old  partly  drained  cypress 
swamp,  consisting  of  1/4  cypress  roots  and  stumps.  The  sheet- 
ing for  the  trench  sides  had  been  driven  ahead  of  the  shovel  and 
the  bracing  was  carried  on  simultaneously  with  the  digging  of 
the  trench.  As  the  sheeting  and  bracing  were  a  part  of  the 
permanent  construction  of  the  canal,  a  temporary  set  of  stringers 
and  braces  was  used  for  the  operation  of  the  shovel.  The  labor- 
cost  of  this  trenching,  including  the  bracing,  was  8  ct.  per  cu. 


702 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


yd.  To  this  expense  should  be  added  the  expense  of  moving  the 
shovel  on  and  olf  the  job,  which  amounted  to  4  ct.  additional, 
making  the  total  cost  12  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


Fig.    6.     Moving    Steel    Walings    Used    in    Steam    Shovel    Trench 

Work. 


In  work  in  sand  on  Long  Island  steel  sheet  piling  for  small 
trenches  excavated  by  a  steam  shovel  was  proposed.  For  this 
purpose  the  following  tools  and  material  were  purchased. 


600  pieces  of  No.  12  Wemlinger  sheeting,  each  10  ft. 

long,   at  28  ct.   per  sq.  ft $1,680.00 

800  lin.   ft.  of  3  x  8-in.  timber  at  $28  per  M 44.80 

100  extension  braces  at  $1.00  100.00 

200  ft.  of  marlin  wound  steam  hose  at  46  ct.  per  ft...  92.00 

1  steam  pile  hammer    200.00 

1   driving  .cap    10.00 

Total  cost  of  pile  driving  outfit   $2,126.80 

The  intention  was  to  have  the  steam  shovel  furnish  the  steam 
required  for  power.  Sheeting  would  then  be  driven  in  place 
ahead  of  the  shovel  by  a  pile  hammer.  This  plan  of  work  was 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  793 

never  carried  out,  because  it  was  feared  that  with  narrow 
trenches  widths  on  curves,  and  with  a  caving  soil,  a  steam  shovel 
would  prove  an  uneconomic  tool.  However,  given  wider  trenches 
and  better  soil  this  method  of  driving  piles  might  prove  eco- 
nomical. 

Method  of  Supporting-  Small  Shovels.  The  following  is  from 
the  Excavating  Engineer,  Juno,  1914,  and  Jan.,  1915: 

An  18-ton  Bucyrus  revolving  steam  shovel  digging  trenches  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  7.  This  machine  was 
equipped  with  a  27-ft.  dipper  handle,  enabling  it  to  dig  to  a 
depth  of  18  ft.  The  dipper  had  a  capacity  of  %  cu.  yd.  It  was 
fitted  with  five  forged  teeth,  three  on  the  front  and  one  on  each 
side. 

The  machine  was  carried  on  seven  12xl2-in.  timbers  spanning 
the  trench.  These  timbers  were  fitted  with  U-bolts  and  were 
moved  forward  by  means  of  a  chain-sling  hung  from  the  dipper. 
On  the  traction  wheels  of  the  shovel  a  double  flange  of  riveted 
channel  irons  enabled  the  machine  to  travel  on  sections  of  rail. 
These  sections  were  3  ft.  long. 

An  18-ton,  %-cu.  yd.  dipper  Bucyrus  revolving  shovel  was  used 
for  excavating  trench  for  a  36-in.  water  pipe  at  Cincinnati,  0., 
during  the  fall  of  1914.  The  shovel  was  carried  on  cross  beams, 
joined  in  sets  of  two,  resting  on  longitudinal  stringers  laid  beside 
the  trench.  The  traction  wheels  rested  directly  on  planks  laid 
on  the  cross  beams.  The  trench  was  excavated  5  ft.  wide  and 
7  ft.  deep.  The  material  was  yellow  clay  and  stony  subsoil.  The 
rate  of  digging  averaged  300  lin.  ft.,  or  390  cu.  yd.  per  day,  with 
a  maximum  of  375  lin.  ft.  in  10  hr.  Although  the  dipper  was  not 
furnished  with  teeth,  no  difficulty  was  experienced  in  excavating 
this  kind  of  material. 

The  pipe  was  usually  handled  by  two  traveling  derricks,  but 
where  these  could  not  be  readily  used,  the  pipe  was  handled  by 
the  shovel.  Each  section  of  pipe  weighed  6,500  Ib. 

Cost  with  a  Revolving  Shovel  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.  The  method 
pursued  in  excavating  13  miles  of  pipe  sewer  trench  at  Auburn 
during  1919  is  described  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Mar. 
2,  1910.  The  sewers  varied  in  diameter  between  5  and  24  in. 
Trenches  were  ordinarily  dug  1  ft.  wider  than  the  diameter  of 
the  sewer.  The  average  depth  was  9  ft.,  and  the  greatest  depth 
was  19  ft.  The  material  excavated  was  clay  and  glacial  drift, 
with  embedded  boulders.  Pockets  of  quicksand  were  encountered 
at  places.  The  upper  3  to  5  ft.  were  good  digging,  the  remainder 
being  difficult.  The  quicksand  pockets  and  stonier  parts  that 
required  blasting  were  excavated  by  hand. 

Sheeting  of   2-in.    cull   oak    planks,   set   vertically,   and   braced 


704 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  ?95 

with  extension  braces,  were  used  in  the  quicksand  and  in  wet 
places.  About  3,000  lin.  ft.  of  trench  required  sheeting. 

The  shovel  used  for  excavating  the  major  portion  of  the  trenches 
was  a  No.  1  revolving  Vulcan  Steam  shovel,  weighing  35  tons, 
mounted  on  traction  wheels,  and  equipped  with  a  %-cu.  yd.  dip- 
per and  a  27-ft.  dipper  handle.  This  machine  could  dig  to  depths 
of  16  ft. 

The  timber  platform  used  to  support  the  machine  was  in  three 
sections  of  a  design  similar  to  that  previously  described.  Each 
move  forward  of  the  shovel  occupied  4  to  5  minutes. 

Pipe  was  laid  directly  beneath  the  shovel,  and  the  material 
was  used  for  backfilling  as  fast  as  it  was  excavated,  the  shovel 
making  a  swing  through  an  arc  of  180°  and  dumping  the  earth 
directly  at  the  rear.  When  rock,  boulders  or  other  obstructions 
prevented  the  completion  of  the  trench  to  grade,  the  excavated 
earth  was  piled  alongside  the  trench  and  the  shovel  was  not  held 
up. 

The  crew  required  numbered  20.  Assuming  the  rates  of  wages 
then  current,  the  daily  coal  and  labor  cost  was  as  follows: 

1  engineman     $  5.00 

1  fireman     3.00 

3  laborers  placing  track,   etc.,   at  $1.50   4.50 

4  men  placing  sheeting  6.00 

2  men  placing  extension   braces    3.00 

1  man  carrying  planks   1.50 

2  pipe  layers  at  $2.00   4.00 

2  pipe  handlers  at  $1.50   3.00 

2  mortar   mixers 3.00 

1  instrument    man     3.00 

1,200  Ib.  of  coal  3.00 

Total    $39.00 

From  90  to  125  lin.  ft.  of  4-ft.  x  7-ft.  deep  trench,  or  50  to  75 
lin.  ft.  of  4  x  12-ft.  trench  were  excavated  per  8-hr.  day.  This 
gives  a  daily  yardage  of  90  to  135  cu.  yd.-  excavated. 

Steam  Shovel  Work  in  Milwaukee.  In  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Feb.  26,  1908,  Geo.  E.  Zimmerman  gives  the  following. 
Mr.  Zimmerman  began  using  a  Vulcan  shovel  for  sewer  work 
in  1903.  He  stated  that  a  shovel  paid  best  on  trenches  4  to  10 
ft.  wide,  and  that  he  preferred  a  trench  excavator  for  pipe  sewer 
and  water  main  work. 

The  shovel  was  mounted  on  traction  wheels,  and  was  carried 
above  the  trench  on  a  timber  platform.  This  platform  was  con- 
structed of  6  x  8-in.  x  16-ft.  timbers  laid  across  the  trench  with 
two  "  rails  "  of  two  heavy  plank  laid  side  by  side  with  broken 
joints  to  form  a  track.  In  order  not  to  delay  the  progress  of 
the  shovel,  about  40  cross-timbers  were  required.  This  method 
of  supporting  the  shovel  is  not  as  economical  as  the  platform 


796  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

used  for  similar  work  previously  described.  With  separate  cross- 
timbers  it  was  necessary  for  the  pitmen  to  carry  about  8  timbers 
forward  for  each  8-ft.  move. 

The  working  force  consisted  of  the  following  men: 

1  engineman    $  5.00 

1  craneman     3.50 

4  laborers  at  $3  12.00 

Coal    3.00 


Total    $23.50 

About  one-half  of  the  time  was  spent  in  shoring  the  trench  and 
moving  the  shovel  ahead.  The  cost  of  digging  depended  on  the 
nature  of  the  ground.  An  8  x  14-ft.  trench,  2,200  ft.  long,  cost 
38  ct.  per  lin.  ft.,  or  at  the  rate  of  9.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Mr.  Zim- 
mermann  estimated  that  the  same  trench  if  dug  by  hand  would 
have  cost  61  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Steam  Shovel  Work  at  Wilmette,  111.  The  Excavating  Engi- 
neer, Oct.,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

The  trench  for  a  concrete,  elliptical,  6  x  9-ft.  sewer  near  Chi- 
cago was  dug  by  a  Bucyrus  60-ton  steam  shovel.  This  machine 
was  equipped  with  a  1.5-yd.  special  trench  dipper,  a  50-ft.  dipper 
handle,  and  a  36-ft.  boom.  The  shovel  was  mounted  on  heavy 
trusses  spanning  the  trench  and  traveled  on  skids  and  rollers. 
The  operating  levers  were  carried  on  a  special  platform  at  the 
right  hand  side  of  the  deck,  thus  enabling  the  operator  to  get  a 
clear  view  of  the  trench  being  dug.  The  material  was  loaded  into 
twenty-four  4-yd.  dump  cars,  drawn  in  three  trains  by  three  18- 
ton  locomotives.  The  shovel  was  drawn  ahead  in  16-ft.  moves  by 
a  cable  attached  to  a  deadman.  At  the  end  of  each  move  the  ma- 
chine stopped  long  enough  to  enable  the  sheeting  gang  to  sheet 
and  brace  the  trench.  The  trench  was  dug  to  within  6  in.  of 
the  specified  width  and  within  a  few  inches  of  grade.  Two  men 
shaped  the  bottom  of  the  trench  with  mattocks. 

The  sheeting  was  of  vertical  planks,  with  horizontal  rangers 
held  apart  by  wood  braces  fitted  with  pack  screws.  These  braces 
were  spaced  5  ft.  apart. 

The  material  was  hauled  back  to  the  completed  section  of  the 
sewer  and  used  for  backfill,  the  earth  being  dumped  directly  from 
the  cars  into  the  trench  alongside. 

Except  for  a  soil  topping  the  material  was  stiff  blue  clay,  mak- 
ing very  heavy  digging.  The  trench  was  in  general  22  ft.  deep 
and  8  ft.  wide.  The  rate  of  advance  of  the  shovel  was  limited, 
however,  by  the  speed  of  the  concrete  gangs  behind.  The  average 
rate  of  digging  was  5  to  6  moves,  or  78  to  96  ft.,  or  585  to  729 
cu.  yd.  per  9  hr. 

Steam  Shovel  Trenching  at  the  Chicago  Clearing  Yards.     The 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  797 

following  data  are  from  Engineering  Record,  August  2,  1902,  and 
Engineering  News,  November  7,  1901.  N 

The  territory,  about  4,000  acres  occupied  by  the  Chicago  Trans- 
fer and  Clearing  Co.,  was  drained  into  the  Illinois  and  Michigan 
Canal  by  concrete  sewers.  The  width  of  the  necessary  trench  was 
14  ft.  at  the  ground  surface  for  90-in.  sewers,  and  7  ft.  for  36-in. 
sewers.  A  75-ton  Vulcan  steam  shovel,  with  a  1.5-yd.  dipper  and 
a  36-ft.  dipper  arm,  was  used  for  excavating  the  larger  trenches. 
A  Bucyrus  shovel  with  a  %-yd.  dipper  was  used  for  the  smaller 
trenches.  The  sheeting  and  bracing  were  put  in  as  the  work  pro- 
gressed, the  sheeting  being  composed  of  planks  set  vertically,  and 
the  bracing  of  extensible  iron  tubing.  On  some  days  the  Vulcan 
output  was  double  the  average  output  given  below.  The  deeper 
trenches  were  excavated  by  the  shovels  to  a  depth  of  20  ft.,  leav- 
ing 2  to  4  ft.  to  be  taken  out  by  hand.  Hand  excavated  material 
was  loaded  into  buckets,  raised  by  a  swing-boom  derrick,  mounted 
directly  over  the  trench.  About  12  men  in  groups  of  4  men 
each,  loaded  these  2-yd.  buckets.  A  gang  of  12  men,  working  in 
hard  blue  clay  and  carefully  trimming  for  the  invert,  easily  ex- 
cavated the  4-ft.  bottom  layer  of  the  90-in.  sewer  for  a  length 
of  100  ft.,  in  10  hr.  Very  little  picking  was  done.  Round  pointed, 
short  handled  shovels  with  foot-irons  were  most  effective. 

The  backfilling  was  done  entirely  by  a  swing-boom  derrick, 
straddling  the  trench  and  mounted  on  rollers,  which  operated  a 
scraper.  This  scraper  was  made  of  the  bowl  of  a  wheel-scraper 
fitted  with  a  bail  and  handles.  The  cable  was  endless,  passing 
around  the  drum  of  a  double-cylinder  engine  and  through  a  sheave 
at  the  end  of  the  boom,  and  served  to  draw  the  scraper  backward 
and  forward.  Two  men  held  the  scraper  while  it  was  being  filled. 
The  machine  with  an  engineman,  fireman,  and  2  loaders,  back- 
filled 900  cu.  yd.  per  day.  No  tamping  was  required.  In  trenches 
12.5  ft.  wide  and  17  to  20  ft.  deep  the  Vulcan  shovel  averaged 
570  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day.  In  trenches  6.5  ft.  wide  and  11  to 
14  ft.  deep  the  Bucyrus  shovel  averaged  305  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Steam  Shovel  Work  on  Chicago  Sewers.  In  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Feb.  11.  1914,  H.  R.  Abbott  gives  the  methods  and 
costs  of  constructing  large  brick  and  concrete  sewers  in  West 
39th  St.,  Chicago. 

The  total  length  of  the  West  39th  St.  conduit  was  2,346  ft., 
of  which  1,868  ft.  was  plain  concrete  and  478  ft.  was  reinforced 
concrete.  The  conduit  was  elliptical  in  section  and  12x14  ft. 
in  interior  size.  The  concrete  was  from  12  to  20  in.  thick. 

Excavation  was  started  at  the  \Vestern  Ave.  end  in  open  cut. 
A  Bucyrus  70-ton  steam  shovel  was  used  with  1%-cu.  yd.  dipper. 
The  shovel  was  mounted  on  five  16  x  18-in.  timbers,  30  ft.  long, 


708  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

with  two  2-in.  truss  rods  to  each  timber.  The  top  4  ft.  of  trench 
was  excavated  about  3  ft.  wider  than  the  outside  lines  of  the 
masonry,  since  no  bracing,  was  put  in  near  the  top  of  the  trench. 
Below  this  the  trench  excavation  was  made  to  the  exact  width  of 
the  masonry,  plus  an  allowance  of  4  in.  for  sheeting.  Although 
a  variation  in  and  out  was  unavoidable,  it  did  not  exceed  2  in. 
in  either  direction.  The  trench  width  was  15  ft.  8  in.;  average 
cut  was  23  ft.  6  in.,  making  an  excavation  of  13.7  cu.  yd.  per 
running  foot.  On  account  of  the  deep  cut,  the  shovel  was  equipped 
with  a  36-ft.  boom  and  a  54-ft.  dipper  handle.  As  there  was 
liability  of  slides  and  cave-ins,  the  excavation  was  handled  in 
two  lifts.  On  the  first  run  the  shovel  excavated  the  top  10  ft., 
using  9-ft.  sheeting  with  one  set  of  bracing  placed  about  6  ft. 
below  the  ground  surface.  The  shovel  dug  ahead  of  the  finished 
cut  from  75  to  100  ft.,  then  backed  up  and  excavated  the  lower 
131/6  ft. 

The  lower  lift  was  taken  out  between  steel  beams,  each  built 
up  of  two  10-in.  I-beams  with  cover  plates,  50  ft.  long,  held  in 
place  by  screw  braces  set  7  ft.  back  from  each  end.  This  re- 
places the  ordinary  wooden  bracing  and  allows  a  free  movement 
of  the  dipper  in  the  trench  for  three  moves  or  36  ft.  When  a  sec- 
tion is  finished,  the  beams  are  carried  ahead  by  the  dipper,  the 
wooden  braces  are  replaced  on  the  top  sheeting,  and  another  set 
of  9-ft.  sheeting  is  placed  with  two  sets  of  braces  for  the  lower 
portion  of  the  trench,  the  lower  end  of  the  sheeting  being  at  a 
point  where  the  invert  curve  meets  the  side  wall.  The  lower 
sheeting  back  of  the  concrete  was  left  in  permanently.  The 
bottom  was  trimmed  and  shaped  by  four  or  five  bottom  men, 
the  material  being  cast  ahead  -where  the  shovel  could  reach  it. 
An  iron  frame  or  template  built  to  the  dimensions  of  the  outside 
lines  of  the  masonry  was  set  up  every  12  ft.  as  a  guide  in  trim- 
ming the  sides.  The  excavated  material  was  loaded  direct  from 
the  shovel  on  to  4-cu.  yd.  dump  cars  operating  on  a  3-ft.  gage 
track.  Ordinarily,  the  upper  lift  made  the  backfill,  and  the  lower 
lift  was  run  to  a  spoil  area  in  McKinley  Park,  a  haul  of  about  % 
mile.  The  sheeting  was  2  x  10-in.  hemlock,  the  braces  8x8  in. 
and  6x6  in.,  with  stringers  6x8  in.  of  yellow  pine. 

Concrete  was  mixed  in  a  mixer  mounted  on  timbers  spanning 
the  trench  and  delivering  through  spouts.  The  section  contained 
about  2.5  cu.  yd.  per  lin.  ft.  and  a  daily  average  of  75  cu.  yd. 
was  placed. 

The  average  progress  per  day  of  9  hr.  was  30  lin.  ft.  for  both 
shovel  and  mixer  for  the  plain  concrete  section.  This  meant  420 
cu.  yd.  of  excavation,  with  disposal  in  backfill  or  spoil  bank. 

On  the  mixer  platform  was  mounted  a  small  boom  derrick  and 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  799 

hoisting  engine.  This  facilitated  the  removal  of  stringers  and 
braces  and  pulled  the  mixer  platform  back  and  forth. 

Backfill  was  made  by  4-yd.  dump  cars,  the  track  being  shifted 
over  the  conduit  as  the  filling  progressed.  The  centers  were  left 
in  until  the  sides  were  thoroughly  compacted  and  at  least  1  ft.  of 
filling  had  been  placed  over  the  arch. 

The  foice  employed  was  as  follows: 

1  superintendent     $8.00 

1  shovel    engineman 7.00 

3  dinkey   enginemen    3.60 

1  craneman     4.50 

1  fireman     3.00 

3  switchmen     2.25 

2  flagmen     1.75 

1  coal    passer    2.50 

3  foremen      4.50 

1  hoisting    engineman 5.60 

4  bottom  men    3.85 

50  to  60  laborers   2.50 

1  team     5.00 

1  carpenter     4.80 

1  machinist     3.50 

1  machinist    helper    2.50 

1  office    boy    2.00 

1  material   man    2.50 

1  watchman 2.50 

3  Waterboys     1.00 

The  cost  of  trenching  on  two  sections  was  as  follows  per  cu. 
yd.  of  trench : 

A  B 

Labor   excavating    $0.188  $0.194 

Plant    excavating    0.046  0.046 

Backfill      0.143  0.249 

Disposal   of   waste    0.120  0.011 


sposa 
il     .. 


Coal     0.090 


Total     $0.587  $0.620 

In  building  10,000  ft.  of  brick  sewer  (7  to  7.5  ft.  diam.)  on 
South  52d  Ave.,  the  average  progress  per  day  on  the  7-ft.  section 
was  45  ft.,  equivalent  to  330  cu.  yd.  of  excavation,  while  on  the 
71/£-ft.  section  the  average  progress  was  70  ft.  per  day,  with  20 
ft.  cut  or  500  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  per  day.  The  difference  in 
the  progress  between  these  two  sections  was  partly  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  7^-ft.  sewer  was  built  in  a"  street  80  ft.  wide,  with 
open  prairie  on  one  side  and  unlimited  room  for  work,  and  the 
7-ft.  section  was  built  in  a  66-ft.  street  with  scant  open  space 
adjacent  to  the  street. 

Backfilling  was  done  with  a  Monaghan  revolving  derrick, 
equipped  with  a  Page  orange-peel  bucket,  capacity  1  cu.  yd.  This 
is  a  very  efficient  machine  for  backfilling,  but  the  operator  should 
avoid  dropping  the  load  from  any  distance,  as  it  is  apt  to 


800 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


crack  the  masonry,  especially  when  working  during  wet  weather, 
when  the  backfilling  is  saturated  with  water. 

Some  special  items  may  be  worthy  of  mention,  such  as  the  cost 
of  hand  excavation  in  a  sewer  trench  of  this  size,  moving  plant, 
etc. 

In  one  case  the  steam  shovel  could  not  take  out  the  bottom 
on  account  of  the  proximity  of  a  viaduct.  This  earth  was  scaf- 
folded out  at  a  cost  of  $1.06  per  cu.  yd.,  being  handled  four  times 
before  it  reached  the  spoil  bank. 

The  cost  of  moving  of  the  steam  shovel  a  distance  of  1,050  ft. 
across  a  railroad  yard  and  over  the  tunnel  section  was  $560,  or 
53  ct.  per  ft.  This  includes  the  partial  dismantling  of  the  shovel 
to  pass  under  obstructions.  At  the  start  the  shovel  was  taken  off 
the  railroad  spur,  moved  %  mile  and  placed  on  timbers  to  span 
the  trench,  at  a  cost  of  $750. 

A  Steam  Shovel  and  Conveyor  Plant.  Engineering  Xews,  Oct. 
11,  1894,  gives  the  follpwing: 


Fig.   8.     Sketch  Detail  of   Conveyor   Floor   and   Scrapers. 


In  the  construction  of  very  large  deep  sewers  a  large  part  of 
the  excavated  material  must  be  wasted  and  the  remainder  used 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  801 

for  backfill.  For  this  reason  it  will  often  prove  economical  to 
dig  sewer  trenches  of  this  type  in  two  lifts  or  benches  loading 
the  material  excavated  from  the  upper  lift  onto  cars  for  dis- 
posal in  suitable  places  at  a  greater  or  less  distance,  and  shift- 
ing the  material  as  fast  as  excavated  from  the  second  lift  to  the 
completed  part  of  the  sewer  for  use  in  backfilling.  These  methods 
were  pursued  in  the  construction  of  the  Wentworth  Ave.  trunk 
sewer,  Chicago. 

The  Wentworth  Ave.  sewer  is  of  brick  with  diameters  of  5,  7 
and  10.5  ft.  for  6.5  miles,  and  diameters  of  2.5  to  5.5  ft.  for  3.75 
miles.  On  the  main  portions  the  cuts  were  often  very  deep, 
ranging  from  20  to  47  ft.  in  depth  for  a  distance  of  3  miles.  The 
ground  was  very  treacherous  in  places  and  for  that  reason  and 
because  of  the  great  depth,  special  methods  of  excavation  were 
required. 

The  excavation  and  backfill  were  performed  almost  entirely  by 
machinery. 

One  steam  shovel  excavated  the  top  soil  to  depths  as  great  as 
25  or  30  ft.,  loading  the  material  onto  flat  cars  on  track  directly 
alongside  the  trench.  This  track  connected  with  the  lines  of  the 
Illinois  Central  R.  R.,  and  the  excavated  material  was  removed 
to  a  distance  and  not  used  for  backfill. 

After  the  first  cut  had  been  completed  piles  were  driven  on 
3-ft.  centers,  in  two  rows  at  the  side  of  the  trench  and  about 
16.5  ft.  apart.  Timber  lagging  was  fastened  to  the  piles  on  the 
outer  sides.  When  the  removal  of  these  piles  did  not  bring  too 
great  a  pressure  upon  the  green  masonry  they  were  withdrawn 
upon  the  completion  of  the  brickwork. 

A  second  steam  shovel  on  rollers  travelled  on  12  x  12-in.  tim- 
ber caps  on  the  piles.  This  machine  excavated  between  the  rows  of 
piles.  The  material  in  the  deep  cuts  was  soft,  sticky  blue  clay. 
As  the  excavation  deepened  the  side  pressure  tended  to  force  the 
piles  inward  and  the  extensible  iron  braces  often  buckled.  The 
material  excavated  in  the  lower  lift  was  dumped  directly  upon  a 
scraper  conveyor  operating  along  a  track,  parallel  to  the  sewer. 
This  conveyor  carried  the  material  to  the  rear  of  the  brick  work, 
and  dumped  on  to  a  cross  conveyor  or  apron  which  led  the  ma- 
terial to  the  top  of  the  completed  sewer.  Thus  only  one  handling 
of  the  material  was  required. 

The  conveyor  consisted  of  a  stationary  floor  mounted  on 
wheels  and  tracks,  over  which  a  series  of  scrapers  passed.  The 
scrapers  were  carried  between  two  endless  chains  that  passed 
over  sprocket  wheels  at  each  end  of  the  floor.  These  chains  were 
operated  from  a  power  car  at  the  head  of  the  conveyor. 

The  conveyor  worked  satisfactorily^     The  speed  of  the  masons 


802  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  803 

determined  the  rate  of  progress  of  the  work  and  the  machinery 
was  often  idle. 

A  Special  Backfilling  Wagon.  The  Excavating  Engineer,  Oct., 
1915,  gives  the  following: 

Fig.  9  illustrates  a  19-ton,  %-yd.  dipper  Bucyrus  steam  shovel, 
loading  a  backfilling  wagon  on  trench  work  'in  Chicago.  This 
shovel  was  mounted  on  traction-wheels  and  carried  on  wooden 
platforms  spanning  the  trench.  These  platforms,  six  in  all,  were 
24  ft.  long  by  30  in.  wide.  Fig.  10  illustrates  their  construction. 
They  were  made  of  two  12  x  12-in.  timbers,  24  ft.  long,  armored 
on  the  inner  faces  by  ^-in.  plates.  They  were  separated  by  an- 
other 12-in.  timber,  14  ft.  long  with  the  center  cut  away  for  the 
insertion  of  steel  straps,  on  which  was  hung  a  ring  for  handling. 


\Ring-fortfandlinq 

i  i  J~*!'*ilti*!     i_i     If     iiftl'    J^'i-'fi     <•     ffikU'  \_J^  fj jj1/    «i*f"ls      sj"     -^i-i*!!/      *  n     "••;*Lt*. 

Fig.  10.     Platform  Used  by  W.  J.  Newman  for  Mounting  Revolv- 
ing Shovel  for  Sewer  Work. 

The  work  was  done  in  the  construction  of  a  5.5-ft.  circular 
brick  sewer  on  Canal  street.  The  trench  was  from  14  to  20  ft. 
in  depth,  and  t)  ft.  wide.  The  material  was  tough  blue  clay  with 
occasional  boulders;  a  hard  material  to  dig,  but  one  which  re- 
quired comparatively  little  sheeting.  The  progress  was  from 
60  to  85  lin.  ft.  per  10-hr,  day. 

The  method  of  handling  the  backfill  was  unusually  successful. 
Two  wagons  designed  especially  by  W.  J.  Newjnan,  consisting 
of  an  ordinary  wagon  truck  on  which  was  mounted  a  triangular 
box,  the  top  of  which  was  about  10  ft.  above  the  ground,  were 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  floor  of  the  box  was  a  chute,  start- 
ing at  the  top  of  the  box  and  extending  at  an  angle  of  about 
45°  a  distance  of  about  3  ft.  over  the  side  of  the  wagon.  This 
side  of  the  wagon  consisted  of  a  hinged  door  controlled  by  a  lever 
beside  the  driver's  seat.  Each  wagon  had  a  capacity  of  3  cu. 
yd.  The  excavated  material  was  loaded  into  this  wagon  and 
then  carried  to  the  point  in  the  trench  which  was  to  be  back- 
filled, where  the  door  was  opened  and  the  material  was  chuted 
into  place. 

Besides  the  shovel  crew  there  were  4  men  in  the  trench  shap- 
ing for  the  forms  and  handling  the  sheeting.  These  men  assisted 


804  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

in  handling  the  platforms  when  moving  forward.  Two  men  were 
employed  tamping  backfill. 

Rapid  Work  with  Small  Steam  Shovel.  According  to  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Oct.  18,  1916,  a  Model  18  shovel,  made 
by  the  Osgood  Company  of  Marion,  Ohio,  made  exceptional  prog- 
ress. The  shovel  which  was  equipped  with  a  19-ft.  dipper  handle 
and  %-cu.  yd.  dipper  is  stated  to  have  excavated  a  sewer  trench 
46  in.  wide,  15  ft.  deep  and  150  ft.  long  in  a  9-hr.  day.  The  ma- 
terial consisted  of  very  dry  and  hard  clay  mixed  with  boulders. 
After  the  pipe  was  laid  the  shovel  refilled  the  trench.  On  another 
job  this  machine,  similarly  equipped,  excavated  a  sewer  trench 
17  ft.  deep,  9  ft.  wide  and  76  ft.  long  in  7y2  hr.,  loading  one-half 
of  the  material  into  wagons  and  depositing  the  other  half  on  one 
side  of  the  trench. 

Steam  Shovel  Costs  on  Sewer  Work  in  New  York  City.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Dec.  2,  1908,  in  a  long  article  on  sewer 
construction  in  the  Bronx  Borough,  N.  Y.  City,  gives  costs  of 
steam  shovel  work  on  the  Whitlock  Ave.  Sewer.  A  No.  2  Giant  re- 
volving trench  shovel,  made  by  the  Vulcan  Co.,  was  used.  It 
was  operated  by  a  crew  of  a  shovel  runner,  cranesman,  fireman 
and  4  ground  men.  •  A  smaller  crew  than  this  could  be  used,  but 
more  efficient  work  is  done  with  such  a  crew,  and  it  is  generally 
poor  economy  to  attempt  to  save  money  by  having  a  small  crew 
in  steam  shovel  work,  except  where  the  amount  of  excavation  to 
be  done  daily  is  limited. 

This  shovel  worked  in  a  hard  clay  with  a  good  many  boulders 
in  it,  the  boulders  generally  being  smaller  than  14  cu-  yd-  A  fair 
day's  work  in  this  material  was  about  300  cu.  ,yd.,  working  only 
8  hours.  The  shovel  on  a  number  of  occasions  dug  250  cu.  yd. 
in  4  hr.,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  500  cu.  yd.  per  8-hr.  day.  The 
cost  of  running  the  shovel  a  day  was  as  follows: 

Shovel  runner,  at  $175  per  month   $  6.65 

Craneman,   at  $140  per  month   5.40 

Fireman,   at  $60  per  month   2.30 

4  laborers,  at  $2.25  per  day   10.00 

1,800  Ib.  of  coal,   at  $3.50   3.15 

Oil  and  waste   , 0.50 

Interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  (estimated) 6.00 

Total  per  day   $34.00 

The  cost  of  the  plant  was  about  $5,000,  and  the  estimated  item 
of  interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  based  on  200  working  days 
per  year,  with  an  annual  allowance  of  24%.  With  an  output  of 
300  cu.  yd.  per  day  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was  as  follows: 

Shovel  runner    .~~. $0.022 

Craneman     0.018 

Fireman     0.00§ 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  BOS 

Laborers    $0.033 

Coal      0.010 

Oil  and   waste    0.002 

Plant     0.020 


Total  per  cu.  yd $0.113 

This  machine  was  moved  over  the  streets,  a  distance  of  about 
i£  a  mile.  The  time  consumed  was  three  days,  the  cost  of  moving 
being : 

Shovel    runner     $  19.95 

Craneman     16.20 

Fireman     6.90 

4    laborers 30.00 

6  extra   men    36.00 

2,700  Ib.  of  coal   5.22 

Oil  and  waste   0.50 

Total    $114.77 

This  means  a  cost  of  about  $230  per  mile  moved.  In  moving 
the  shovel  long  distances,  it  can  be  taken  off  its  truss  work  and 
mounted  on  heavy,  wide  tread  traction  wheels,  whereby  the  cost 
of  moving  is  materially  reduced. 

Use  of  Steam  Shovel  on  Curved  Trenches.  Richard  T.  Dana,  in 
an  analysis  of  trenching  methods  and  costs,,  given  in  Engineering 
Record?  May  23,  1914,  is  authority  for  the  following  costs  on 
steam  shovel  trenching: 

Trenches  were  dug  for  the  purpose  of  laying  sanitary  and 
storm-water  pipe  of  varying  diameters  from  4  to  36  in.  of  tile 
and  concrete,  and  also  for  cast-iron  water  pipe  from  4  to  12  in. 
in  size.  Nearly  all  of  the  work  was  on  curves,  since  the  «ewer  and 
pipe  lines  had  to  be  between  the  curbs  of  the  streets,  and  curved 
streets,  while  not  economical  to  construct,  were  considered  artistic 
and,  therefore,  desirable  notwithstanding  the  extra  cost. 

The  shovel  was  of  the  25-ton,  revolving  type,  mounted  on  trac- 
tion wheels.  The  entire  mechanism  was  under  the  control  of  the 
runner,  and  the  shovel  was  fitted  with  a  dipper  a,rm  and  1-yd.  dip- 
per specially  designed  for  trench  work,  with  an  interchangeable 
boom  capable  of  handling  a  small  orange-peel  bucket  for  cellar  or 
stock-pile  work.  The  platform  upon  which  the  shovel  worked 
consisted  of  12  timbers  of  12  x  12-in.  section,  spaced  4  in.  apart, 
and  bolted  together  in  sections  of  three.  These  twelve  timbers 
rested  upon  planks  laid  upon  the  ground.  On  top  of  the  timbers 
and  running,  transversely  to  them,  near  each  end,  were  planks 
upon  which  the  traction  wheels  rested  directly.  To  move  up  after 
a  completed  section  had  been  sheeted,  the  shovel  swung  around 
and  with  a  chain  picked  up  one  of  the  sections,  and  swung  back 
again  and  placed  it  upon  the  planks  which  the  laborers  had  laid 
ahead.  Then  after  the  plank  track  had  been  laid,  the  shovel 
moved  forward  under  its  own  power. 


800  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

In  Table  1  the  time  given  under  "  time  worked  by  shovel  "  in- 
cludes all  time  of  moving  up  and  waiting  for  sheeters  before 
moving  up,  as  well  as  the  actual  digging  time  of  shovel.  It  is 
that  time  which  could  rightly  be  charged  to  the  shovel.  But 
when  the  sheeting  gave  out  and  the  shovel  was  idle,  as  fre- 
quently happened  during  the  experiment,  such  time  was  not 
charged  to  the  shovel.  This  suggests  one  very  important  point, 
namely,  always  to  have  sufficient  supplies  and  material  on  hand 
to  prevent  high-priced  machinery  from  being  idle. 

At  times  considerable  time  was  lost  on  account  of  caving  banks. 
Curves  caused  a  delay  of  14%  on  one  day  and  50%  on  another. 

TABLE     I  — WORK     OF     25-TON     REVOLVING     SHOVEL  —  ONE-DAY 
PERFORMANCE 

Kind   of  shovel    25-ton 

Capacity    of    dipper 1  yd. 

Length  of  move    4  ft. 

Number   of   moves    20 

Average  time  to>sheet  trench  before  moving  up 9.2  min. 

Average  time  to  move  up   4.5  min. 

Time  worked  by  shovel   565  min. 

Cut     9  ft. 

Width     36  in. 

Material,  clay  and  gravel  that  held  up  well. 

Remarks:     Shovel  idle  while  trench  was  being  sheeted. 
Curve  also  caused  idleness. 

Performance    80  cu.  yd. 

Unit  cost,   cu.   yd 22.6  ct. 

Daily  Cost  of  Operation 

1  runner    .* $  5.00 

1  fireman     2.31 

1  laborer 1.75 

1  laborer 1.65 

Supplies     4.50 

Interest   and   depreciation,    17%%   on   $4,500    (approx.), 

based  on  200  working  days  per  year  4.00 

Total $19.21 

$19.21X565/600  =  $18.10;   $18.10/80  =  22.6  ct.   per  cu.  yd. 

Process  Analysis 

Per  cent. 

Actual   digging    35.8 

Delays :    A  —  Sheeting  trench  before  moving   up    32.6 

B  — Moving    up    15.9 

C  — Delay  due  to  curve   15.7 

100.0 

*/ji...  •.  ,;<HY  -.'tfwrfF  m -  yp«7*/v/fi;if  srchfjnV  I  'N- 

As  a  comparison  with  these  results  the  work  of  another  shovel 

on  a  straight  trench  in  Chicago  is  given,  showing  that  a  steam 
shovel  will  do  cheap  excavation  in  trench  if  the  section  is  large 
enough  and  the  working  conditions  such  as  to  warrant  its  use. 
The  conclusion  is  drawn  that  steam  shovels  are  not  suitable  on 
curved  trenches. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  807 

TABLE    II  — DATA   ON   70-TON    SHOVEL   AND    PROCESS    ANALYSIS 
OF  ONE-DAY  PERFORMANCE 

Kind   of   shovel    70-ton 

Capacity   of   dipper 2  yd. 

Average  length  of  move  15  ft. 

Number    of   moves    4 

Average  time  to  move  up   33%  min. 

Working  time 602  min. 

Cut      26  ft. 

Width    16ft. 

Material:  first  10  ft.  top  soil;   next  16  ft.  glacial  drift. 

Performance     569  cu.  yd. 

Unit  cost,   cu.   yd 6.7  ct. 

Cost  of  Operation 

1  runner    $  5.00 

1  craneman    3.60 

1  fireman     , 2.00 

7  rollermen     10.50 

Supplies     9.00 

Interest  and  depreciation  at  17%%  on  $9,000  (approx.), 

based  on  200  working  days   8.00 

Total      $38.10 

Unit  cost  per  cu.  yd.  =  38.10/569  =  6.7  ct. 

Process  Analysis 

Per  cent. 

Actual   digging    44.9 

Delays :    A  —  Waiting  on  sheeters   8.4 

B  — Moving    up 22.4 

C  — Waiting   on   cars    23.2. 

D  —  Miscellaneous     1.1 


Total    100.0 

Trenching  with  Special  Machines.  The  following  machines  are 
included  under  this  heading: 

Cableways  and  overhead  or  tram  conveyors  especially  adapted 
to  trench  work.  These  machines  do  not  excavate  (unless  used 
in  connection  with  a  grab  bucket)  but  convey  the  excavated  ma- 
terial. 

Trenching  Machines  which  excavate  by  means  of  buckets  mov- 
ing in  the  line  of  the  trench.  Excavators  in  which  the  buckets 
move  across  the  line  of  the  trench  are  used  for  open  ditches  and 
will  be  described  in  the  following  chapter. 

Overhead  Conveyors.  From  this  class  of  machines  I  exclude 
derricks,  land  dredges,  travelling  cranes,  travelling  trench  exca- 
vators, and  similar  machines  which  excavate  as  well  as  remove 
the  material  from  the  trench.  Cableways,  however,  are  included, 
even  though  a  grab-bucket  may  be  operated.  In  general  overhead 
conveyors  are  those  that  do  not  actually  excavate  the  soil,  but 
convey  it  as  well  as  the  materials  for  the  structure  to  be  built  in 
the  trench. 

Trench  Cableways.  One  of  the  best  known  trench  cableways  is 
the  Carson-Lidgerwood.  For  work  in  trenches  over  8  or  10  ft. 
wide  this  machine  possesses  many  advantages. 

The  main  cable  is  stretched  between  towers  30  ft.  high,  which 


808  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

stand  300  ft.  apart,  and  one  tub  is  handled  at  a  time.  This  tub, 
holding  one  cubic  yard,  can  be  hoisted  or  lowered  at  any  point 
between  towers,  and  when  empty  can  be  swung  to  one  side  so  as  to 
accommodate  a  trench  30  ft.  wide.  It  is  often  an  advantage  to 
have  no  part  of  the  machine  carried  by  the  trench  banks,  since  in 
soft  ground  banks  may  settle,  and  in  rock  they  may  be  blown  out. 
Under  the  cable  there  is  no  limit  to  the  amount  of  waste  or  sur- 
plus material  which  may  be  stored  over  the  completed  work, 
there  being  no  tracks  to  keep  clear  in  order  that  the  machine 
may  be  moved  ahead.  The  hoisting  engine  and  one  tower  stand 
upon  a  car  which  runs  on  a  tee-rail  track,  but  this  is  always  on 
solid  ground  and  ahead  of  the  work,  and  the  rails  are  taken  up 
behind  as  it  is  moved  forward.  The  rear  tower  stands  on  the 
ground  and  is  taken  down  and  carried  to  its  new  position  when  a 
move  is  necessary.  The  capacity  of  this  machine  may  run  as 
high  as  350  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day,  but  for  various  reasons  this 
capacity  is  seldom  realized  continuously.  This  complete  outfit 
can  be  loaded  upon  one  car,  and  weighs  about  19  tons. 

The  price,  in  1916,  of  a  machine  of  300-ft.  span  is  $3,250,  and 
one  of  400-ft.  span  is  $3,500.  These  prices  include  the  services 
of  an  erector.  These  machines  may  be  rented  for  $200  and  $225 
per  month  for  the  300  and  400-ft.  span  machines  respectively,  plus 
the  cost  of  freight,  plus  the  wages  of  an  erector  at  $4  per  day. 

Cableways  are  advantageous  where  the  trench  is  very  deep  or 
more  than  15  or  30  ft.  wide,  or  where  quicksand,  or  rock  requir- 
ing blasting  is  encountered. 

A  Cableway  on  Sewer  Work  at  Washington.  From  a  report 
made  by  Frank  P.  David,  published  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Car- 
son Trench  Machine  Company,  I  have  abstracted  the  following 
relative  to  the  construction  of  the  Easby's  Point  Sewer.  The 
first  1,200  ft.  of  this  sewer  was  in  a  cut  from  12  to  40  ft.  deep 
with  10  ft.  of  clay  and  rotten  rock  on  top  of  solid  rock.  The 
blasting  required  heavy  breaking,  and  in  spite  of  careful  work 
large  masses  outside  the  regular  cross  section  slid  into  the  ex- 
cavation increasing  the  normal  width  of  the  trench  from  18  to  as 
much  as  50  ft.  in  places.  After  excavating  about  1,000  ft.  of 
trench  with  steam  derricks,  a  Carson-Lidgerwood  cableway  was 
installed.  This  cableway  had  a  span  between  the  end-frames  of 
300  ft.  It  was  driven  by  an  814  by  10-in.  engine.  The  hoisting 
speed  was  250  ft.  per  min.,  and  the  conveying  speed  400  ft.  per 
min.  The  buckets  had  a  capacity  of  1  cu.  yd.  each.  The  width 
of  the  trench  was  18  ft. 

The  material  was  cemented  gravel  and  rotten  rock.  Wages 
were  35  ct.  per  hr.  In  an  average  8-hr,  day  280  cu.  yd.  were 
excavated.  The  operation  expenses  per  day  were  as  follows: 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


800 


810  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

1  engineman $2.00 

1  fireman     1.25 

1  signal    man    h 1.00 

2  dump    men     2.00 

Coal,   oil,  waste '. 1.50 

Interest   and  depreciation    (estimated) 7.00 

Total  daily   machine  cost    $14.75 

Cost  of.  picking  and  shoveling,  30  men  at  $1 30.00 

Total  daily   cost    $44.75 

The  cost  of  picking,  loading  tubs,  hoisting  from  trench  15  ft. 
deep,  conveying  150  ft.  and  dumping  into  wagons  was  10  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  Hoisting,  conveying  and  dumping  cost  5.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  Carson  Trench  Machine.  This  tram  conveyor  is  especially 
adapted  to  trenches  over  8  ft.  deep  and  from  3  to  15  ft.  wide. 
It  consists  of  a  rail  supported  on  A-frames,  carrying  4  to  8 
tubs  or  buckets  (each  holding  i/f,  cu.  yd.)  at  a  time.  The  legs  of 
the  A-frames  or  bents  are  provided  with  wheels  that  travel  on  a 
track,  Fig.  12.  The  entire  apparatus  may  be  pulled  ahead  to  a 
new  position  by  its  own  engine.  The  prices  of  these  machines 
ranged  from  about  $3,000  to  $3,500  in  1916,  and  they  rented  for 
approximately  $200  per  month. 

Cost  with  a  Carson  Machine.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Apr.  2,  1013,  gives  the  following  by  A.  W.  Peters. 

The  work  was  a  deep  trench  at  Moundsville,  W.  Va. 

The  soil  consisted  of  fine  sand  mixed  with  loam. and  unstratified 
yellow  clay.  In  the  shallow  trenches  this  material  could  be  ex- 
cavated for  a  depth  of  8  ft.,  and  the  ditch  left  open  for  several 
days  in  ordinary  weather  without  endangering  the  banks,  al- 
though in  general  verticals  and  trench  braces  wrere  used.  When 
the  contractor  opened  up  his  deep  ditches  in  this  material  he 
decided  to  use  8-ft.  lengths  of  sheeting,  placed  without  driving,  in 
the  excavated  8-ft.  depth.  In  this  way  a  section  of  trench  8  ft. 
deep  would  be  excavated  and  the  sheeting  placed ;  then  the  next 
lower  8  ft.  of  material  would  be  removed,  and  the  second  set  of 
sheeting  placed  with  its  top  butting  up  against  the  bottom -of 
the  upper  section,  the  banks  being  carried  down  approximately 
plumb.  In  backfilling,  8  ft.  of  sheeting  would  be  knocked  out 
and  the  trench  filled,  the  material  being  tamped  against  the  trench 
side  wall  and  not  against  the  sheeting,  as  is  ordinarily  neces- 
sary. 

Of  course  these  conditions  are  particularly  favorable  to  low 
sheeting  costs,  and  all  that  that  means  in  deep  trench  work, 
so  that  the  results  as  derived  in  Table  II  should  be  considered 
in  that  light. 

The  material  in  these  two  sections  was  usually  picked  before 
shoveling  into  the  buckets,  as  it  could  be  handled  more  rapidly 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


811 


812  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

in  that  way.  The  general  progress  of  the  truck  work  seemed  to 
be  fairly  good.  The  buckets  were  loaded  rapidly,  the  best  men 
being  placed  at  this  work.  The  machine  was  handled  efficiently 
and  the  buckets  were  run  back  and  forth  at  a  fairly  high  speed. 

Regarding  the  items  of  which  the  total  cost  is  comprised  a  few 
explanations  will  be  given: 

The  first  3  or  4  ft.  of  excavation  were  thrown  upon  the  bank 
and  not  loaded  into  buckets.  For  the  remaining  depth  two  men 
shovelled  into  each  bucket,  usually  loosening  the  material  before 
shovelling. 

The  sub-heading  "  moving  "  under  "  machine  "  is  made  up  prin- 
cipally of  the  cost  of  moving  the  machine  along  the  ditch,  which 
required  tracklaying,  anchorages  and  hitches  ahead. 

Coal  cost  5  ct.  a  bushel  at  the  mines  nearby,  or  7  ct.  delivered. 

Sheeting  was  2  in.  thick.  Stringers  were  4x6  in.  in  size.  The 
cost  includes  placing,  removal,  and  depreciation. 

The  tamping  gang  consisted  of  one  shoveller  and  five  tampers. 
The  tamper  was  a  piece  of  4  x  6-in.  timber,  about  2  ft.  long,  with 

TABLE    I  — QUANTITIES    ON    SECTIONS   1   AND   2 

Section  1  Section  2 

Length     296  ft.  615  ft. 

Depth     31  ft.       14-30  ft.,  average  22.1  ft. 

Total     excavation 1,529  cu.  yd.  2,526  cu.  yd. 

Excavation  per  lin.  ft 5.2  cu.  yd.  4.1  cu.  yd. 

Actual  machine  days 28  31 

Excavation  per  actual  machine 

day     55  cu.  yd.  82  cu.  yd. 

Cu.  yd.  per  man  day 4.6  6.8 

TABLE   II  — COSTS   ON   SECTION   NO.   1,    UNIFORM   DEPTH 

Item  Cost 

Cost  bucket  loading,  1,529  cu.  yd $   559.80- 

Machine  moving    $     13.96 

Machine  engineer   80.40 

Machine  signal    52.60 

Machine  coal    18.00 

Machine  rental    300.00 

Cost,    conveying     $    464.96 

Sheeting     $    231.42 

Tamping     97  06 

Teams     40.50 

Pavement    removal     15.12 

Pavement    replacement    41.20 

Superintendent     138.45 

Cost,    miscellaneous    $    563.75 

Grand    total     $1,588.51 

This   gives   a    total   cost   of   $5.36   per   lin.    ft.    or   $1.03    per 
cu.  yd. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  813 

an  old  shovel  handle  set  in  one  end.  Better  results  were  secured 
with  these  wooden  tampers  than  with  iron  ones. 

Teams  were  principally  engaged  in  removing  surplus  dirt  and  in 
evening  up  inequalities  in  trench  dep.ths. 

The  item  of  pavement  includes  much  new  6-in.  gravel  base  and 
many  new  brick. 

The  wages  varied  from  $1.85  to  $2.00,  about  70%  of  the  men 
getting  $1.85. 

It  is  commonly  considered  that  the  cost  of  operating  a  trench 
machine  is  substantially  a  constant  amount  per  cubic  yard  of 
material  moved,  in  a  given  kind  of  soil,  regardless  of  variation 
between  rather  widely  separated  limits  in  depth  of  trench.  The 
costs  obtained  from  the  Moundsville  work  indicate  that  cost 
varies  with  depth  of  trench.  For  the  shallower  trench  from  14 
to  30  ft.  deep,  the  sum  of  the  bucket  loading  and  conveying  costs 
was  52  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  For  the  trench  of  a  uniform  depth  of  31 
ft.  the  corresponding  cost  was  66  ct.  per  cubic  yard.  It  may  also 
be  noted  that  the  yardages  handled  per  man  per  day  were  for  the 
two  trenches  respectively  6.8  cu.  yd.  and  4.6  cu.  yd.  No  other  cost 
records  that  we  have  of  trench  machine  work  touch  upon  exactly 
this  feature,  and  the  present  instance  is  therefore  worthy  of  notice. 

TABLE   III  — COSTS   ON   SECTION  NO.  2,   VARIABLE   DEPTH 

Item  Cost 

Cost  bucket  loading,  2,526  cu.  yd $    639.89 

Machine   moving    $     62.56 

Machine    engineer    100.33 

Machine    signal    58.25 

Machine    coal    10.20 

Machine    rental    416.00 


Cost,    conveying   $   647.34 

Sheeting     $    117.06 

Tamping     .'. . .  145.12 

Teams    155.25 

Pavement    removal    52.42 

Pavement    replacement    85.00 

Superintendent     175.19 

Cost,    miscellaneous $    730.04 

Grand    total     $2,017.27 

This   gives    a   total    cost   of   $3.27   per   lin.    ft.   or   $0.81   ppr 
cu.  yd. 

The  Potter  Hoister  and  Conveyor  Trenching  Machine.  This 
machine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  13.  It  is  constructed  entirely  of 
steel  and  is  readily  taken  apart  for  shipment.  It  consists  of  a 
trestle  of  two  'longitudinal  I-beams  supported  on  bents  spaced, 
as  a  rule,  16  ft.  apart.  These  bents  are  mounted  on  wheels  run- 


814 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  815 

ning  on  rails  on  each  bank  of  the  trench.  A  carriage  travelling 
on  the  I-beam  tracks  has  sheaves  over  which  runs  the  bucket 
hoisting  rope.  A  double  cylinder,  7  x  10-in.,  double  friction  drum 
engine  is  located  at  one  end  of  the  trestle.  Two  men  ride  on 
the  carriage  to  handle  the  buckets.  Buckets  loaded  by  hand  are 
lifted  from  the  trench  by  the  machine  and  carried  back  and 
dumped  on  the  completed  sewer. 

Three  sizes  of  this  machine  are  in  common  use: 

Improved  Standard  Special 

4-bucket                 2-bucket  16-ft  span 

bolster  and  bolster  and  holster  and 

conveyor                conveyor  conveyor 

Bucket   capacity  cu.   yd.     %  or  1  l/%  of  %,  % 

Track    gage    8ft.  5  ft.  5.75  in.  8ft, 

Bottom   gage    10.5  ft.  10.6  ft.  16  ft. 

The  improved  4-bucket  machine  has  a  standard  equipment  of 
17  bents  or  sections  of  trestle  16  ft.  long,  giving  a  length  of  tres- 
tle of  272  ft.,  and  a  total  length  of  290  ft.  The  equipment  in- 
cludes sixteen  %-cu.  yd.  buckets,  a  20-hp.  engine,  700  ft.  of  T-rail, 
cables,  and  complete  fittings.  The  price  is  $4,500  (1916).  The 
capacity  of  the  machine  is  four  loaded  buckets  handled  at  one 
time. 

Excavation  with  Potter  -Machine  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Engi- 
neering Xews,  July  9,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

In  the  construction  of  a  15-ft.  sewer  in  the  Borough  of  Brook- 
lyn, New  York  City,  during  1914,  a  Potter  trenching  machine 
was  used.  The  excavation  was  mainly  in  sand,  and  the  earth  was 
excavated  by  hand  and  raised  in  buckets,  12  of  which  were  con- 
stantly in  use.  Two  buckets  were  run  back  on  the  track  and 
dumped  into  a  hand-pushed  2-cu.  yd.  tip  car,  running  on  a  nar- 
row gage  track  laid  on  the  planked-over  trench  bracing  of  the 
trench  and  backfill.  The  cars  were  handled  and  dumped  by  two 
men.  The  excavation  amounted  to  about  30  cu.  yd.  per  lin.  ft. 
of  trench.  The  machine  handled  about  250  cu.  yd.  per  day  of  8 
hr.,  making  a  progress  of  8  ft.  of  sewer  per  day,  with  a  force  of 
about  60  men.  For  the  foregoing  I  am  indebted  to  Engineering 
Netcs,  July  9,  1914. 

Cost  with  Potter  Machine  at  Chicago.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, April,  1906,  gives  the  following: 

Certain  sections  of  an  intercepting  sewer  were  built  by  day 
labor  in  Chicago,  during  1901-1903.  A  Potter  trench  machine 
370  ft.  long  was  used.  An  ordinary  double  drum  hoisting  engine 
was  placed  at  the  front  end  of  the  machine.  By  means  of  two 
cables  and  a  series  of  drum  sheaves,  the  engine  hoisted  the  bucket 
and  moved  the  carrier  along  the  trackway  as  required.  The  en- 
tire machine,  including  the  engine,  was  supported  on  track  on 


816      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

each  side  of  the  trench.  After  the  track  was  built,  5  min.  was 
ample  time  in  which  to  move  the  whole  machine  48  ft.,  that 
amount  of  trench  being  worked  at  a  time.  The  Potter  trench 
machine  was  used  to  remove  the  clay  and  about  2  ft.  of  overlying 
sand. 

In  the  excavation  six  %-yd.  buckets  were  used,  four  in  the 
trench  and  two  'on  the  carrier.  Two  empty  buckets  were  placed 
in  adjoining  sections  and  two  full  ones  removed  on  each  trip. 
The  trench  machine  crew  consisted  of  the  following:  One  hoist- 
ing engineman,  one  fireman,  and  two  carrier  men.  The  number 
of  bottom  men  or  diggers  ranged  from  17  to  21,  depending  on 
the  kind  and  amount  of  excavation.  In  addition,  the  track  sup- 
porting the  machine  was  built  by  a  gang  of  timber  men,  whose 
other  duties  were  the  removal  of  braces,  and  miscellaneous  work. 

The  rates  of  wages  of  the  trench  machine  crew  were  as  fol- 
lows: 

1  foreman    at   $4.00    $  4.00 

2  enginemen  at  $4.80   9.60 

1  fireman   at  $2.75    2.75 

2  carrier  men  at  $3.75   7.50 

17  bottom  men  at  $3.25   55.25 


Total  daily  labor   $78.10 

One  ton  of  coal,  costing  $2.90,  per  day  was  used;  adding  this 
to  the  total  labor  cost  and  we  get  $81.  About  190  cu.  yd.  were 
excavated  each  day,  so  the  cost,  per  cu.  yd.,  was  40.2  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.,  exclusive  of  plant  rental,  and  cost  of  laying  track. 

Cost  with  Potter  Machine  at  South  Bend,  Ind.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Jan.  29,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

During  1906,  according  to  W.  A.  Morris,  2,444  lin.  ft.  of  5.5 
and  6-ft.  diameter  sewer  was  built  in  South  Bend,  Ind. 

The  ground  was  flat  and  marshy,  the  material  being  loose  black 
soil  to  a  depth  of  about  4  ft.,  with  sand  and  gravel  in  the  re- 
maining depth.  The  last  4  or  5  ft.  was  water  soaked.  The  trench 
was  10.5  ft.  wide  and  of  18  ft.  average  depth.  The  first  2  or  3 
ft.  was  excavated  by  hand  shovels  or  with  plows  and  scrapers. 
The  remaining  excavation  was  mainly  done  with  a  Potter  trench 
machine,  which  also  handled  the  concrete. 

This  machine  was  270  ft.  long.  About  200  ft.  of  trench  was 
kept  open  at  one  time,  the  excavated  material  being  used  for 
backfilling.  A  sub-drain  pipe  was  laid  30  in.  beneath  the  grade 
of  the  sewer  invert.  The  water  entering  this  drain  was  collected 
in  a  sump,  and  then  pumped  out  with  a  C-in.  rotary  pump. 

The  wages  paid  per  day  were  as*  follows: 

Engineman  on  trench  machine    $3.00 

Fireman  on  trench  machine    1.65 

Engineman   for   pumping 2.00 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  817 

Fireman $2.50 

Carpenter     2.50 

Laborers    1.85 

:    .if     * 

The  cost  of  excavation  and  drainage  was : 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Pipe  for  sub-drain   $0.047 

Labor  laying  this  pipe   0.050 

Pumping    water    0.065 

Excavation   and   backfilling    0.400 

Setting  and  pulling  shoring   0.150 

Allowance  for  tools  and  general  expense   0.035 

$0.747 

There  were  7  cu.  yd.  per  lin.  ft.,  so  the  total  cost  per  lin.  ft. 
was'  $5.22. 

Cost  of  Excavating  a  Sewer  with  a  Derrick  and  a  Potter  Ma- 
chine. Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  1),  1907,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Excavation  for  the  Lawrence  Ave.  Sewer,  Chicago,  111.,  was 
performed  with  a  derrick  and  a  Potter  trenching  machine.  The 
trench  was  21  ft.  wide  and  an  average  depth  of  30.5  ft.  The 
materials  consisted  of  a  top  layer  of  black  soil,  15  ft.  of  soft  blue 
clay,  0  to  8  ft.  of  stiff  blue  clay,  1  ft.  of  sandy  loam,  and,  last, 
about  2  ft.  of  hard  blue  clay  that  sometimes  required  to  be 
blasted. 

The  first  1C  to  18  ft.  of  excavation  was  done  with  the  aid  of 
skips  and  a  derrick  having  a  55-ft.  boom  and  equipped  with  a 
7  x  10  double  drum  hoisting  engine.  The  derrick  was  so  arranged 
that  the  boom  could  swing  in  a  half  circle  on  either  side  of  the 
trench.  The  framework  carrying  the  turntables  spanning  the 
trench  rested  on  shoe  timbers,  these  in  turn  resting  on  rollers. 
A  runway  was  built  ahead  of  these  rollers,  and  the  derrick  was 
pulled  ahead  by  means  of  ropes,  wound  round  the  nigger  head 
of  the  engine  and  single  and  double  blocks.  Tire  skips,  of  1  cu. 
yd.  capacity,  were  filled  by  hand  shoveling,  lifted  by  the  derrick 
and  swung  to  one  side  of  the  trench,  the  spoil  being  used  for 
filling  low  places,  or  later  for  completing  the  backfilling.  As 
the  excavation  proceeded  2-in.  plank  sheeting  was  placed  and 
carried  down  to  a  depth  of  about  14  ft.,  8  x  10-in.  timber  spaced 
20  ft.  centers  being  used  for  bracing. 

A  Potter  trench  machine  followed  the  derrick  and  skips,  and 
was  used  in  carrying  down  the  excavation  to  the  required  depth. 
Six  i£-cu.  yd.  capacity  buckets  were  used  with  this  machine, 
four  buckets  in  the  trench  being  filled,  and  two  being  carried 
back  on  the  carriage  and  dumped  on  the  completed  brick  work. 
The  hardest  part  of  the  excavation  was  done  with  this  machine, 
the  clay  being  tenacious  and  coming  away  in  hard  lumps. 


818 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


An  average  of  175  to  200  cu.  yd.  was  excavated  each  day  with 
this  machine. 

The  wages  per  8-hr,  day  and  number  of  men  employed  in  ex- 
cavating with  the  Potter  trenching  machine  were  about  as  fol- 
lows: 

Engineer,    $6.00 $6.00 

Fireman,    $2.50    2.50 

1  man    on   carriage,    $2.50    2.50 

1  man  on  carriage,  $3.25   3.25 

20  bottom  men,  $2.75  55.00 

1  man  on  dump,  $2.75   2.75 

Foreman,    $3.50    3.50 


Total  per  day $75.50 


Fig.  14.     Model  "  C  "  Moore  Trench  Machine  Co.,  .Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

One-half  ton  of  coal  was  consumed  each  day  by  the  machine. 
Allowing  $2.50  for  this,  and  assuming  that  the  rent  of  the  ma- 
chine was  $125  per  month  ($4.80  per  day),  the  total  cost  per 
8-hr,  day  would  be  $82.80.  On  the  basis  that  175  cu.  yd.  of 
material  was  excavated  each  day  the  cost  would  be  about  47  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

The  Moore  Trench  Machine.  C.  N.  Saville,  in  Journal  of  New 
England  Water  Works  Association,  Vol.  17,  1903,  gives  the  fol- 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  819 


820  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

lowing.  A  Moore  machine  was  very  successfully  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  section  of  48-in.  pipe  lines  of  the  Boston  water 
supply  in  1896-7.  With  this  machine  no  material  was  stored 
alongside  of  the  trench,  excepting  the  surfacing  of  the  roadway. 
The  material  from  the  head  of  the  trench  was  shoveled  into 
buckets  by  laborers,  hoisted  and  carried  back  by  the  machine 
to  the  completed  pipe  and  there  dumped.  The  buckets  had  hinged 
bottoms  and  the  load  could  be  dumped  while  the  machine  was  in 
motion,  or  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  In  laying  the 
pipes  with  this  machine  only  about  11  ft.  in  width  and  150  to  200 
ft.  in  length  of  roadway  was  occupied  at  one  time. 

This  machine  in  use  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 
14.  The  apparatus  is  furnished  in  three  models  and  sold  for  from 
$2,800  to  $4,300  before  the  war. 

Trenching  with  a  Tram  Machine  at  Jackson,  Mich.  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Nov.  10,  1900,  describes  sewer  work  at 
Jackson,  Mich.,  as  follows: 

Sewers,  4  to  18  in.  in  diameter,  and  about  2  miles  long,  were 
laid  at 'Jackson,  Mich.  The  soil  was  composed  mainly  of  sand 
and  gravel,  with  much  water  and  running  sand.  The  sewers  were 
laid  at  depths  varying  from  7  to  25  ft.  Tight  sheeting  was  re- 
quired. 

Excavation  for  the  first  few  feet  was  made  with  horses  and 
scrapers.  In  trenches  8  ft.  or  less  in  depth  the  excavation  was 
completed  by  hand.  Sheeting  was  driven  by  hand  and  with- 
drawn with  the  aid  of  a  chain  block. 

In  deeper  trenches,  the  machine  shown  in  Fig.  15  (designed 
by  the  city  engineer,  A.  W.  D.  Hall)  was  used.  This  machine 
was  150  ft.  long,  and,  including  three  %-yd.  self-dumping  buckets, 
cost  $500.  The  traveller  was  operated  by  a  double  drum  hoist, 
one  drum  hoisting  the  buckets  and  the  other  giving  them  a  lat- 
eral movement.  The  excavated  material  was  conveyed  to  the 
rear  and  used  for  backfilling. 

The  water  was  removed  by  means  of  an  ejector.  The  force 
pipe  of  an  ejector,  shown  in  Fig.  16,  was  attached  to  the  nearest 
hydrant,  which  gave  a  pressure  of  about  60  Ib.  The  discharge 
pipe  passed  over  a  bulkhead  into  the  completed  sewer. 

The  sewer  pipe  was  laid  with  aid  of  the  machine.  Where  run- 
ning sand  or  quicksand  was  encountered  the  special  shield  shown 
in  Fig.  17  was  employed.  This  shield  consisted  of  three  sides  of 
a  bottomless  box.  When  near  the  grade  the  shield  was  set  on 
the  trench  bottom  with  its  open  end  straddling  the  completed  pipe. 
Hay  was  then  stuffed  into  the  spaces  between  the  sides  of  the  pipe 
and  the  sides  of  the  shield  in  order  to  keep  out  the  muck.  Two 
men  inside  the  shield  excavated  to  grade,  driving  the  shield  down 
us  they  progressed. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TKE.NCH1NG 


821 


When  excavation  was  completed  the  pipe  was  laid  and  jointed 
inside  the  shield,  which  acted  as  a  temporary  cofferdam. 

The  costs  of  work  at  depths  up  to  10  ft.  varied  widely.  The 
cost  of  excavating  42-in.  sewer  from  17  to  20  ft.  deep,  was  53  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  At  a  depth  of  26  ft.  the  cost  was  75  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


Fig.   16. 


Ejector  and  Method  of  Pumping  Water  from  Sewer 
Trench. 


These  costs  include  excavation,  backfilling,  sheeting,  pulling  and 
driving,  pipe  laying,  and  cleaning  up  and  grading  the  street  after 
the  \vork.  They  include  everything  except  cost  of  pipe  and  cost 
of  sheeting  timber  and,  apparently,  plant  and  overhead  charges. 
The  gang  worked  consists  of  30  men;  common  labor  is  paid  $2 


Fig.  17. 


Steel  Plate  Shield  Employed  in  Laying  Sewer  Pipe  in 
Quicksand. 


to  $2.25  per  clay,  enginemen  $3  per  day  and  foremen  $5  per  day. 
The  work  is  being  done  wholly  by  day  labor. 

The  Parsons  Trench  Excavator.  This  machine  has  a  series  of 
scrapers  and  cutting  teeth  fastened  on  an  endless  belt  travelling 
around  a  ladder.  These  buckets  and  scrapers  are  self-cleaning 


822 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


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METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


823 


and  deliver  the  excavated  earth  to  a  belt  conveyor  that  carries 
the  material  to  one  side  of  the  trench.  These  machines  are  made 
in  two  different  models,  and  in  two  types  of  each  model. 

Models  K  and  K-O  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  18.  In  the  K  ma- 
chine the  buckets  travel  automatically  back  and  forth  across  the 
trench,  thus  cutting  any  width  of  trench  between  22  and  42  in. 
without  changing  the  size  of  the  buckets.  The  model  K-O  is  a 
very  strong  machine. 


Fig.   18.     Design   of  Parsons  Excavators,  Models  K-O  and   K. 

•  The  daily  cost  of  operating  a  $5,600  machine  is  estimated  by 
the  manufacturers  as  follows,  based  on  a  10-hr,  working  day 
and  200  working  days  per  year. 


Engineman     $4.00 

Fuel     r 6.00 

Oil  and  waste    1.00 

Repairs,    5%    1.40 

Interest,    6%    1.70 

Depreciation,    15%    4.25 


Total    $18.35 


The  E  and  F  machines  are  equipped  with  the  oscillating  de- 
vice enabling  widths  of  trench  from  28  to  60  or  72  in.  to  be 
cut  without  changing  the  sixe  of  buckets.  The  advantages  of 
these  machines  are  their  adaptibility  to  all  sizes  of  work,  their 
rugged  construction,  short  length,  variety  of  digging  speeds,  and, 
in  particular,  their  almost  vertical  digging  boom  that  enables 
sheeting  to  be  placed  within  4  ft.  of  the  rear  of  the  machine. 

Steam  driven  machines  require   1,200  to  2,000  Ib.  of  coal  per 


824 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


10  hr.  The  first  cost  of  machines  is  approximately  $270  to  $300 
per  ton  of  weight.  These  machines  are  made  by  The  Parsons  Co., 
Newton,  Iowa. 

Cost  of  Work  with  Parsons  Excavator.  W.  G.  Kirchoffer,  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.  10,  1912,  gives  the  following 
relative  to  the  work  of  a  Parsons  trench  excavator  in  sand, 


•   '  * 

*  j^fii     ,t--//<Mi«-.-;  "ifjlinifu; 

«ov  1  -;>ho7/  00!. 


Design   of   Parsons   Excavators,   Models   E   and   F. 


gravel  and  clay.  The  trench  was  5,270  ft.  long  and  was  dug  for 
an  8-in.  sewer  at  West  Salem,  Wis.  The  trench  averaged  about 
8  ft.  deep.  The  total  number  of  days'  work  put  in  on  the  job 
was  320,  or  an  average  of  61.8  days  per  1,000  ft.  of  sewer. 

The  trenching  machine  was  operated  20  days  out  of  the  total 
26  put  in  upon  the  work,  or  an  average  of  263^  ft.  per  day.  The 
least  distance  made  in  a  day  was  20  ft.  and  the  maximum  dis- 
tarice  of  550  ft.  of  completed  sewer.  There  were  five  days  in 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


825 


which  the  rate  exceeded  400  ft.  of  sewer  per  day.     The  progress 
diagram  is  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

The  labor  put  in  upon  the  work  was  divided  as  follows  in  days 
per  1,000  ft.  of  sewer: 


1.092 

4  935 

4.315 

4.270 

•;•• 

4  79 

4.412 

&  '  r* 

3  417 

r,  & 

3.75 

Mr    v 

1  993 

V'.i.    il 

26.04 

Tamper     .                               

4.13 

W.   & 

Fig.  20.     Parsons  Excavator  Model   F  Equipped  with  Backfiller. 

The  greatest  number  of  men  employed  in  any  one  day  was  16 
and  the  smallest  number  was  two.  A  man  who  was  killed  upon 
the  work  came  in  contact  with  some  high  tension  wires  in  at- 
tempting to  lift  them  over  the  excavator  with  a  common  broom 
stick  when  they  were  moving  from  one  street  to  another. 

P.  &  H.  Trench  Excavators.  These  are  of  two  types:  The 
wheel -type  in  which  the  excavating  buckets  are  fastened  to  the 
rim  of  a  wheel,  and  the  ladder  type  in  which  the  excavating 
buckets  are  fastened  to  a  chain  belt  traveling  up  a  ladder.  The 


826 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


principle  of  the  wheel-type  machine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  22.  This 
type  of  machine  is  furnished  in  two  general  styles.  The  drainage 
type  machine  is  built  in  12  sizes,  ranging  from  the  No.  1  .exca 
vator  capable  of  digging  trenches  11.5  in.  wide  and  7.5  ft.  deep. 
The  contractors  type  machine  ranges  from  the  No.  13  capable  of 
digging  15  in.  wide  by  5.5  ft.  deep,  to  the  No.  36  machine  capable 


0      403     800     1103    1600    2000   2400    2800  3200    3600    4000  4400    4600   4800    5000  #00 
Length  of  Sewer  Laid  in  Feet 

Fig.  21.     Progress  Diagram  of  Sewer  Trenching  by  Machine  at 
West  Salem,  Wis. 

of  digging  54  in.  wide  by  12  ft.  deep.     The  ladder  type  excavator 
is  furnished  in  four  sizes:  as  follows: 

Depth  of  cut,  10  ft. ;  width  of  cut,  18,  24  and  30  in. 
Depth  of  cut,  12  ft. ;  width  of  cut,  24,  30  and  36  in. 
Depth  of  cut,  15  ft.;  width  of  cut,  24,  30  and  36  in. 
Depth  of  cut,  20  ft. ;  width  of  cut,  24,  30,  36,  48,  60,  and  72  in. 


These  machines  are  made  by  the  Pawling  and  Harnischfeger 
Co.  of  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Cost  of  P.  &  H.  Machine  Trenching  for  Water  Mains.  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  May  8,  1918,  states  that  by  using  a 
trenching  machine  the  Water  Department  of  Erie,  Pa.,  has  over- 
come difficulties  incident  to  the  labor  shortage  and  at  the  same 
time  has  effected  a  large  saving  in  excavating  for  water  main  ex- 
tensions. A  report  on  the  work  of  the  machine,  furnished  by 
Mr.  E.  W.  Humphreys,  Superintendent  of  Waterworks,  shows  that 
it  has  dug  5^  and  6  ft.  deep  trenches  at  a  cost  as  low  as  0.9 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


827 


ct.  per  lineal  foot.  This  particular  trench  was  dug  in  hard 
clay.  The  figure  covers  the  wages  of  operator  and  helper  and  the 
cost  of  gasoline,  oils  and  grease.  In  laying  10,000  ft.  of  6-in. 
main  in  1917  the  cost  of  hand  digging  alone  was  19  ct.  per  lin. 
ft.,  with  common  labor  at  27^  ct.  per  hour.  The  hand  dug 
trench  was  in  clay  with  shale  at  the  bottom. 

The  accompanying  tabulation  shows  work  done  by  the  machine 


Fig.  22.     Detail  of  Wheel  and  Method  of  Digging  Ditch,  P.  &  H. 
Trench  Excavator. 


at  various  times  from  May  1,  1917,  to  Jan.  3,  1918.     The  width 
of  trench  was  2  ft. 


Rankin  Ave.  N.,  running  sand  and  gravel  

Rankin  Ave.  S.,   hard  shale   

22d  W.  Cranberry,  hard  clay   

28th  W.  of  Sigsbee,  clam  loam   

Cherry  N.  of  30th,  clay  and  gravel  

5th  W.  Raspberry,  sandy .014 

27th  W.  Cascade,  hard  clay   '. 009 

Old  French  Road,  hard  clay 009 


Cost  per 
lin.  ft. 

?0.065 
.036 
.010 
.010 
.012 


The  costs  given  in  this  table  are  the  actual  operative  costs, 
exclusive  of  overhead,  depreciation  and  repairs,  and  pay  of  watch- 
man. The  costs  in  detail  for  three  of  the  jobs  follow: 


.HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Rankin   Ave.   N.    (1,000  lin.   ft.  trench,   5.5   ft.  deep) 

•  Per  lin.  ft. 

Operator,  62  hr.  at  32V2  ct $00200 

Helpers,  115  hr.  at  30  ct 0345 

Gasoline,  39  gal.  at  24%  ct [0090 

Oils,   4  qt.  at  9%  ct 0004 

Grease,   2  Ib.  at  1%  ct .0001 


Total   (1,000  lin.  ft.)    $0.0640 

Rankin  Ave.  S.   (800  lin.  ft.  trench,  5.5  ft.  deep) 

Per  lin.  ft. 

Operator,  26  hr.  at  35  ct $0.0114 

Helper,  38  hr.  at  28  ct 0130 

Gasoline,  35  gal.  at  25  ct 0109 

Oils,  4  qt.  at  HMs  ct 0006 

Grease,  1  Ib.  at  9  ct 0001 


28th  W.  of  Sigsbee  (652  lin.  ft.  trench,  6  ft.  deep) 


Total  (800  lin.  ft.)   $00360 

J3  Per  lin.  ft. 

Operator,  3  hr.  at  35  ct $0.002 

Helper,  3  hr.  at  27  ct 002 

Gasoline,  12  gal.  at  25  ct 005 

Oils,  4  qt.  at  11%  ct. ;  grease,  1  Ib.  at  9  ct 001 

Total   (652  lin.   ft.)    $0.010 

The  costs  on  the  last  six  jobs  represent  the  actual  time  the 
machine  was  engaged  in  trenching.  On  the  old  French  Road 
work  230  lin.  ft.  of  trench  was  excavated  in  one  hour,  while  in 
the  27th  St.  work  210  ft.  of  trench  was  dug  in  one  hour.  A  sum- 
mary of  the  operating  costs  on  the  six  jobs  shows  the  following: 

6  jobs  trenching  (2,727  lin  ft.,  5.8  ft.  deep) 

Per  lin.  ft. 

Operator,  15  hr.  at  39  ct $0.0021 

Helper,  15  hr.  at  31%  ct 0017 

Gasoline,  61  gal.  at  25.1  ct 0060 

Oils,  13  qt.  at  11  ct .0005 

Grease,  5  Ib.  at  6%  ct. 0001 


Total   (2,727  lin.  ft.)    - $0.0104 

The  trenching  machine,  a  Pawling  &  Harnischfeger,  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Water  Department  early  in  1017  at  a  cost  of 
$5,650  f.  o.  b.  Erie. 

Cost  with  a  P.  &  H.  Trench  Excavator  at  Erie,  Penn.  En- 
gineering News-Record,  Feb.  14,  1918,  gives  the  following: 

Four  miles  of  G-  and  12-in.  water-main  trenches  in  wooded  or 
frozen  ground  and  with  shale  at  the  bottom  were  completed  with 
a  machine  by  the  Water  Department  of  Erie,  Penn.,  between 
Feb.  1  and  Oct.  5,  1917,  at  a  cost  far  below  that  of  hand  work, 
even  in  1915.  Though  at  the  speed  developed  by  the  machine, 
3  to  3%  ft.  per  min.  on  5^-  and  6-ft.  deep  trenches,  this  repre- 


METHODS  AN1DI  COST  OF  TRENCHING  829 

sents  less  than  two  weeks'  steady  work,  the  difference  in  the 
amount  paid  for  hand  labor  per  foot  in  1916  and  in  the  cost  per 
foot  of  all  labor  and  fuel  required  with  the  machine  represents 
more  than  half  the  first  cost  of  the  tool  saved  on  the  four  miles 
already  completed.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  extensions  built  in  1917, 
representing  more  work  than  was  done  in  either  of  the  preced- 
ing years,  could  have  been  completed  without  the  machine  because 
of  the  scarcity  of  labor.  j  tfji 

The  trenching  machine,  a  Pawling  &  Harnischfeger,  bought 
early  this  year  for  $5,050  f.oJb.  Erie,  is  of  the  wheel  type.  The 
buckets  are  adjustable  for  cutting  11$  to  54  in.  wide  and  trenches 
4}£  to  12  ft.  deep  can  be  dug.  The  machine  is  driven  by  a  four- 
cylinder,  four-cycle,  40-hp.,  gasoline  engine.  Ordinarily,  one  op- 
erator and  one  helper  run  it  without  other  assistance  under  the 
supervision  of  the  foreman  who  looks  after  the  rest  of  the  work. 
The  trenches  cut  are  2  ft.  in  width  and  from  5^  to  6  ft.  in  depth. 
Clay  2  to  4  ft.  deep,  underlain  by  shale,  is  encountered  on  nearly 
all  the  work,  though  one  trench  has  been  dug  in  running  gravel. 
Conditions  are  such  that  the  machine  cuts  full  length  for  the  ex- 
tension to  be  laid  in  a  continuous  operation,  most  of  the  trenches 
being  less  than  2,000  ft.  long.  The  pipe  gang  of  7  men  lays  the 
new  main  behind  it  at  the  rate  of  a  block,  or  660  ft.,  a  day. 
As  the  water  mains  are  always  extended  in  advance  of  paving,, 
operations  are  completed  by  backfilling  the  trench  with  a  team  and 
scraper.  In  this  manner  li£  miles  of  12-in.  and  2^  miles  of  6-in. 
pipe  were  laid  between  Feb.  1  and  Oct.  5. 

During  1915,  considered  an  ordinary  year,  the  city  laid  25,000 
ft.  of  6-  and  12-in.  mains  in  hand  excavated  trenches  at  a  labor 
cost  for  digging,  laying  and  backfilling  of  29  ct.  .a  foot  for  the 
smaller  and  36  ct.  a  foot  for  the  larger  size.  Much  more  pipe  was 
laid  in  1916  and  this  year  because  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
city.  While  complete  unit  costs  for  the  last  year's  work  have 
not  yet  been  compiled,  it  is  known  that  rising  wages  caused  con- 
siderable increase  over  those  of  1915.  Records  for  10,000  ft.  of 
6-in.  main  laid  at  one  time  last  year  show  a  total  labor  cost  of  37 
ct.  per  ft.,  of  which  digging  alone  represented  19  ct.,  with  com- 
mon labor  27}£  ct.  an  hour.  The  trench  was  in  clay,  with  shale 
at  the  bottom.  As  compared  with  this,  the  first  performance 
with  the  trenching  machine,  excavating  for  1,620  ft.  of  line,  was 
accomplished  at  a  fuel  and  labor  cost  of  8.2  ct.  per  ft.  for  actual 
digging.  This  was  in  gravel  which  required  sheeting,  the  cost 
of  which  is  included  in  the  above  figure.  On  another  occasion,  in 
digging  through  cut-over  land,  where  many  large  but  partly  rotted 
stumps  were  cut  through,  682  ft.  of  trench  was  dug  in  four 
hours,  at  a  cost  of  $7.55  for  three  men  and  15  gal.  of  gasoline  — 


830  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH'  EXCAVATION 

only  1.1  ct.  per  ft.  On  Oct.  5  the  machine  made  its  speed  record 
of  660  ft.  in  three  hours,  $3.02  for  gasoline  and  $1.88  for  the 
wages  of  the  engineer  and  helper  being  charged  to  the  operation. 
This  was  about  0.75  ct.  per  ft.  Both  trenches  were  in  shale  at 
the  bottom. 

That  these  costs  are  typical  of  the  work  is  shown  by  the  record 
which  the  machine  made  on  its  most  difficult  bit  of  digging. 
Last  winter,  with  18  in.  of  ground  frozen  hard,  it  dug  in  one  oper- 
ation 7,220  ft.  of  2  x  5^-ft.  trench  at  an  average  speed  of  3  ft.  per 
minute.  The  bottom  of  this  trench  was  in  shale,  the  average 
depth  of  which  proved  to  be  44  in.  Over  most  of  the  trench  the 
clay  was  frozen  to  the  top  of  the  shale. 

This  shale  is  not  laminated  clay,  but  a  true  shale,  which  can 
be  picked  in  excavating  bell  holes,  but  which  it  pays  to  shoot 
when  any  considerable  yardage  must  be  removed  by  hand. 

Excavating  and  Backfilling  by  a  Carson  Trench  Machine. 
The  following  data  are  taken  from  Engineering  Record,  Jan.  2, 
1915,  relative  to  sewer  work  in  Vancouver,  B.  C. 

The  machine  is  designed  to  be  set  up  over  a  340-ft.  length  of 
trench,  from  which  excavated  material  is  loaded  directly  into 
buckets,  which  elevate  it,  run  back  along  the  trench  and  dump 
it  as  backfill  over  pipe  already  in  place.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
pipe  must  be  laid  at  the  same  rate  as  the  excavation  advances. 
The  buckets  are  operated  by  cables  running  through  carriers  on 
an  overhead  rail,  which  is  supported  over  the  center  line  of  the 
trench  and  12  ft.  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  nineteen 
wooden  trestles.  Each  trestle  is  mounted  on  two  wheels,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  trench,  which  rest  on  the  rails  of  an  8-ft.-gage 
track.  This  track  carries  the  engine  as  well  as  the  entire  340-ft.- 
length  of  framework,  thus  greatly  facilitating  moving  ahead  as 
work  advances. 

Excavation  is  carried  on  simultaneously  in  two  48-ft.  lengths 
of  the  trench,  a  gang  of  six  men  working  in  each.  The  machine 
is  equipped  for  handling  six  ^-cu.  yd.  buckets  at  a  time,  so  that 
by  keeping  18  buckets  on  the  job,  a  set  of  empties  is  always  left  in 
the  trench  when  full  ones  are  removed,  and  the  workmen  need 
never  wait  while  buckets  are  being  dumped.  Under  this  plan 
each  man  has  an  8-ft.  length  of  trench  to  work  in,  and  fills  his 
bucket  independently  of  others.  When  loaded  buckets  are  hoisted 
to  the  limiting  position  they  are  automatically  locked  to  the  car- 
riers, which  are  then  drawn  along  the  overhead  rail  to  the  point 
where  the  fill  is  being  made.  Here  the  buckets  are  dumped  sep- 
arately by  a  lockman,  who  moves  along  the  bucket  line  on  a 
plank  walk  supported  by  the  trestles.  This  lockman  signals  the 
engineer  for  each  move,  and  is  the  only  man  required  on  the 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  831 

bucket  line,  the  empty  buckets  being  taken  from  the  cables  and 
full  ones  substituted  by  the  workmen  in  the  trench  bottom. 
The  work  of  taking  down  the  machine,  moving  to  another  job 
and  setting  up  again  ordinarily  requires  three  to  four  days'  time 
with  a  crew  of  10  men.  Thus  with  a  haul  of,  say,  1  mile,  the 
total  cost  of  removing  from  one  setup  to  another  is  about  $170. 

Canvas  Troughs.  When  small  trunk  or  lateral  sewers  were  un- 
covered for  any  considerable  length  in  excavating  the  trench, 
temporary  provision  was  formerly  made  by  carrying  the  flow 
during  construction  in  open  wooden  troughs  fixed  to  the  side  of 
the  trench.  It  was  found,  however,  that,  besides  being  expensive 
to  handle  and  move,  these  flumes  interfered  with  the  work  and 
caused  frequent  trouble  which  could  be  entirely  eliminated  by 
the  use  of  closed  canvas  troughs.  The  latter  were  made  by  simply 
affixing  eyelets  to  opposite  edges  of  a  strip  of  heavy  canvas  of 
any  desired  width  up  to  3  ft.  Eyelets  on  both  edges  of  the  strip 
are  then  hung  on  the  same  set  of  spikes  driven  into  the  timbering 
on  the  side  of  the  trench  and  placed,  roughly,  on  a  fairly  steep 
grade.  This  type  of  trough  is  often  strung  for  the  full  340-ft. 
length  of  the  trench,  and  the  laterals  encountered  are  connected 
to  it  by  short  lengths  of  similar  tubing. 

Timbering  Methods.  A  considerable  quantity  of  timbering  is 
taken  from  job  to  job  with  the  machine,  breakage  being  replaced 
as  required.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  with  the  system 
now  in  use  the  breakage  is  almost  negligible.  For  all  classes 
of  soft  material  l^xlO-in.  sheeting  is  used  in  4-ft.  lengths,  and 
it  has  been  found  that  this  works  to  much  better  advantage  than 
the  longer  sheeting,  which  would  require  driving.  When  the 
trench  has  reached  a  depth  slightly  over  4  ft.  digging  is  stopped 
while  the  timbering  is  placed. 

The  diggers  all  help  in  placing  the  timbering,  at  least  until  the 
stringers  are  braced  in  by  jacks,  after  which  excavation  is  re- 
sumed, while  the  man  detailed  to  look  after  tthe  timbering  sets 
the  struts  and  lines  up  the  timbers  generally.  This  man  spends 
all  his  time  attending  the  timbering,  carries  it  forward  as  fast 
as  it  is  removed  from  the  backfill  and  lays  it  along  the  trench 
where  it  will  be  needed  in  new  excavation.  Thus,  when  a  new 
set  of  timbering  is  required,  all  material  is  ready  to  be  passed 
down  by  the  timberman,  and  as  the  work-men  do  not  have  to 
leave  the  trench,  the  entire  operation  of  placing  timbering  in  a 
48-ft.  section  4  ft.  deep  delays  the  work  only  about  20  min. 
One  3x  12-in.  stringer  is  placed  midway  of  each  sheeting  set,  and 
opposite  stringers  are  braced  by  4  x  4-in.  struts,  spaced  on  8-ft. 
centers.  When  nearing  the  depth  at  which  sheeting  will  no 
longer  be  required  the  sheeting  is  changed  from  1^-in.  to  1-in. 


832  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

material,    which    still    further    reduces    initial    cost    and    cost   of 
handling. 

Crew.  Exclusive  of  supervision,  17  men  operate  the  machine. 
These  include  12  pick-and-shovel  men  filling  buckets  in  the  trench, 
one  lockman,  one  engineer,  one  timberman,  one  toolman  and  a 
straw  boss.  Only  half  of  the  superintendent's  time  is  charged 
against  the  machine,  as  he  ordinarily  looks  after  two  jobs.  In 
addition  to  the  machine  crew,  a  gang  of  four  men  is  used  in 
laying  sewer  pipe.  Whenever  the  pipe  crew  gets  behind  with  its 
work  some  of  the  diggers  are  set  to  helping  with  the  pipe  or  con- 
crete; and,  vice  versa,  when  the  pipe  crew  has  extra  time  it  is 
used  in  the  trench  ahead.  Thus  it  is  possible  to  equalize  any 
deficiency  in  forces  or  to  compensate  for  unforeseen  difficulties 
in  either  branch  of  the  work,  a  flexibility  which  is  considered  a 
great  aid  to  efficiency. 

Cost  Data.  In  order  to  give  a  fair  idea  of  actual  capacity  of 
the  machine  and  the  cost  of  operation,  a  typical  case  has  been 
selected  in  which  about  7,700  cu.  yd.  were  handled  in  a  2,700-ft. 
trench  excavated  for  a  2-ft.  trunk  sewer.  This  work  was  done  in 
Granville  Lane,  Vancouver,  which  has  a  width  of  20  ft.  A  start 
was  made  on  the  lower  end  of  the  trench,  hand  labor  being  used 
until  a  depth  of  about  8  ft.  had  been  attained.  The  machine  was 
then  put  in  service  and  used  until  the  job  was  finished.  The 
maximum  depth  of  the  trench  was  about  26  ft.  The  trench  has 
a  top  width  of  4  ft.,  which  was  maintained  until  a  depth  of  12 
ft.  6  in.  was  reached,  below  which  no  timbering  was  used,  and  the 
width  gradually  decreased  to  3  ft.  at  the  bottom.  The  work  was 
begun  in  the  fall  of  1913  and  continued  without  interruption, 
using  one  8-hr,  shift.  The  average  volume  of  excavation  handled 
in  8  hr.  was  45  cu.  yd.  A  careful  distribution  of  the  costs  on  this 
work  gives  the  following  results: 

Per  cu.  yd. 
Labor   (including  superintendent  and  watchman)    ....     $1.63 

Hauling  machine  to  the  job  ($88)    0.0115 

Erecting  and  taking  down  machine   ($96)    0.0125 

Upkeep    of   plant    0.0428 

Running  expenses   0.1126 

$1.81 

Depreciation  of  plant   0.04 

Interest  on  cost  of  machine  at  5%  0.02 


Total  per  cu.  yd $1.86 

The  last  two  items  in  the  table  are  values  assumed  for  the  city 
of  Vancouver,  and  might  be  quite  different  under  other  circum- 
stances. The  life  of  the  machine  was  assumed  at  10  yr.,  it  being 
assumed  that  in  city  service  it  would  last  much  longer  than  in 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  833 

ordinary  contracting  service,  and  5%  is  the  rate  at  which  the 
city  secures  money  for  such  purchases.  It  should  be  noted  that 
only  one  haulage  charge  is  made  in  these .  figures.  This  is  be- 
cause the  machine  is  kept  busy  continually  by  being  moved  from 
one  job  direct  to  another.  In  contractors'  service,  if  the  machine 
were  returned  to  the  storage  yard  after  each  job,  the  haulage 
item  would  be  doubled.  The  labor  item,  which  is  so  large  a  pro- 
portion of  the  total,  is  based  on  the  following  labor  costs  per 
hour  for  an  8-hr,  day:  Pick-and-shovel  men,  40  ct.;  timberman, 
42i/£  ct.;  lockman,  42}£  ct. ;  steam  engineman,  53i£  ct.;  toolman, 
371^  ct. ;  straw  boss,  42^  ct.,  and  one-half  superintendent's  time, 
62i£  ct.  "  Upkeep  of  plant  "  includes  ordinary  wear  and  tear,  as 
well  as  minor  breakages,  while  "  running  expenses "  includes 
coal,  water,  timber,  tool  sharpening,  etc.  Two  items  which 
might  have  to  be  included  under  other  circumstances  are  em- 
ployer's liability  insurance  and  excess  spoil  haulage  —  the  latter 
in  cases  where  excavation  and  fill  could  not  be  figured  to  bal- 
ance. 

The  question  of  minimum  trench  depth  at  which  the  machine 
would  be  efficient  has  been  worked  out  for  Vancouver  labor  price 
as  about  8  ft.  for  the  usual  case.  However,  if  the  job  was  com- 
paratively short  and  the  haul  very  long,  a  depth  as  great  as  12 
or  14  ft.  might  be  the  minimum.  A  feature  that,  tends  to  make 
pick-and-shovel  men  efficient,  or  at  least  keep  them  all  up  to  a 
uniform  standard,  is  the  fact  that  no  one  can  do  less  than  the 
others  without  having  this  known,  since  all  six  buckets  come  up 
at  once;  when  one  man  is  slower  than  the  others  he  will  still  be 
working  while  the  remainder  of  the  crew  wait.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  in  practice  this  generally  works  out  so  that  after  the  first 
few  days  on  a  job  there  is  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  time  the 
men  require  for  filling  buckets. 

The  machine  used  in  Vancouver  was  purchased  early  in  1911 
for  $5,000,  duty  paid,  and  was  made  by  the  Carson  Trench  Ma- 
chine Company  of  Boston. 

Cost  with  Austin  Trench  Excavators.  Ernest  McCullough 
gives  the  following  data  relating  to  work  done  by  the  "  Chicago 
Trench  Excavator,"  a  machine  made  by  the  F.  C.  Austin  Co.  of 
Chicago. 

The  machine  consists  of  an  endless  chain  provided  with  cutters 
and  scrapers  which  deliver  the  earth  onto  a  traveling  belt,  the  ex- 
cavators and  conveyors  being  carried  by  a  four-wheeled  traction 
engine,  which  furnishes  the  power. 

In  laying  ~y2  miles  of  pipe  sewers  at  Marshfield,  Wis.,  the  daily 
cost  of  operating  the  machine  and  laying  pipe  was  as  follows: 


834       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Operator  of  trench  digger   $  3.00 

Engineman  of  trench  digger  2.75 

Fireman  of  trench  digger  2.25 

Man  trimming  bottom  of  trench    2.25 

2  men  bracing  trench  with  plank   4.00 

2  pipe  layers,   at  $2.50   5.00 

2  men  furnishing  pipe  and  mortar  4.00 

2  men  tamping  earth  around  pipe  4.00 

1  man  shoveling  earth  down  to  the  tampers  2.00 

2  teams  and  drivers  scraping  backfill   7.50 

4  men  holding  the  scrapers   8.00 

Total  labor  per  10-hr,  day   $44.75 

About  %  ton  of  coal  was  used  daily. 

The  trench  was  27  in.  wide  and  averaged  7  ft.  deep.  The  best 
day's  run  was  850  lin.  ft.  of  trench,  or  500  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.,  in  dry 
clay  containing  no  stones.  On  another  day  nearly  500  ft.  were  run 
in  spite  of  many  stops  to  blast  out  boulders.  A  fair  average  was 
400  to  500  lin.  ft.,  or  300  cu.  yd.  per  day.  Due  to  the  jarring  of 
the  ground  by  the  machine  it  is  necessary  to  brace  the  trench. 

I  am  informed  by  Mr.  McCullough  that  records  of  650  cu.  yd. 
per  day  have  been  made  with  this  machine. 

These  trench  excavators  are  made  in  four  sizes  to  excavate  from 
14  in.  to  60  in.  in  width  and  up  to  20  ft.  in  depth. 

As  confirming  these  data  of  Mr.  McCullough's,  the  following 
records  given  by  Mr.  B.  Ewing  are  of  value:  In  the  summer  of 
1904,  many  miles  of  pipe  sewers  were  built  at  Wheaton,  111.,  by 
contract.  Two  Chicago  (Austin)  Excavators  were  used,  cutting 
a  trench  2^4  ft.  wide,  7  to  18  ft.  deep.  One  machine  would  ex- 
cavate 750  lin.  ft.  of  trench  7  ft.  deep  through  hard  clay  mixed 
with  small  stones,  in  a  10-hr,  day.  In  cutting  trenches  15  to  18 
ft.,  a  machine  would  average  150  to  200  lin.  ft.  per  day,  depending 
upon  how  much'  bracing  was  necessary. 

Use  of  an  Austin  Excavator  at  Moundsville,  W.  Va.  The  fol- 
lowing data  are  from  a  paper  by  A.  W.  Peters,  in  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Feb.  28,  1912. 

The  work  entailed  the  construction  of  3.5  miles  of  trench  0  to 
6  ft.  deep,  16.5  miles  6  to  8  ft.  deep,  3  miles  8  to  10  ft.  deep,  and 
3  miles  deeper  than  10  ft.  As  labor  troubles  developed,  and  as 
the  conditions  were  suitable  to  machine  work,  a  No.  00  Chicago 
sewer  excavator  was  installed.  This  machine  was  fitted  with 
buckets  22  in.  wide,  and  had  a  separate  set  of  buckets  27  in.  wide. 
The  length  of  arm  was  8  ft.  but  there  was  an  extra  2  ft.  extension 
that  enabled  the  machine  to  dig  10  ft.  deep. 

The  soil  was  excellent  for  machine  work,  consisting  mainly  of 
fine  sand  mixed  with  loam  and  unstratified  yellow  clay,  moist 
enough  to  stand  well  with  occasional  vertical  braces.  Where 
sand  predominated  the  machine  had  a  large  output,  but  where 
clay  predominated  the  speed  was  much  slower. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  835 

The  backfill  was  divided  into  two  operations:  (1)  Filling  in 
and  tamping  by  hand  1  ft.  of  earth  covering.  This  cost  about  16 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.  (2)  Filling  in  the  remainder  of  the  trench.  This 
was  done  with  a  Sydney  scraper  and  team.  Tamping  was  ac- 
complished by  flushing  the  trenches  with  water  from  hydrants. 
Two  men  followed  the  scraper  cleaning  out  the  gutter  and  round- 
ing off  the  fill.  The  cost  of  the  backfill  scraper  work  per  day 
was  as  follows: 

-:  -Xf'i'it!     .15     C.J 

Team  and  driver   $  4.50 

Helper  on   scraper    1.75 

Helper  on  hose,  etc 1.75 

Cleaning  up  gutter,  2  men  at  $1.75  3.50 

Water,  5,000  gal.,  at  10  ct.  per  M 0.50 

Per  day  of  ten  hours   : $12.00 

The  average  daily  yardage  of  backfill  was  280  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost 
of  4.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  best  day's  work  was  380  cu.  yd. 

The  daily  cost  of  trench  excavation  with  the  machine  was  as 
follows : 

Operation : 

Superintendence     $  1.50 

Engineman    and   helper    4.75 

Watchman    " 1.75 

Coal,  15  bu.  at  7  ct 1.05 

Water,  1  single  team  2.50 

Plumber,  service  pipes,  average  1.00 

Total  per   day $12.55 

Sheeting:     Uprights  and  jacks;  no  rangers. 

2  men  at  $1.75 $  3.50 

Lumber,  used  repeatedly,  neglected. 

Maintenance : 

Replacing  dull  spuds  on  buckets  $  0.50 

Engineman's  time  Sunday  cleaning  up,   $3.00/6....        0.50 

Total   maintenance    *. $  1.50 

Depreciation : 

Life   of  machine   figured   at   5  years,   9   months   to 

the  year,  25  days  to  the  month   $  4.00 

Daily   total    (10  hr.)    $21.55 

In  23  days  4,100  cu.  yd.  were  excavated,  at  a  cost  of  12.1  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. ;  but  the  actual  digging  time  was  203  hr.  The  best 
day's  work  was  321  cu.  yd.,  at  a  cost  of  6.7  ct. ;  and  the  poorest 
day's  work  was  82  cu.  yd.,  because  of  bad  banks,  at  a  cost  of 
26.2  ct. 

Cost  with  an  Austin  Excavator  at  Glencoe,  111.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Apr.  5,  1911,  gives  the  following  by  Don  E. 
Marsh,  relating  to  a  sewer  system  constructed  at  Glencoe,  111., 


836  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

beginning  August,  1910.     The  lengths  and  depths  of  the  various 
sizes  of  sewers  are  as  follows : 

15,500  lin.  ft.  of  8-in.  pipe.  8  to  12  ft.  cut. 
5,600  lin.  ft.  of  10-in.  pipe,  7  to  13  ft.  cut. 

250  lin.  ft.  of  18-in.  pipe,  about  13  ft.  cut. 
1,000  lin.  ft.  of  15-in.  pipe,  about  16  ft.  cut. 
4,700  lin.  ft.  of  18-in.  pipe,  from  very  shallow  to  30  ft.  cut. 

The  soil,  especially  in  the  deep  cuts,  was  hard   clay,  the  top 

15  ft.  being  a  brownish  clay  with  some  traces  of  sand,  and  the 
remainder  a  hard  blue  clay.     During  the  fall  and  winter  months 
this   soil  became  extremely  hard  and  difficult,  and  could  not  be 
dug  by  hand  without  the  aid  of  a  pick.     This  was  an  advantage 
in   some   respects   as    it   obviated   the   need   of    sheeting.     During 
part  of  the  work  there  was  frost  in  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  14  to 

16  in. 

A  small  amount  of  the  excavating  was  done  by  hand,  but  the 
greater  quantity  was  performed  by  two  Austin  sewer  excavators. 
The  large  machine  dug  trenches  33  in.  wide  and  up  to  25  ft.  deep. 
Before  digging  trenches  of  originally  greater  depth  than  25  ft. 
the  street  was  graded  down  3  or  4  ft.,  and  the  remaining  foot  or 
two  left  by  the  machine  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  was  exca- 
vated by  hand,  the  dirt  being  thrown  on  the  boom  of  the  exca- 
vator or  on  the  completed  pipe  line.  The  smaller  machine  dug 
to  depths  as  high  as  15  ft.  The  sides  of  the  trench  were  left 
vertical  and  smooth.  Vertical  planks  13  ft.  apart  in  deep 
trenches  and  less  in  shallow  cuts,  with  extension  screw  braces, 
were  used  for  bracing.  At  only  a  few  points  was  caving  experi- 
enced. 

The  cost  of  backfilling  was  excessive,  as  it  was  done  by  hand. 
An  automatic  backfiller  was  tried,  but  as  this  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  pipe  laid  close  up  to  the  boom  of  the  machine 
its  use  was  abandoned. 

From  records  of  a  few  average  days  the  cost  of  labor  in 
trenches  25  ft.  deep  was  about  as  follows,  with  an  average  prog- 
ress of  80  lin.  ft.  per  day,  or  200  cu.  yd. 

1  foreman     $    8.00 

Excavating  machine,   including  operator   40.00 

1  engineman    4.00 

1  fireman     3.00 

5  trenchmen   at  $3.00    15.00 

20  laborers,  backfilling,  at  $2.50  50.00 

2  teams  at  $6.00    12.00 

Coal    5.00 

Repairs   and  sundry  expenses    10.00 

Total  per  day    $147.00 

This  is  equivalent  to  $1.86  per  lin.  ft.,  or  about  73  ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  837 

Work  of  Austin  Excavator  in  Shale.  The  following  data  give 
the  comparative  costs  of  trenching  for  3C-in.  pipe  through  fairly 
hard  New  .Jersey  shale.  The  material  was  of  such  nature  that  it 
could  be  picked  and  shoveled.  The  total  cost  of  trenching,  lay- 
ing, calking,  and  backfilling,  including  the  cost  of  small  tools, 
plant  charges,  etc.,  except  the  pipe  itself,  foil  7  miles  of  36-in. 
pipe  was  $1.10  per  foot.  Records  taken  of  the  cost  at  various 
times  gave  the  following  results: 

Work  during  two  weeks  of  8  working  days  in  September,  trench 
4  ft.  wide  by  6  ft.  deep,  total  pipe  laid  2,412  ft.,  an  average  of 
301  ft.  per  working  day.  The  cost  was  as  follows: 

Rental  of   machine    $0.144 

Labor,   coal,   teams   0.1 40 

Total  per  lin.  ft.   $0.294 

Work  during  5  working  days,  trench  4x6  ft.,  total  pipe  laid, 
1,944  ft.,  an  average  of  389  lin.  ft.  per  working  day,  at  a  cost  as 
follows : 

Rental  of  machine   $0.130 

Labor,    coal,   teams    082 

Total  per  lin.  ft $0.212 

Work  by  hand  on  same  job,  trench  5  ft.  10  in.  by  4  ft.  4  in., 
cost  of  excavation  and  backfill,  $0.826  per  lin.  ft.  Laying  and 
calking  cost  $0.143,  and  lead  cost  $0.285  per  lin.  ft. 

Work  of  an  Austin  Trench  Excavator.  This  excavator  equipped 
with  caterpillar  traction,  was  used  to  excavate  a  portion  of  the 
trenches  for  underground  telephone  trunk  lines  between  Washing- 
ton and  Philadelphia.  According  to  Engineering  News,  May  25, 
1911,  the  machine  excavated  daily  1,000  lin.  ft.  of  trench  1.5  ft. 
wide  and  3  ft.  deep.  The  capacity  of  the  machine  was  found  to  be 
about  3  ft.  of  clean  trench  for  each  minute  of  working  time. 

Again  in  Engineering  News,  Aug.  6,  1914,  da£a  are  given  on  an 
Austin  Trench  Excavator  which  was  used  to  excavate  a  water-pipe 
trench,  6  ft.  wide  by  6  ft.  deep,  through  various  kinds  of  ma- 
terials, mostly  gravel.  In  the  actual  operating  time  of  122  hr., 
5,035  ft.  of  trench  was  excavated.  The  operating  cost  of  the  ma- 
chine was  about  $15  per  day. 

Excavation  in  Chicago  is  described  in  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, July  17,  1912,  as  follows:  An  Austin  No.  1  trench  ex- 
cavator equipped  with  buckets  cutting  42  in.  wide,  was  used  in 
1912  to  excavate  black  loam  and  underlying  blue  and  yellow  clay. 
The  average  depth  was  14  ft.  Sheeting  was  composed  of  vertical 
planks  set  2  ft.  apart.  The  sewer  was  a  36-in.  circular  brick 
sewer,  and  it  was  necessary  for  three  men  to  pick  and  undercut 


•838  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  sides  and  trough  the  bottom  after  the  machine.     The  daily 
cost  of  operating  the  excavator  was  as  follows:  <;\ '&•>•' i 

*'     '!'!^  'ii^'i"    »!*Mi'"it;    '.;,  •;     (j;i  i.'jljjfi;    -;\\l        ')fi-tife    /<>i"1 

Engineman     $  5.00 

Fireman     2.50 

C9al,   %  to  1  ton 4.00 

Oil  and  waste    0.50 


Total  per  day    $12.00 

The  speed  of  the  machine  was  regulated  by  the  rate  of  brick- 
laying, the  force  employed  on  that  part  of  the  work  being  30 
men.  From  June  3  to  July  8,  1,600  ft.  was  excavated  but  the 
machine  had  made  runs  on  two  favorable  days  of  184  ft.  and  170 
ft. 

Cost  with  Trench  Excavators  at  Alton,  111.  J.  E.  Schwab  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb.  10,  1915,  gives  the  following: 

In  the  construction  of  this  sewerage  system  there  were  used  one 
small  00  Austin  gasoline  ditching  machine  which  excavated  a 
ditch  24  in.  wide.  The  following  output  data  were  furnished 
by  G.  M.  Johnson,  of  the  Lillie  Construction  Co.,  sub-contractors, 
and  owners  of  this  machine: 

Total  amount  of  work  done,  lin.  ft 19,800 

No.  of  working  days   90 

Average  cut  per  day,  lin.  ft 220 

Maximum  cut  per  day,  lin.  ft 800 

Average  cost  per  day  for  operation  $30 

Average  Cost  Per  Foot  for  Laying  Pipe.  Ct. 

Operation  of  machine  13.6 

Kj.ji,!  incidentals 1.4 

Total  cost,  per  foot  for  excavation  15.0 

Laying   pipe 4.0 

Refilling 3.0 

Excavating,   laying  pipe,   and  refilling  trench    22.0 

Cost  of  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  ...J. i 18.4 

Depth  of  trench  averaged  *11  ft.,  with  a  maximum  of  22  ft.  and 
a  minimum  of  4  ft. 

There  was  also  used  a  Parsons  steam  ditching  machine  with 
backfiller,  which  excavated  a  ditch  28.  in.  wide.  The  following 
figures  as  to  the  work  done  by  this  machine  are  only  approximate : 

Total  amount  of  work  done,  lin.  ft 18,000 

Number  of  working  days   90 

Average  cut  per  day,  lin.  ft 200 

Average  cost  per  day  for  operation,  laying  pipe,  and 

backfilling     ?45 

Average  depth  of  trench  excavated,  ft H^ 

The  balance  of  the  main  line  sewer,  where  conditions  were  un- 
favorable for  the  use  of  excavating  machines,  and  all  laterals 
were  put  in  by  hand  gangs.  . 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


839 


The  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher.  This  excavator  consists  of  a 
traveling  engine  equipped  with  a  vertical  digging  wheel  at  the 
rear.  This  wheel  is  fitted  with  digging  buckets  of  any  of  three 
types:  The  gumbo  or  open  bucket  for  sticky  soils;  the  solid 
or  closed  bucket  for  dry  soils;  and  the  combination  contractors' 
bucket  with  cutting  teeth  for  general  hard  work.  To  insure  a 
clean  ditch  a  shoe  or  runner,  carrying  the  weight  of  the  wheel, 
is  drawn  back  of  the  cutters.  The  machine  reaches  the  full  depth 
at  one  cut  and  leaves  the  bottom  at  grade.  It  may  be  fitted  with 
wheels  or  with  caterpillar  traction.  Most  of  the  machines  are 
furnished  with  gasoline  engines  but  the  larger  machines  may  be 
obtained  with  steam  power. 


23. 


Buckeye  Traction    Ditcher,    14i£-in.  x  4i£-ft.   Machine 
with  Apron  Traction. 


These  machines  range  in  size  from  the  No.  0,  cutting  11.5  in. 
wide  and  4.5  ft.  deep,  and  the  No.  I,  cutting  11.5  and  14.5  in.  wide 
and  4.5  ft.  deep,  to  the  No.  10  machine,  cutting  28  and  30  in. 
wide  and  12  ft.  deep.  They  weigh  from  7  to  38  tons  and  cost  from 
about  $240  to  $280  per  ton  in  1916.  Caterpillar  wheels  cost 
about  $30  per  ton  of  weight  of  the  entire  machine,  extra.  The 
caterpillar  traction  machine  with  wheel  raised  is  shown  in  Fig. 
23. 

These  machines  are  made  by  the  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher  Co., 
Findlay,  Ohio. 

Cost  with  a  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Feb.  12,  1908,  gives  the  following: 

Thirty-six  miles  of  trenching  was  excavated  for  a  wooden  pipe 
line  for  the  water  system  at  Greeley,  Colo.  About  2,000  ft.  in 
rock  was  excavated  by  hand,  and  the  remainder  in  earth  by  a. 


840       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Buckeye  28-in.  x  7.5-ft.,  17-ton,  drainage  machine.  Eight  miles 
of  trench  was  through  gravel  containing  many  stones,  with  some 
cemented  gravel.  The  remainder  was  in  clay,  rather  hard.  The 
average  number  of  linear  feet  per  day  was  (527,  or  222  cu.  yd. 
In  10  hr.  the  machine  dug  from  000  to  1,000  lin.  ft.  in  gravel,  and 
up  to  2,500  ft.  in  clay,  while  actually  working,  the  trench  being 
30  in.  wide  and  4  ft.  deep. 

The  daily  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows: 

Engineman     $5 

3  helpers  at  $3   . , 9 

Coal,  1  ton  at  $5   5 

Plant   charges    6 

Total  per  day   $25 

About   1   gal.  of  water  per  pound  of  coal  is  consumed. 

The  "  plant  charges "  are  estimated  at  30%  annually  on  a 
$5,200  excavator,  and  250  days  worked  annually.  On  this  basis 
the  cost  of  300  days'  work  averaged  4  ct.  per  lin.  ft.,  or  10.7  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

Costs  of  Tile  Draining  with  a  Buckeye  Machine.  At  New 
London,  0.,  a  14.5-in.  x  4.5-ft.  machine  was  used  to  drain  a  1,000- 
acre  farm.  Twelve  miles  of  ditches  were  dug  during  1910.  The 
cost  of  operation  per  100  lin.  ft.  was  as  follows: 

Man  to  run   machine    $0.18 

Man  to  lay  tile   0.24 

Fuel:  gasoline  at  13  ct.  per  gal 0.11 

Repairs:  parts  and  labor   0.14 

Oil  and   grease   0.01 

Total  per  100  lin.  ft $0.68 

The  ditches  averaged  2.5  ft.  in  depth.  The  soil  was  clayey  and 
during  the  dry  season  was  hard  digging,  and  in  wet  weather  very 
sticky.  The  apron  wheels  enabled  the  machine  to  be  successfully 
operated  in  swamps  that  could  not  be  crossed  by  teams.  Ditches 
dug  by  hand  the  previous  season  cost  $2.40  ct.  per  100  lin.  ft. 
Excluding  the  wages  of  the  men  laying  tile,  the  cost  was  44  ct. 
per  100  lin.  ft.,  or  less  than  4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  exclusive  of  interest 
and  depreciation. 

Cost  of  Tile  Trenching  with  a  Machine.  A  machine  made  by 
the  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher  Co.,  of  Findlay,  Ohio,  was  used  on 
the  Northwest  Experiment  Farm,  University  of  Minnesota,  in 
1903.  The  machine  dug  a  trench  14i£  in.  wide  and  4i£  ft.  deep. 
It  had  an  8-hp.  boiler  and  consumed  450  Ib.  of  coal  and  4  bbl.  of 
water  per  day.  It  dug  34,000  lin.  ft.  of  trench  in  45  days'  actual 
working  time,  or  744  lin.  ft.  per  day.  The  men  who  handled  the 
machine  were  inexperienced. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  841 

The  following  was  the  cost: 

Per  100  ft. 

Labor   running  machine    $0.45 

Coal  at  $7.50  per  ton   0.19 

Water    0.13 

Oil     0.01 

Repairs     0.13 

Total    ditching    $0.91 

Laying   tile    0.18 

Blinding     0.05 

Incidentals     0.09 

Totals | $1.23 

The  price  of  the  machine  was  $1,400. 

Although  the  machine  was  not  well  handled  and  had  not  at  that 
time  (1903)  been  perfected,  it  made  a  very  creditable  record  of 
cost,  as  contrasted  with  hand  work,  for  the  latter  cost  $3.88  per 
100  lin.  ft.  on  the  same  farm. 

Two  men  operated  the  machine. 

I  recently  saw  a  machine  of  the  same  make  and  size  on  a  farm 
in  New  Jersey  where  it  was  averaging  2,000  lin.  ft.  of  trench 
(15  in.  x3  ft.)  in  10  hr. 

Tile  Trenching  with  a  Buckeye  Ditcher.  The  following  is  from 
an  abstract  of  Bulletin  110  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  by 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  21,  1908. 

A  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher,  which  cut  a  trench  4i£  ft.  deep 
and  14i/£  in.  wide,  had  been  sent  to  the  farm  in  1903  for  dem- 
onstration purposes,  and  was  used  throughout  the  season.  This 
machine  consists  of  a  four-wheel  truck,  4  ft.  wide  and  12  ft. 
long.  The  distance  between  the  wheel  centers  is  6  ft.  4  in.,  and 
7  ft.  between  front  and  real  axle.  The  rear  axle  serves  as  a 
drive  shaft  and  is  geared  to  the  engine  shaft  by  chain  belting. 
On  the  front  end  of  the  truck  is  placed  an  8-hp.  vertical  boiler, 
and  immediately  back  of  the  boiler  is  a  6-hp.  Dingle  engine.  At- 
tached to  the  rear  of  the  truck  is  a  frame  carrying  the  cutting 
wheel. 

This  machine,  in  63  days  of  which  45  were  working  days,  dug 
33,498  lin.  ft.  of  trench,  an  average  of  744  ft.  per  working  day. 
The  machine  was  operated  at  its  lowest  working  speed,  which 
would  cut  100  ft.  of  trench  in  32  min.,  but  unavoidable  delays 
cut  down  the  daily  run.  At  wet  spots  planking  was  required 
beneath  the  traction  wheels,  and  trouble  at  the  places  caused 
much  delay.  The  earth  collected  on  the  elevator  rollers,  and  the 
grass  roots  sticking  on  the  knives  made  it  necessary  to  clean 
them  after  every  35  or  40  ft.  This  latter  trouble  was  partially 
remedied  by  turning  two  furrows  with  a  breaking  plow  along 
the  side  lines  of  the  proposed  trench.  Another  difficulty  was 


842  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

caused  in  wet  soil  by  the  shoe  rolling  up  the  soil  from  the  bottom 
of  the  trench,  and  necessitating  hand  dressing  with  a  scoop.  The 
machine  as  a  rule  required  the  services  of  two  men,  one  to  at- 
tend the  boiler  and  engine  and  another  to  look  after  the  ratchet 
wheels  that  control  the  line  and  grade.  The  coal  consumption 
averaged  60  Ib.  per  100  ft.  of  trench,  varying  from  50  to  80  Ib. 
according  as  the  weather  was  cold  or  warm  and  varying  with  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  I  his  coal  was  carried  in  the  water  tank  and 
its  conveyance  to  the  work  is  charged  to  water  account.  About 
9  bbls.  of  water  were  carried  per  tank  load.  This  water  was 
placed  in  barrels  along  the  trench,  one  barrel  per  200  ft.  being 
required. 

The  speed  of  the  machine  in  moving  from  one  job  to  another, 
including  the  time  lost  while  taking  on  coal  and  water,  was  about 
%  mile  per  hr. 

As  the  machine  could  not  make  curves  of  shorter  radius  than 
300  ft.  it  was  necessary  to  start  most  of  the  ditches  with  hand 
work. 

Table  I  gives  the  cost  of  three  examples  of  trenching  with  the 
machine.  Example  1  is  the  cost  of  digging  8,750  lin.  ft.  of  trench 
in  13  working  days.  In  this  time  the  machine  was  laid  up  three 
days  for  repairs,  the  actual  time  worked  being  10  days.  The 
average  run  was  875  ft.  per  day.  This  example  represents  aver- 
age conditions  and  shows  what  the  machine  can  do  in  average 
soil. 

TABLE  I  —  COST  OF  TRENCHING  AND  TILLING  100  FT. 


Labor  of  running  machine. 
Coal     

Example  1    Example  2 

.     $0.457               $0.409 
..      0.188                 0190 

Example  3 
$0.516 
0.263 

Water                                . 

0  126                 0  087 

0.126 

Oil    

.  .       0.012                 0.010 

0.014 

0  112                 0  100 

0.200 

0  183                 0  212 

0.235 

Blinding       

.  .       0.048                 0.053 

0.062 

0  092                 0  015 

0.012 

Total  per  100  ft $1.218  $1.076  $1.428 

Coal  cost  $7.50  per  ton  delivered  at  the  farm. 

Example  2  represents  more  favorable  conditions.  The  soil  was 
dry,  the  sod  thin,  ahd  the  work  was  closer  to  headquarters, 
requiring  less  time  for  the  men  in 'going  and  coining  back  and 
forth.  There  were  400  ft.  of  trench  at  the  outlet  ends  of  two 
ditches  that  exceeded  4.5  ft.  in  depth.  These  sections  were  dug  by 
hand.  On  five  other  ditches  there  were  from  100  to  200  ft.  at  the 
outlets  that  exceeded  4.5  ft.  in  depth,  and  over  these  the  machine 
excavated  to  its  full  working  depth,  the  bottom  of  the  trenches 
being  dug  to  grade  by  hand.  This  extra  cost  of  hand  work  is 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  843 

not  shown  separately  but  is  added  to  the  machine  account.  The 
total  length  dug  in  this  section  was  10,450  ft. 

Example  3  gives  the  cost  of  14,298  ft.  dug  in  wet  soil  covered 
with  broken  sod.  Two  ditches  were  in  wild  sod  that  had  never 
been  broken. 

The  average  cost  of  trenching,  tile  laying,  and  blinding  for  all 
machine  work  was  $1.25  per  100  ft.  This  compares  very  favorably 
with  the  cost  of  digging  100  ft.  of  the  same  sized  trench  by  hand, 
which  cost  was  $3.88  per  100  ft. 

The  machine  did  not  work  as  rapidly  as  was  expected,  and  there 
were  more  delays  from  breaks  than  looked  for.  However,  the  soil 
is  difficult  to  work,  being  much  slower  to  handle  by  either  spade 
or  scraper  than  in  many  localities  where  tile  work  is  done,  and 
many  of  the  delays  were  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  although 
the  work  was  performed  at  the  favorable  season  of  the  year. 
The  best  condition  for  machine  work  would  be  in  dry  ground 
which  is  in  cultivation,  the  drier  and  harder  the  soil,  the  speedier 
can  the  trenching  be  done. 

The  machines  which  have  been  made  during  the  past  season 
have  a  number  of  improvements  over  the  one  used.  It  is  believed 
that  many  of  the  difficulties  with  this  machine  would  not  be  ex- 
perienced in  one  of  the  later  models. 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  and  high  price  of  labor,  the  tiling 
system  could  not  have  been  completed  this  season  if  the  machine 
had  not  been  used,  and  the  cost  of  work  done  would  have  been 
much  greater.  The  machine  was  operated  and  all  the  work  in 
connection  with  it  was  done  entirely  by  farm  help.  The  foreman 
operated  the  machine  the  greater  part  of  the  time.  When  the 
machine  was  laid  up  for  repairs,  the  help  was  used  on  other  farm 
work,  the  rules  for  a  day's  work  on  the  farm  being  that  the  men 
should  leave  the  barn  at  7  and  1  o'clock  and  arrive  at  the  barn  at 
12  and  6  o'clock.  In  the  foregoing  table  of  cost  per  100  ft.,  no 
allowance  was  made  for  the  first  cost  of  machine.  This  machine, 
if  bought  new,  would  cost  $1,400.  As  it  was  a  machine,  which 
had  been  used  by  the  factory  for  demonstration  purposes,  it  was 
considered  as  a  second-hand  machine  and  was  secured  by  the  state 
at  much  less  than  the  original  cost.  An  estimate  of  the  deprecia- 
tion of  machinery  or  interest  on  the  investment  is  not  considered 
in  the  cost  of  the  work. 

The  Havland  Tile  Ditcher.  This  machine,  Fig.  24,  is  designed 
for  ditching  and  tiling  wet  farm  lands.  The  outfit  consists  of  a 
tractor  that  draws  a  ditcher  or  excavator,  and  is  made  in  two  sizes 
known  as  the  single  wheel  which  has  a  single  digging  chain  and 
the  double  wheel  which  has  a  double  digging  chain.  Both  ma- 
chines have  caterpillar  traction.  Four-fifths  of  the  weight  is  25 


844 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


to  40  ft.  ahead  of  the  ditch  bottom.  Tile  can  be  laid  accurately 
to  grade.  The  diggers  or  shovels  are  fastened  to  a  chain  belt, 
and  are  so  arranged  that  when  the  shovel  strikes  a  stone  or  other 
unyielding  obstruction  the  chain  buckles  and  allows  the  shovel  to 
travel  over  the  obstruction.  Shovels  are  made  as  wide  as  42  in., 
and  each  shovel  and  reamer  is  automatically  cleaned.  The  reamer 
regulates  the  width  of  excavation.  The  earth  is  thrown  to  one 
side  by  belt  conveyors.  Behind  the  digger  in  the  ditch  is  drawn 
a  sheeting  form  which  prevents  the  bank  from  caving  until  the  tile 
has  been  laid.  Tile  up  to  12-in.  diameter  is  laid  automatically 
through  a  spout;  tile  14  to  30-in.  diameter  is  laid  by  hand.  The 
dimensions  of  the  machines  are  as  follows: 


Length   of  tractor,    ft 

Width   of   tractor,    ft 

Length    of   ditcher,    ft , . . 

Width   of  ditcher,   ft 

Shipping    weight,    Ib 

Engine  horse   power    

Price     

Tile,    diam.   lin.   ft.    deep    

Capacity,  10  to  12  ft.  deep.  ft.  per  hr. 
Capacity,  6  to  8  ft.  deep,  ft.  per  hr.. . 
Capacity,  3  to  6  ft.  deep,  ft.  per  hr... 
Road  speed,  miles  per  hr 


Single 
wheel 
22 
10 
26 
10 

34,000 
45 

$4,500 
10  to  20 
30  to  50 
60  to  100 
100  to  150 
1 


Double 
wheel 

22 

10 

26 

10 

44,000 

45 

$6,000 

14  to  30 

25  to  40 


75  to  100 
1 


Fig.  24.     Havland  Tile  Ditcher. 


The  crew  required  consists  of  4  to  6  men  of  whom  one  is  fore- 
man and  one  engineman.  With  a  single  wheel  machine  and  four 
men  1,200  ft.  of  8-in.  tile  has  been  laid  6  ft.  deep  in  one  day.  At 
the  same  place  six  men  laid  150  ft.  by  hand  to  the  same  depth. 
The  labor  cost  by  hand  was  $12.60  per  day.  The  labor,  gasoline 
and  oil  for  the  machine  cost  $10.50  per  day.  It  is  claimed  that 
tile  can  be  laid  by  these  machines  under  conditions  such  that  it  is 
impossible  to  lay  by  hand. 

This  machine  is  made  by  the  St.  Paul  Mfg.  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  845 

Use  of  a  Trenching  Excavator  on  Marsh  Land.  In  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Oct.  30,  1012,  the  methods  and  cost  of  con- 
structing a  48-in.  wood  stave  pipe  line  across  marsh  land  in 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  is  given.  A  Parsons  Trenching  machine 
excavated  2.5  ft.  deep  and  6  ft.  wide  in  a  trench  filled  with  water, 
at  a  rate  of  500  ft.  per  day.  The  machine  was  carried  on  4  x  12-in. 
planks,  12  ft.  long,  laid  cross-ways  of  the  trench,  with  4  x  6-in. 
plank,  20  ft.  long,  laid  on  the  top  for  the  traction  wheels  to  rest 
on.  This  work  cost  20  ct.  per  ft.,  coal  cost  $5  per  ton  and  was 
carried  to  the  machine  across  the  marsh  by  hand  in  50-lb.  sacks. 
Water  was  rolled  in  barrels  across  the  marsh  i£  mile  to  the  ma- 
chine. 

Trenching  by  hand,  cutting  a  ditch  8  ft.  wide,  trimming  bottom 
and  sides,  the  men  in  the  ditch  standing  on  a  movable  platform 
dragged  along  with  them,  cost  0  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  All  spoil  was 
thrown  to  one  side.  Backfilling  the  pipe  cost  0  ct.  per  ft.  Pump- 
ing cost  10  ct.  per  ft. 

The  cost  of  constructing  an  embankment  18  in.  thick  on  top 
and  2  ft.  wide  on  the  sides  over  the  pipe,  to  a  width  of  6  ft. 
at  the  top  and  12  ft.  at  the  meadow  level,  all  the  material  being 
taken  from  the  meadow,  16  ft.  from  the  center  of  the  pipe,  cost 
23.1  ct.  per  ft.  The  trench  had  to  be  cut  even  and  graded  to  act 
as  a  drain  for  the  water  in  the  pipe  trench.  The  daily  cost  of  the 
embankment  was  as  follows: 

1  foreman     $  4.00 

1  sub-foreman     2.50 

15  laborers  at  $1.75  26.25 

1    waterboy    1.00 

Cost  of  sharpening  tools   1.00 

Total,  150  ft.  per  day   , $34.75 

Excavation  foremen  received  $3.50  per  10-hr,  day,  pump  men, 
$3.50,  and  watchmen,  $2.00. 

Trench  Excavation  by  Hydraulicking.  In  Engineering  Record, 
Nov.  8,  1913,  Joseph  Jenson  gives  the  following: 

Excavation  for  the  puddle  core-wall  trench  for  the  Sevier  River 
Dam  of  the  Otter  Creek  Reservoir,  Utah,  was  started  by  a  con- 
tractor with  teams  and  scrapers.  The  trench  was  specified  to  be 
not  more  than  25  ft.  in  width  at  top  and  15  ft.  at  bed  rock,  and 
a  depth  of  about  30  ft.  The  material  was  a  mixture  varying  from 
silt  and  quicksand  to  gravel,  boulders,  and  very  large  rock  frag- 
ments. No  timbering  was  used  and  the  trench  caved  until  it  was 
40  ft.  wide  at  the  top,  and  the  rate  of  caving  in  and  sliding  down 
was  equivalent  to  the  rate  of  excavating  the  material.  The  con- 
tractor was  relieved  from  further  operations  in  August,  1910,  a 
year  after  signing  the  contract. 


846       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Work  was  then  resumed  by  the  State.  Vertical  sheeting,  driven 
in  4.5  ft.  stages  and  braced  horizontally  at  the  top  of  each  stage, 
was  used.  The  closeness  of  the  braces  (4.5  ft.  each  way)  pre- 
vented the  use  of  plows,  scrapers,  or  cars  at  the  bottom  of  the 
trench.  It  was  therefore  decided  to  loosen  the  material  with  a 
water  jet,  and  to  wash  it  along  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  a  point 
where  the  fine  materials  could  be  drawn  up  by  a  pump,  the  coarse 
materials  being  handled  by  dump  boxes  and  derricks. 

The  plant  consisted  of  12,200  ft.  of  16-in.  wood  stave  pipe-line 
placed  underground,  a  small  electric-power  plant  with  house, 
transmission  lines,  motor  and  pump  settings.  Water  was  obtained 
at  an  elevation  of  430  ft.  Above  the  power  house  a  75-kw.  dy- 
namo, operated  by  a  Pelton  wheel,  furnished  power  for  a  75-hp. 
motor  driving  a  12-in.  Gould  pump.  A  4-in.  wrought-iron  pipe 
from  the  main  pipe  ran  along  the  trench  bank  and  fed  two  hose- 
lines  at  the  ends  of  which  were  fire-nozzles.  The  pressure  of  the 
water  jet  at  the  nozzles  was  180  to  200  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  The 
pumping  and  hoisting  plant  cost  $7,322,  which  does  not  include 
the  cost  of  the  power  pipe  line  which  was  charged  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  hydraulic  filling  of  the  dam. 

In  operation  it  was  necessary  to  furnish  additional  water  to  the 
trench  in  order  to  keep  the  12-in.  pump  supplied.  The  material 
was  loosened  and  washed  by  the  nozzlemen,  the  fine  materials  be- 
ing forced  to  the  pump  and  the  coarser  being  left  in  piles  along 
the  trench.  These  latter  were  loaded  by  shovels  and  forks  into 
dump  boxes  and  hoisted  by  a  derrick  operated  by  teams  on  a  whip 
cable. 

The  cost  of  excavating  8,000  cu.  yd.  was  $2.90  per  cu.  yd.  to 
which  must  be  added  the  first  cost  of  the  plant  less  its  salvage 
value,  $4,322,  making  a  total  of  $3.43  per  cu.  yd. 

Methods  of  Sheeting  and  Bracing.  The  following  is  from  an 
article  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  4,  1909.  Trenches 
of  slight  depth,  3  to  4  ft.,  even  in  sandy  soil  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
require  bracing.  Saturating  the  soil  with  water  will  often  enable 
sand  banks  to  stand  up  for  some  little  time.  Trenches  over  4 
ft.  in  depth  usually  require  bracing.  The  change  of  moisture  con- 
dition of  the  exposed  soil,  as  well  as  the  load  imposed  by  the  ex- 
cavated material  and  passing  laborers,  is  apt  to  cause  a  trench 
to  cave,  no  matter  how  solid  it  looks  when  first  excavated. 

The  simplest  form  of  bracing,  suitable  for  trenches  of  from  4 
to  7  ft.  in  depth,  consists  of  a  board  placed  horizontally  along 
each  wall  of  the  trench.  These  boards  are  held  against  the  trench 
banks  by  braces  wedged  between  them.  Deeper  trenches  require 
more  elaborate  protection.  The  entire  wall  of  the  trench  must  be 
protected  either  by  sheeting  set  in  place  as  soon  as  the  excavation 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  847 


I 


Fig.  25.     Vertical   Sheeting  and  Extensible  Braces. 


848  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

is  completed,  or  by  sheet  piling  which  is  driven  ahead  of  the  ex- 
cavation. Sheet  piling  is  always  driven  vertically,  but  shei-ting 
may  be  placed  either  vertically  or  horixontally.  Sheeting  and 
sheet  piling  are  of  timber  or  steel.  For  timber,  2  in.  should  be 
the  minimum  thickness.  Sheet  piling  of  2  x  8-in.  stuff  is  usu- 
ally the  most  satisfactory. 

Sheeting  should  be  placed  in  direct  contact  with  the  bank  which 
should  be  trimmed  to  bear  evenly  against  it.  If  sheet  piling 
is  driven  ahead  of  the  excavation,  the  safety  of  the  trench  is  as- 
sured. Sheet  piling  has  a  better  bearing  against  the  bank  than 
other  forms  of  bracing,  but  its  greatest  point  of  superiority  is 
that  it  can  be  driven  below  the  depth  of  excavation  where  it  helps 
cut  off  the  flow  of  water  and  where  the  unexcavated  material, 
holding  it  apart,  takes  the  place  of  bracing.  This  gives  the  la- 
borers an  unobstructed  place  to  work  in. 

Horizontal  sheeting  is  not  recommended  except  under  obstruc- 
tions which  make  the  use  of  vertical  bracing  impossible. 

Cost  of  Wood  and  Steel  Sheeting.  The  cost  of  sheeting  tranches 
depends  upon  several  factors:  (1)  The  nature  of  the  ground; 
(2)  the  si/e  of  the  trench;  (3)  the  methods  pursued  in  driving 
and  pulling;  (4)  the  kind  of  material  used  for  sheeting  (wheiiher 
wood  or  steel);  (5)  the  type  of  braces  used;  (0)  the  difficulty 
experienced  in  driving;  (7)  the  skill  of  the  workmen;  and  (S)  the 
speed  with  which  the  excavation  proceeds. 

The  following  was  published  in  Engineering  Record,  May  23. 
1915.  The  work  was  the  construction  of  narrow  sewer,  drain 
and  water  pipe  trenches,  8  to  15  ft.  deep,  in  soil  of  glacial  origin. 
The  nature  of  the  ground  varied  from  very  sandy  to  fairly  firm 
soil,  and  the  amount  of  sheeting  and  bracing  required  varied  ac- 
cordingly. Some  bracing  was  used  at  all  times. 

The  sheeting  used  was  either  2  x  8-in.  lumber  or  Wemlinger 
corrugated  steel  piling,  and  the  bracing  was  3  x  9-in.  lumber  and 
Dunn  extensible  braces.  At  the  beginning  of  the  work,  400  pieces 
of  Wemlinger  steel  piling,  10  ft.  long,  and  about  5,000  ft.  of 
2  x  0-in.  long-leaf  yellow  pine  planking  were  purchased.  The  steel 
piling  cost  28  ct.  per  sq.  ft.  and  the  lumber  about  $35  per  M. 
At  the  end  of  one  season  the  lumber  had  been  used  up,  but  the 
steel  piling  was  in  first  class  shape  and  was  used  during  several 
successive  seasons  although  subjected  to  hard  usage  for  purposes 
other  than  trenching. 

In  trenches  averaging  9  ft.  deep  3  men  averaged  70  ft.  of  trench 
sheeted  solid  with  wood  per  10-hr,  day.  In  firm  sand  the  average 
was  100  ft.,  but  in  caving  sand  it  was  30  ft.  a  day.  The  same 
gang  removed  the  sheeting  at  the  rate  of  210  ft.  of  trench  per 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  819 


m 

1 


»] 


Fig.  26.     Horizontal  Sheeting  and  Extensible  Trench  Braces. 


850  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

day.     When  the  sheeting  was  not  solid,  but  spaced  3  to  6  ft.  apart, 
3  men  averaged  150  ft.  of  trench  braced  per  day. 

Using  steel  sheeting  3  men  averaged  60  ft.  of  trench  (11  ft. 
deep)  sheeted  per  day.  In  pulling  this  sheeting  with  a  difl'er- 
ential  block,  2  men  averaged  45  ft.  of  trench  per  day,  the  trench 
being  filled  to  a  depth  of  6  ft.  before  pulling. 

In  some  work  in  Peoria,  111.,  the  engineer  for  the  contractors 
kept  close  account  and  found  that  in  trenches  from  8  to  16  ft. 
deep  in  sand  with  2x8  sheeting  and  6x6  braces  of  hemlock, 
the  sheeting  cost  in  place  and  pulled  after  use,  ready  to  use 
again,  from  10  to  25  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  trench.  The  excavating  and 
back  filling,  including  contractors'  profit,  cost  from  21  ct.  per 
ft.  for  trench  less  than  8  ft.  deep  to  76  ct.  for  trench  14  to  16 
ft.  deep. 

Cost  of  Driving  Sheet  Piles.  In  Municipal  Engineering,  Vol. 
xxi,  p.  409,  1901,  Emmett  Steece  says  that  the  cost  of  driving 
sheet  piles  is  subject  to  greater  variation  than  round  piles  in  soft 
soil  and  will  vary  from  5  to  12.5  ct.  in  trenches  less  than  10  ft. 
and  from  25  to  75  ct.  per  ft.  in  trenches  between  10  and  20  ft. 
in  depth  for  pipe  sewers,  and  increasing  slightly  with  the  size 
of  pipe.  For  larger  trenches  the  cost  increases  rapidly  with  the 
width  and  depth.  A  trench  25  ft.  deep  and  16  ft.  wide  costs  about 
$2.75  per  ft.  to  sheeting  for  driving  and  removing. 

The  Cost  of  Driving  by  Pile  Driver.  Victor  Windett  gives  the 
following  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  14,  1911. 

In  alluvial  soil  2  x  12  in.,  14  ft.  and  3  x  12  in.,  24  ft.  sheeting 
was  driven  by  a  2,000-lb.  drop-hammer  pile-driver.  No  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  sheeting  150  ft.  of  trench  per  day.  The  lum- 
ber was  delivered  along  the  line  of  the  trench  by  teams.  The 
pile-driver  crew  consisted  of  9  men. 

The  cost  of  preparation  of  plain  ordinary  trench  sheeting  is  as 
follows : 

467  pieces,  2x8  in.,  12  ft.  and  14  ft.  trench  sheeting,  totaled 
10,900  ft.  B.M.,  and  the  labor  cost  of  pointing  and  trimming  the 
top  was  $2.60  per  1,000  ft.  B.M.,  or  6  ct.  per  pile,  labor  being  27 
ct.  per  hr. 

For  steam-shovel  work,  as  at  Hegewisch  in  sand  a  light  pile- 
driver  was  used  with  two  hammers  of  1,200  Ib.  each  (see  Fig. 
27).  The  sheeting  used  was  triple  lap.  The  center  piece  was 
2  x  10  in.  x  4  ft.,  with  two  1  x  4-in.  x  12-ft.  side  pieces,  made  up 
for  a  2-in.  tongue  and  groove.  In  a  9-hr,  day  240  pieces  of  sheet- 
ing could  be  driven  easily  by  the  crew  of  9  men,  at  a  labor  cost 
of  10  ct.  per  piece. 

The  sheeting  was  pulled  after  the  trench  was  partly  backfilled, 
by  a  double  drum,  double  cylinder  engine  on  a  platform  some- 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


851 


what  similar  to  the  pile-driver  but  substituting  a  hinged  frame 
for  the  leads.  A  3£-in.  chain  and  %  in.  cable  were  used  for  the 
lines.  There  were  two  lines,  one  for  each  side  of  the  trench. 
This  machine  would  pull  sheeting  for  100  ft.  of  trench  in  2  hr. 
The  crew  consisted  of  an  engineman,  winchman,  hooker-on  and 
sheeting-catcher  to  land  the  sheeting  on  the  bank  within  reach 
of  a  team. 

The  wear  and  tear  on  the  sheeting  was  very  small,  as  far  as 


Fig.  27.     Sheet  Pile-Driver  with  Double  Leads  for  Trench  Work 


the  2  x  10-in.  pieces  were  concerned.  They  were  used  nine  times 
and  then  made  into  bottoms  for  catch  basins.  The  1  x  4-in.  strips 
required  quite  frequent  renewal.  Possibly  it  might  have  been 
cheaper  to  use  2-in.  lumber  instead.  This  sheeting  was  triple  lap, 
middle  piece,  2  by  12  in.,  14  ft.  long.  Side  pieces,  1  by  4  in.,  10 
ft.  long.  732  pieces  (34.5  ft.  B.  M.  each).  Labor  making  up 
(including  pointing  and  heading  to  top  width  of  8  in.)  at  31 
ct.  per  hr.,  cost  9.3  ct.  per  piece  or  $2.60  per  1,000  ft.  B.  M. 


852 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  stringers  used  were  generally  3x12  in.  or  4x12  in.  and 
16  ft.  in  length  of  long  leaf  yellow  pine. 

Braces  were  generally  6  x  6-in.  yellow  pine.  In  Gary,  Ind., 
where  the  country  was  covered  by  a  growth  of  various  oaks, 
mainly  small  trees,  many  braces  were  cut  from  the  standing  tim- 
ber. These  braces  were  usually  3  to  5  in.  in  diameter.  Dunn 
trench  screws  are  highly  advantageous  on  account  of  ease  of 
placing  and  removing  the  braces  and  of  keeping  them  tight. 

Steel  Sheeting  at  Watertown,  N.  Y.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Nov.  15,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

Wemlinger  corrugated  steel  piling  was  used  for  sheeting  sewer 
pipe  trenches  at  Watertown,  N.  Y.  The  average  cut  was  15  ft. 
The  soil  was  sand  to  a  depth  of  10  ft.,  and  a  wet  sand  and  gravel 
beneath  that  point.  Four  hundred  sheets  of  %-in.  piling,  each 
1  ft.  wide  by  10  ft.  long,  were  used.  A  650-lb.  steam  hammer, 
furnished  with  power  from  a  road  roller,  drove  the  piling.  The 
trench  was  first  excavated  lo  a  depth  of  5  ft.  Three  men  then 
placed  the  piling  upright  at  each  side  of  the  trench,  the  rate  of 
placing  being  32  sheets  in  1.5  hr.  These  sheets  were  then  driven 
to  grade  by  the  hammer  hung  from  an  A-frame,  at  the  rate  of  1 
sheet  driven  5  ft.  in  35  sec.  Including  the  time  required  for 
moving  the  hammer  and  A-frame,  the  rate  of  driving  was  7  ft.  of 
trench  sheeted  per  hour.  Spruce  rangers,  4  x  6  in.  xlGft.  long 
were  used.  Braces  were  placed  7  ft.  apart. 

Removing  Sheeting.  In  pulling  sheeting  and  sheet  piles,  vari- 
ous methods  are  used.  The  lower  waling  pieces  are  taken  out  as 
the  trench  is  backfilled.  Then  after  50%  or  more  of  the  back- 
filling is  done  the  sheeting  boards  are  drawn,  although  in  some 
exceptional  cases  the  sheeting  is  left  in  place.  Chains,  clamps 


Fig.  28.     Device  for  Pulling  Sheet  Piles. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  853 

and  grabs  of  various  kinds,  are  used  to  pull  the  boards.  Der- 
ricks and  cableways  are  used  as  the  power  to  pull  them,  although 
they  are  often  pulled  by  hand.  Fig.  28  shows  a  small  tool  used 
for  pulling  sheet  piles.  It  can  be  used  with  a  lever,  operated  by 
men,  with  a  derrick  or  a  cableway.  It  fits  around  the  pile  and  as 
the  pull  is  made  it  clamps  itself  to  the  board  so  that  it  seldom 
slips.  If  more  than  one  pull  is  needed  to  take  out  the  pile,  the 
tool  releases  itself  as  soon  as  the  pull  is  stopped  and  it  slides 
down  the  board,  taking  a  new  hold  the  instant  power  is  on  it. 
Besides  being  simple  in  operation,  this  tool  does  not  injure  the 
boards,  as  do  chains,  clamps  and  grabs. 

A  Machine  for  Pulling  Sheet  Piling.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Dec.  6,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

This  pile  puller,  Fig.  29,  is  the  invention  of  R.  J.  Blackburn 
and  was  used  on  the  Glaise  Creek  sewer,  Louisville,  Ky.  The 
top  of  the  fall  line  of  the  derrick  was  attached  to  the  top  of  the 
tripod  while  the  closing  line  passed  around  the  special  blocks 
as  shown.  With  this  rig  an  average  of  30  twenty -foot  steel  piles 
were  pulled  per  hour.  The  labor  force  required  consisted  of 
three  men  and  the  derrick  crew. 

In  the  construction  of  some  sewers  in  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  steel 
sheet  piling  was  driven  to  a  depth  of  40  ft.  and,  after  excavating 
nearly  to  quicksand,  bulkheads  of  plank  piling  were  built  across 
the  trench  about  every  20  ft.  These  bulkheads  were  24  ft.  high 
and  were  composed  of  timbers  8  in.  thick.  When  the  completed 
masonry  of  the  sewer  neared  one  of  these  bulkheads  it  was  not 
feasible  to  pull  the  plank  piling  until  the  fill  had  been  at  least 
partly  completed.  The  heavy  cross  timbers,  in  addition,  were 
partly  braced  by  the  piling  and  had  to  be  left  in  order  to  support 
the  steel  piling  in  the  sides. 

Cutting  off  Piling  with  Pneumatic  Augers.  The  following 
method  is  given  in  Engineering  News,  Aug.  6,  1914.  The  first 
attempt  to  cut  off  the  piling  was  with  an  axe,  but  this  method 
was  -found  to  be  extremely  unsatisfactory.  Large  wood  chisels 
fitted  to  pneumatic  hammers  were  next  tried  without  satisfactory 
results.  A  1^4-in.  wood  boring  auger  operated  by  a  "  Little 
David  "  compressed  air  motor  was  tried,  and  found  to  be  a  prac- 
tical means  for  cutting  these  thick  planks.  About  seven  l^-in. 
holes  were  required  to  sever  a  pile,  and  the  time  consumed  in  bor- 
ing each  of  'the  holes  8  in.  long  was  from  20  to  25  sec.  The  en- 
tire time  consumed  in  making  two  cuts  across  the  trench  was  be- 
tween 1.5  and  2  hr. 

Driving  Wakefield  Sheet  Piling.  The  following  is  given  in 
Engineering  News,  May  28,  1903.  The  construction  of  inter- 
cepting sewers  for  the  purpose  of  diverting  sewage  into  the 


854  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Chicago  Drainage  Canal  was  undertaken  in  1901  by  the  city,  em- 
ploying day  labor,  and  having  all  work  done  under  the  super- 
vision of  its  own  engineers. 

The  following  relates  to   work  done  on    Section   G,   which  ex- 


Fig.  29.     Blackburn  Pile  Puller.     Closing  Line  Pulling  Up  a  20-Ft. 

Pile. 


tended  from  39th  to  51st  streets,  and  on  Section  H,  between  51st 
and  63d  streets.  As  this  was  the  city's  first  experience  in  con- 
struction work  on  a  large  scale,  it  was  necessary  to  secure  an 
entirely  new  plant.  Accordingly,  the  city  built,  with  its  own 
labor,  a  turntable  drop-hammer  pile  driver,  for  use  on  Section 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  855 

G.  The  driver  had  a  hammer  weighing  3,000  Tb.,  and  was 
equipped  with  a  7  x  10-in.  double-drum  hoisting  engine  and  a 
duplex  steam  pump  for  jetting.  The  machine  cost  $2,200. 

As  the  sewer  for  a  distance  of  about  2,500  ft.  would  be  under 
the  shoal  water  of  the  lake,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  distance  very 
close  to  the  water's  edge,  it  was  necessary  to  use  sheeting,  which 
would  be  practically  water  tight.  Accordingly,  Wakefield  sheet 
piling  was  used,  the  lumber  employed  in  its  construction  being 
2x  12-in.  x  12-ft.,  Norway  and  Georgia  pine,  surfaced  one  side 
and  one  edge.  For  most  of  the  work  Southern  pine  was  used.  In 
practice,  however,  it  was  found  that  Norway  pine  would  stand 
50%  more  blows  under  a  drop  hammer;  and,  in  consequence, 
Norway  sheet  piling  was  used  where  there  was  difficult  driving. 

About  12  ft.  below  city  stratum  the  clay  line  was  found.  Im- 
mediately above  this  was  a  layer  of  fine  blue  sand  mixed  with 
shot  clay.  This  stratum  when  loose  and  wet  acts  very  much  like 
quicksand.  Above  this  stratum  was  ordinary  lake  sand.  The 
sand  was  very  solid  and  compact,  owing  to  the  action  of  the 
waves  of  the  lake.  But  with  the  exception  of  gravel  spots  the 
seepage  was  small,  considering  the  nearness  to  the  lake.  The  first 
sheeting  was  driven  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  proposed  excava- 
tion; but  later  it  was  found  that  sheeting  driven  4  to  5  ft.  into 
the  clay  would  do  sufficiently  well.  In  order  to  have  the  sheeting 
left  to  a  sufficient  height  above  the  line  of  the  lake  for  protection 
against  high  water,  20  ft.  of  material  was  used  with  some  ex- 
ceptions. 

In  the  bracing,  10  x  12-in.  x  22-ft.  stringers  and  10  x  10-in.  x 
20-ft.  braces  were  used.  Three  sets  of  stringers  and  braces  were 
found  sufficient  for  most  of  the  distance.  In  some  places  it  was 
necessary,  on  account  -of  bad  ground  and  swelling  clay,  to  rein- 
force both  stringers  and  braces.  Throughout  the  entire  work,  2-in. 
Dunn  screw-braces  were  used. 

In  construction,  the  top  set  of  stringers  and  braces  followed 
the  scraping  and  leveling.  The  distance  between  the  sheeting 
was  22  ft.  for  the  16-ft.  conduit  and  211/4  ft.  for  the  151/4-ft.  con- 
duit. A  clearance  of  about  9  in.  between  the  sheeting  and  sewer 
brickwork  was  allowed. 

In  the  operation  it  was  found  practical  to  swing  the  pile  driv- 
ing apparatus  about  once  every  day.  Ordinarily  about  50  ft.  of 
sheeting  in  each  direction  was  driven  on  one  side,  and  then  50  ft. 
in  each  direction  on  the  other  side.  A  water  jet  for  jetting 'the 
clay  was  used  with  marked  success.  Ordinarily,  after  jetting  to 
the  clay  and  getting  the  piling  into  position,  four  or  five  blows 
of  the  hammer  were  sufficient.  In  many  cases  isolated  rocks, 
about  \y2  ft.  in  their  largest  dimensions,  were  found  from  2  to 


850          HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


8  ft.  below  the  surface.  These  were  disposed  of  by  jetting  a 
large  hole  beside  them.  The  piles  were  held  in  place  during  driv- 
ing by  a  %-in.  buck  line,  attached  to  the  front  drum  of  the  hoist- 
ing engine,  and  leading  through  the  sheaves  attached  to  the  pile 
driver  and  sheeting  in  place,  to  and  around  the  pile  to  be  driven. 

In  making  each  Wakefield  pile,  50-penny  wire  spikes  were  used. 
Half-inch  carriage  bolts  were  tried  as  fastings,  but  it  was  found 
that  the  carpenters  could  make  at  least  twice  the  number  of 
sheet  piles  when  50-penny  wire  spikes  were  used.  Eight  to  ten 
spikes  were  used  per  pile.  The  pile-driving  crew  followed  the 
gang  setting  the  top  braces.  On  straight  work  at  least  it  was 
planned  to  have  a  distance  of  about  400  ft.  between  the  pile 
driver  and  the  excavating  derrick,  because  when  the  driving  was 
too  near  there  was  trouble  with  seepage  water  from  the  jet. 

In  ordinary  driving,  the  crew  averaged  about  90  pieces  of  sheet- 
ing per  8  hr.  This  is  equivalent  to  45  ft.  of  trench  sheet  piled. 
The  largest  day's  work  was  120  pieces  of  sheeting  placed.  On 
some  days,  however,  when  such  obstructions  as  piers  were  en- 
countered, not  more  than  12  pieces  of  sheeting  were  driven;  this 
occurred  once  perhaps  in  300  to  400  ft. 

The  pile  driving  crew  consisted  of  the  following: 

Per  day 

1  foreman     $  4.16 

engineman    4.80 

fireman     2.50 

carpenters   at   $3.60    7.20 

laborers  at  $2.50   10.00 

jet    man 3.00 

ladder  man    3.00 

2  wench  men   at  $3.00    6.00 


Total  labor  cost  per  day  $40.66 

As  about  45  ft.  of  trench  was  sheetpiled  per  8  hr.,  the  labor 
cost  per  linear  foot  of  sewer  amounted  to  00  ct.  The  labor  cost 
per  pile  was  45  ct.  The  bill  of  materials  required  for  00  ft.  of 
piling  (the  avearage  amount  placed  in  an  8-hr,  day)  was  as 
follows : 

10.8  M.  ft.  B.  M.  2xl2-in.x20  ft,  timber  at  $22 $237.60 

900  spikes,  at  $2.65  per  100  Ib 23  85 

1  ton  coal  for  pile  driver   2.90 

Total     : $264.35 

Adding  the  total   labor  cost  of  $40.66  and  the  total  cost  for 

material,  etc.,  $264.35,  we  have  $305  as  the  total  cost  of  90  ft. 

of  piling,  or  90  piles.     From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the 

cost   per  pile   amounts  to   $3.38,   of   which   $0.47   was   for   labor. 

The  labor  cost  per  1,000  ft.  B.  M.  of  piling  was  about  $3.90. 
Another  pile  driver  was  built  by  the  city  for  the  construction  of 

the  sheet  piling  in  that  section  of  the  intercepting  sewer  between 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  857 

51st  and  73d  streets,  known  as  Section  H.  This  machine  was 
also  constructed  on  a  turntable  and  could  be  swung  from  one  side 
of  the  trench  to  the  other.  In  order  to  secure  a  good  foundation 
bearing  for  the  runways  and  rollers  the  span  of  the  lower  bed 
was  made  34  ft.  The  driver  was  equipped  with  a  7  x  10-in.  double- 
drum  engine,  had  40-ft.  leads  and  a  2,500-lb.  hammer.  A  jet 
pump,  with  water  tank,  20  ft.  jet  tube  and  other  appliances  were 
among  the  equipment. 

As  in  the  first  case,  the  sheeting  was  of  the  ordinary  Wake- 
field  pattern,  made  up  of  2  x  12-in.  plank,  fastened  together,  how- 
ever, by  60-penny  spikes.  The  method  of  driving  this  sheeting 
was  as  follows:  The  top  set  of  stringers  and  braces  were  put  in 
place  for  100  ft.  to  200  ft.  in  advance,  and  about  18  in.  below 
the  surface  of  the  street;  a  second  set  of  stringers,  parallel  with 
the  street,  made  up  of  4  x  12-in.  plank,  was  put  in  about  5  in. 
outside  of  the  main  stringers  and  on  the  same  level  as  those  in- 
side, for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  sheeting  in  line.  All  braces 
and  timbers  were  then  covered  with  sand  to  prevent  their  being 
washed  out  by  the  water  jet.  The  sheeting  used  was  18  ft.,  20 
ft.,  22  ft.  and  24  ft  long,  depending  on  the  depth  of  the  clay. 
The  top  of  the  sheeting  was  driven  to  about  1  ft.  below  the 
street  grade,  and  the  lower  end  was  from  2  to  4  ft.  in  the  clay. 
For  each  pile  a  hole  was  jetted  to  the  clay  line,  and  as  soon  as 
the  jet  tube  was  pulled  out,  a  pile  was  dropped  into  place  and 
pulled  over  the  tongue  of  the  previous  pile.  Excellent  alignment 
was  obtained  by  using  a  "  buck  line "  to  hold  the  sheeting  in 
place  while  being  driven.  In  this  case  the  "buck  line"  consisted 
of  an  old  cable  having  a  loop  at  one  end  to  go  over  th?  head  of 
the  pile,  the  other  end  of  the  cable,  after  passing  through  a  couple 
of  snatch  blocks,  being  attached  to  the  hoisting  engine. 

From  75  to  110  piles  were  driven  in  8  hr.,  the  number  depend- 
ing somewhat  on  the  character  of  the  ground;  85  piles,  however, 
were  considered  a  fair  day's  work. 

The  pile  driving  crew  and  wages  were  as  follows  per  day: 

1  foreman     $4.16 

1  jet   man    3.50 

2  ladder   men    5.00 

2  wench    men    '. 6.00 

1  pileman    2.75 

1  engineman     480 

1  fireman     2.75 

4  laborers    10.00 

2  carpenters     8.40 

Total  labor  per  day   $47.36 

An  average  of  85  piles  per  day  were  driven,  which  is  equivalent 
to  about  42.5  ft.  of  trench  piled.  This  was  at  the  rate  of  $1.11 
per  ft.  of  trench  for  the  labor  cost.  The  labor  cost  per  pile  was  55 


858      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ct.     The  bill  of  material  required  for  85  ft.  of  piling  was  as  fol- 
lows: 

10.2  M.  ft.,  2-in.  x  12-in.  x  20  ft.  timber  at  $25  $255.00 

850  spikes,  at  $2.65  per  100  22.52 

1  ton  coal  for  pile  driver  2.90 

Total   materials    $280.42 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  total  cost  for  material 
and  driving  was  $3.85  for  each  pile,  of  which  $0.55  was  for  labor. 
The  labor  cost  for  1,000  ft.  B.  M.  of  piling  was  about  $4.58. 

Trench  in  Muck  Soil.  In  excavating  the  foundation  of  the 
Manchester  Ship  Canal  grain  elevators,  through  very  soft  soil, 
great  difficulty  was  encountered.  This  work  is  described  by  G.  G. 
Lynde  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
vol.  137  (1898-99).  Ihe  upper  14  to  18  ft.  of  the  soil  consisted 
of  a  black  mud  which  had  been  deposited  by  previous  dredging 
work.  About  this  "sludge"  red  sand  and  small  lumps  of  sand- 
stone had  been  spread  to  a  depth  of  1.5  to  2.5  ft.  The  ground 
underlying  the  sludge  consisted  of  an  alluvial  deposit,  a  bed  of 
blue  silt,  4  ft.  thick,  being  found  at  a  depth  of  18  ft.  below  the 
upper  ground  surface  covering  a  bed  of  wet  running  sand,  3 
ft.  thick,  which  lay  on  coarse  sand  and  gravel.  The  black  mud 
had  naturally  the  consistency  of  butter,  and  in  this  state  was  as 
impervious  to  water  as  clay  puddle,  but  when  mixed  and  stirred 
with  water,  -as  in  the  bottom  of  the  trenches,  it  became  thin 
black  mud. 

As  the  entire  excavation  was  made  by  steam  travel  ing-cranes 
loading  into  cars  hauled  by  locomotives,  the  weight  of  machinery 
caused  a  settlement  of  the  ground  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
and  a  corresponding  rise  in  the  bottoms  of  the  trenches  and  else- 
where. A  few  of  the  trenches  in  fairly  good  ground  were  sunk  by 
poling  boards  in  the  ordinary  way,  but  in  other  trenches  no  prog- 
ress could  be  made,  the  bottom  rising  as  fast  as  it  was  excavated 
and  the  timbering  and  surrounding  ground  sinking  at  the  same 
time. 

Certain  trenches  8.5  ft.  wide  and  from  23  to  26.5  ft.  deep  were 
excavated  by  the  following  method.  The  sludge  was  17  ft.  deep 
with  a  somewhat,  hardened  crust,  and  it  was  decided  to  use  a 
sheeting  plank  or  runner  2.5  in.  thick  by  7  in.  wide,  sharpened 
to  a  chisel  point,  and  driven  with  the  bevelled  side  towards  the 
trench,  so  that  the  tendency  of  this  sheeting  plank  was  to  incline 
outwards.  The  depth  of  the  trench  would  have  required  long 
and  unwieldy  sheeting  plank  had  they  been  driven  from  the  sur- 
face to  the  full  depth,  so  an  excavation  was  first  made  in  the 
hardened  crust  and  sheeting  6  ft.  long  was  first  placed.  Two 
frames  were  set,  each  consisting  of  2  walings  of  9  x  3-in.  timber 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


859 


12  ft.  long,  with  3  struts  8  in.  square  capped  with  1-in.  boards 
as  shown  in  Fig.  30.  Runners  14  ft.  long  were  driven  inside  these 
walings  into  the  solid  ground  by  a  small  hand-operated  weight 
of  300  lb.,  as  shown  in  Fig.  30. 


s. 


TOP  FRAME  IN  RUNNERS   PITCHED 

PLACE 

Fig.  30.     Top  Frame  in  Place  and  Runners  Pitched. 

The  excavation  was  then  carried  down  with  frames  of  3  x  9-in. 
walings  and  8-in.  struts  inserted  every  2  ft.  deep,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  31. 


RUNNERS  DRIVEN 


EXCAVATION   REMOVED 
FRAMES  IN  PLACE 


Fig.  31.     Runners  Driven,  and  Excavation  Removed  Frames  in 

Place. 


8.SO       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Curious  effects  were  met  with  during  the  excavation  of  these 
trenches.  The  bottoms  of  the  trenches  were  continually  rising 
and  a  corresponding  fall  in  the  level  of  the  surrounding  ground 
took  place.  The  ground  sank  as  much  as  3  ft.  under  the  traffic 
of  the  locomotives  and  cars.  Thus  the  boards  on  the  loaded  side  of 
the  trench  sank  while  the  timber  on  the  inner  side  generally  re- 
tained its  position,  endangering  the  whole  structure.  The  struts 
or  braces  were  thus  transformed  into  diagonals,  and  to  counteract 
this  motion  opposite  diagonals  were  inserted,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
32 

Fig.!). 


Scale.  1  inch  =  12  feet. 

Fig.  32.     Showing  Trench  Distorted  by  Settlement  and  with 
•  Counter  Rakers. 

O'Rourke  Method  of  Excavating  Deep  Cuts  to  Neat  Lines. 
John  F.  O'Rourke  has  patented  and  used  successfully  on  subway 
construction  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  33. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  7,  1916,  gives  the  patent  speci- 
fications. The  general  method  of  procedure  is  sufficiently  clear 
without  description. 

The  Bottomley  Trench  Brace.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Dec.  11,  1912,  gives  the  following: 

An  improved  fitting  for  timber  braces  to  be  used  in  shoring  up 
trenches  in  bad  ground  has  just  been  put  on  the  market  by  the 
Bottomley  Machine  Co.  of  Alliance,  Ohio.  Fig.  34  shows  the  fit- 
ting and  the  timber  required  in  its  utilization. 

This  fitting  renders  unnecessary  the  use  of  solid  4  x  4-in., 
6  x  6-in.,  and  8  x  8-in.  timbers  for  braces.  In  using  it  two  pieces 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


861 


of  2  x  4-in.,  2  x  (5-in.,  or  2  x  8-in.  timbers  are  sawed  the  same 
length.  The  fitting  is  then  fastened  to  the  pieces  selected  by 
means  of  lag  screws.  The  brace  so  formed  is  made  rigid  by  spik- 


Fig.   33.     Typical   Section   Showing  Method  of  Excavating  Deep 
Cuts  with  Vertical  Sides. 

ing  two  short  pieces  of  the  same  scantling  as  the  long  pieces  be- 
tween the  latter.  The  small  block  at  the  end  adjacent  to  the  cast- 
ing may  be  set  clear  of  the  screw  or  hollowed  out  to  box  the  screw 


r__^^_______^^___=m 

EngtContg. 

Fig.   34.     The  Bottomley  Trench  Brace  and  Built-Up   Timber. 

in.  Similarly,  if  desired,  instead  of  using  the  two  small  blocks 
the  timber  can  be  built  in  solid.  In  that  case  the. screw  is  boxed 
in. 


862  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

This  device  enables  the  contractor  to  utilize  old  but  solid  tim- 
ber which  has  been  used  for  other  purposes  on  the  work.  This 
effects  a  considerable  saving  in  cost  of  timber  over  buying  solid 
stuff.  Moreover  the  casting  can  be  fitted  to  the  2-in.  timber  in 
much  less  time  than  that  required  to  fit  a  cast  head  on  a  solid 
stick. 

The  casting  is  made  of  malleable  iron  threaded  so  as  to  engage 
the  screw.  The  screw  is  1}£  in.  in  diameter  and  is  threaded  for 
a  length  of  14  in.  The  vice  handle  is  1  x  9  in.  The  lag  screws 
required  for  fastening  the  casting  to  the  timber  are  furnished 
with  it. 

The  Kalamazoo  Extensible  Trench  Brace,  m»de  by  the  Kala- 
mazoo  Foundry  and  Machine  Co.  of  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  35. 


Fig.  35.     Kalamazoo  Extensible  Trench  Brace. 

Methods  and  Costs  of  Trench  Pumping.  The  cost  of  removing 
water  from  trenches  is  sometimes  very  high.  Nevertheless,  no 
matter  how  expensive  the  removal  of  water  may  be,  it  is  usually 
less  than  the  added  cost  of  excavation  and  pipe  construction  in 
partially  unwatered  trenches.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  get 
laborers  to  work  efficiently  in  wet  ground,  and  it  is  absolutely 
impossible  to  get  masons  to  do  a  proper  day's  work  under  such 
conditions. 

There  are  three  general  methods  of  unwatering  trenches :  ( 1 ) 
By  pumping  the  water  directly  from  its  location  in  the  trench; 
(2)  by  leading  it  from  the  place  where  work  is  being  carried  on 
to  a  natural  or  artificial  sump,  by  means  of  a  drain ;  and  ( 3 ) 
by  unwatering  the  site  by  "  bleeding." 

Direct  Pumping.  Where  the  flow  of  water  does  not  exceed  50 
gal.  per  minute,  one  man  with  a  diaphragm  pump  will  keep  the 
trench  clear.  Where  the  flow  does  not  exceed  75  gal.  per  minute  a 
two-man  pump  is  required.  Edson  diaphragm  pumps,  with  20  ft. 
of  hose  and  strainer,  cost  $48  for  the  one-man  size  and  $70  for 
the  two-man  size.  For  flows  of  60  to  80  gal.  per  minute,  a  dia- 
phragm pump  operated  by  a  gasoline  engine  is  very  efficient.  It 
can  be  started  in  the  morning  and  given  little  or  no  attention  for 
the  remainder  of  the  day. 

For  removing  greater  quantities  of  water  centrifugal  or  recipro- 
cating pumps  are  generally  used.  Emmett  Steece  gives  the  pre- 
war cost  of  a  centrifugal  pump  and  its  operation  as  follows: 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  863 

Centrifugal  pump  with  5-in.  suction    $110 

Timber    framing 6 

80-ft.  of  9-in.  belt  36 

6-hp.   gas   engine    350 

Total    cost    $502 

This  engine  uses  5.5  gal.  of  gasoline  per  10-hr,  day. 

Pumping  for  Sewer  Construction  in  New  Orleans.  Victor 
Windett  gives  the  cost  in  1911  of  pumping  with  an  8-in.  centri- 
fugal pump.  The  work  was  the  construction  of  a  sewer  in  New 
Orleans.  The  pump  was  in  constant  service  for  417  days.  While 
steam  was  kept  at  operating  pressure  continuously,  the  pumping 
was  intermittent  during  each  24  hr.  The  inflow  of  water  required 
pumping  for  a  total  of  12  hr.  each  day.  The  labor  charge  was 
low,  the  men  being  paid  $73.50  each  per  month,  or  20  ct.  per  hr. 
There  was  one  man  to  each  12-hr,  shift  tending  the  boiler  and 
pump.  The  daily  cost  of  operation  was  as  follows: 

Coal,   1.275  tons  at  $3  per  ton $  3.80 

Oil  for  lubrication  and  illumination    0.25 

Supplies     0.15 

Water    tax 0.33 

Repairs  to  pump  and  boiler   0.93 

Depreciation     0.75 

Wages     4.80 

Total    i $11.01 

Overhead    burden    1.34 


Total  daily  expense   , $12.35 

The  Pulsometer  Pump.  This  pump  has  been  used  for  trench 
pumping  for  50  years.  This  pump,  while  uneconomical  in  steam 
consumption,  is  reliable,  and,  once  started,  requires  almost  no 
attention.  One  advantage  of  this  pump  is  that  it  can  be  hung 
anywhere  in  a  trench  and  requires  no  foundation.  It  has  no 
moving  parts  except  valves  and  requires  no  lubrication.  It  is 
made  in  various  sixes  by  the  Pulsometer  Steam  Pump  Co.,  New 
York  City. 

A  Tile  Drain  for  Handling  Water.  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Oct.  2,  1907,  gives  the  following: 

In  the  construction  of  a  66-in.  reinforced  concrete  sewer,  the 
material  encountered  in  excavation  was  loose  black  soil  for  a 
depth  of  24  ft.,  and  sand  and  gravel,  water  bearing  for  about  5 
ft.  at  the  bottom.  The  average  depth  of  the  trench  was  18^  ft., 
with  a  width  of  10i/£  ft.  To  handle  the  water  a  subdrain,  pump 
and  sump  were  used.  The  pipe  used  for  subdrain  was  second 
class  and  cull  pipe,  laid  with  the  invert  30  in.  below  the  invert  of 
the  main  sewer.  Joints  were  loosely  calked  with  tufts  of  sod  in 
order  to  hold  back  the  fine  sand,  and  the  whole  covered  with 
clean  gravel  of  medium  size.  The  drain  pipe  emptied' into  a  sump 


864  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

at  the  lower  end  of  the  new  work,  which  was  about  18  in.  below 
the  subdrain  grade,  in  which  was  a  6-in.  centrifugal  pump,  used 
to  discharge  the  water  over  a  dam  in  the  old  portion  of  the  sewer. 
By  this  method  it  was  possible  to  put  the  concrete  on  a  dry  bot- 
tom. It  was  found  necessary,  however,  to  run  the  pump  while 
the  invert  was  being  plastered,  and  it  was  kept  going  until  the 
plastering  was  set,  otherwise  the  water  would  force  its  way  in 
from  the  outside  and  cause  the  mortar  to  slough  down,  leaving  the 
bottom  rough  and  the  sides,  to  some  extent,  porous.  The  total 
cost  of  caring  for  the  water  was  as  follows  per  foot  of  sewer: 

Subdrain    pipe    $0.33 

Labor   laying   drain   pipe    0.35 

Handling   water    0.45 


Total  per  ft / $1.13 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  excavation   0.115 

The  item  handling  water  includes  the  fuel,  housing  and  rental 
of  pumping  engine,  pay  of  engineman,  also  sinking  of  two  sump 
holes  for  the  pump  and  filling  up  of  same  after  the  work  was 
done.  The  engineman  received  $2  per  10-hr,  day,  and  common 
labor  received  $1.85. 

Pumping-  for  Sewer  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.  Engineering  Record, 
Oct.  15,  1904,  gives  the  following: 

The  main  sewers  comprised  7,600  ft.  of  reinforced  concrete  sec- 
tion 12.3  sq.  ft.  in  area,  and  7,670  ft.,  10.3  sq.  ft.  in  area. 
Trenches  were  8  and  9  ft.  wide,  and  averaged  10.5  ft.  in  depth. 
Most  of  the  work  lay  alongside  Paxton  Creek  which  was  in  flood 
several  times.  An  excessive  amount  of  water  was  everywhere  en- 
countered. To  handle  this  an  8-in.  underdrain  was  used  almost 
the  whole  length  of  the  work.  It  was  laid  with  open  joints,  filled 
around  with  gravel,  and  connected  with  sumps  at  the  side  of  the 
trench,  from  which  the  water  was  pumped.  These  sumps  were 
about  6x6  ft.  in  size  and  were  excavated  at  irregular  intervals  at 
the  same  time  as  the  trench  but  2  ft.  deeper.  At  some  places  it 
was  necessary  to  lay  a  double  line  .of  8-in.  underdrain.  Six-inch 
direct-connected  Morris  centrifugal  pumps  were  used.  One  pump 
was  used  for  each  section  of  the  work,  the  pump  being  moved 
ahead,  when  necessary.  The  average  length  of  section  pumped 
was  550  ft.,  and  the  maximum  1,750  ft.  The  ground  water  level 
varied  considerably  but  averaged  6  ft.  above  subgrade.  A  typical 
section  yielded  about  2,200  gal.  per  lin.  ft.  per  24  hr.  The  cost 
of  pumping  on  the  main  trench,  including  the  cost  of  underdrain, 
was  about  36  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of  excavation,  or  $1.30  per  lin.  ft. 
of  trench.  Coal  cost  $3.80  per  ton.  A  fireman  attended  each 
boiler  and  a  boy  each  pump,  day  and  night. 

The  material  encountered  was  firm  clay  with  occasional  layers 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  865 

of  gravel,  and  covered  with  various  kinds  of  top-soil.  The 
greater  part  of  the  invert  was  laid  on  an  underlying  stratum  of 
gravel.  Very  little  solid  rock  was  encountered. 

In  the  streets  and  on  level,  dry  land,  where  possible,  a  Jackson 
hoist  was  used,  and  the  material  excavated  was  carried  on  cars 
and  dumped  on  the  completed  work.  In  deep  cuts  where  the  con- 
dition of  the  surface  did  not  permit  the  use  of  the  Jackson  hoist, 
buckets  and  boom  derricks  were  used.  In  shallow  cuts  excavation 
was  done  entirely  by  hand.  The  total  excavation  of  the  main  line 
amounted  to  54,465  cu.  yd.,  and  cost  71  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  About 
38,587  cu.  yd.  were  backfilled  at  a  cost  of  38  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Com- 
mon labor  was  paid  15  ct.  per  hr. 

Tight  sheeting,  placed  vertically,  was  generally  required,  but 
in  shallow  cuts,  skeleton  sheeting  was  used.  Two-inch  lumber 
was  used.  The  rangers  and  cross  braces  were  of  wood.  The  sheet- 
ing cost  about  87  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  trench. 

TJnwatering  by  Use  of  "  Bleeding  Points."  Otto  Gersbach  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  5,  1907,  gives  a  description 
of  a  method  used  at  Indiana  Harbor,  Indiana,  for  drying  out 
water  bearing  sand.  This  method  is  now  frequently  used  in  wet 
material  and  is  commonly  known  as  the  method  of  "  bleeding  by 
points." 

At  Indiana  Harbor,  pipe  sewers  of  8  to  30-in.  diameter  were 
-laid  in  sand  to  depths  as  great  as  21  ft.  After  excavation  had 
proceeded  until  ground  water  was  reached,  2-in.  iron  pipes,  10  ft. 
long  were  driven  down  by  the  aid  of  a  water  jet  operating  at  a 
pressure  of  25  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  These  pipes  were  pointed,  and  were 
perforated  just  above  the  points,  the  perforations  being  covered 
with  a  fine  wire  netting  in  order  to  exclude  the  sand.  The  pipes 
were  spaced  4  ft.  apart  as  a  rule,  but  8  ft.  in  some  cases.  They 
were  driven  to  a  point  below  the  grade  of  the  sewer,  sections  2  to 
4  ft.  long  being  used  to  lengthen  the  standard  10-ft.  section 
where  necessary.  The  pipes  were  driven  in  lines  close  to  each  side 
of  the  trench. 

The  driven  pipes  were  connected  by  short  lengths  of  hose  to  a 
4-in.  main  pipe  running  lengthwise  over  the  center  of  the  trench 
and  supported  by  plank.  The  4-in.  pipe  was  connected  to  a 
10x6xl2-in.  duplex  pump  run  by  a  20-hp.  boiler.  Thus  the 
trench  was  kept  dry.  Little  or  no  sheeting  was  required  as  the 
damp  sand  did  not  run.  A  row  of  planking  was  placed  at  the 
top  of  the  trench  to  keep  back  sand  that  might  be  pushed  down 
by  the  men  above. 

Excavating  Quicksand  in  Toronto.  The  methods  used  in  ex- 
cavating, sheeting  and  pumping  trenches  for  20  and  24-in.  pipe 
sewers  at  North  Toronto,  Canada,  are  described  by  George  Pkelps, 


806  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec.  25,  1912.  Most  of  the  trench 
was  30  ft.  deep,  and  the  nature  of  the  material  (quicksand  and 
water  at  depths  of  16  ft.)  made  the  work  very  difficult  and  ex- 
pensive. Further  disadvantages  were  ( 1 )  the  narrow  working 
space  which  prevented  the  use  of  conveying  and  backfilling  ma- 
chines, (2)  the  great  depth  of  cut,  and  (3)  the  cold  weather. 

The  material  was  removed  from  the  trench  by  hand  in  stages. 
When  the  excavated  material  was  allowed  to  lie  for  some  time 
it  froze,  and  backfilling  was  necessarily  expensive.  Frost  wedges 
and  dynamite  were  used  to  break  up  some  of  the  material. 

The  system  of  cross  braces  shown  in  Fig.  36  was  adopted  to 
prevent  the  collapse  of  the  curbing.  Extra  diagonal  braces  were 
often  put  in  as  well,  but  even  this  did  not  ahvrays  prevent  the  set- 
tling of  the  timber  work  with  the  falling  sides.  The  timbering 
consisted  of  two  settings  of  2  x  6-in.  pine  runners,  the  top  set- 
ting being  12  ft.  deep  and  the  bottom  16  ft.  deep.  The  wa lings 
and  struts  were  of  4  x  6-in.  pine,  and  the  cross  braces  of  2  x  6-in. 
pine.  A  uniform  width  of  trench  was  kept  and  each  setting  of 
timber  was  16  ft.  in  length,  this  being  the  length  of  walings  used. 
The  walings  were  about  4  ft.  apart  vertically,  three  on  each  side 
for  a  top  setting  and  four  for  a  bottom  setting.  The  cross  braces 
and  4  x  6-in.  struts  were  placed  at  each  end  of  the  walings  in  ad- 
dition to  4  x  6-in.  struts  in  the  middle,  the  timbering  thus  being 
divided  up  into  8  ft.  bays.  After  the  bottom  setting  of  timber 
had  been  driven  down  to  the  full  depth,  the  joints  of  the  runners 
were  covered  with  short  lengths  of  1-in.  boards  to  keep  back  the 
sand  as  much  as  possible.  This  helped  considerably  but  did  not 
entirely  prevent  the  sand  from  washing  in. 

The  drawing  of  the  timbers  after  the  pipes  had  been  laid  was 
attended  with  some  danger.  The  bottom  setting  was  first  drawn, 
often  exposing  big  caves  in  the  sides  of  the  trench  where  the  ma- 
terial had  washed  away.  These,  with  the  trench,  were  filled  up  to 
the  bottom  of  the  next  setting  before  any  of  the  top  timbers  were 
disturbed.  On  removing  the  struts  from  the  top  setting  the  sides 
of  the  trench  often  fell  in  from  several  feet  back,  to  the  great 
danger  of  the  timbermen,  but  fortunately  the  work  was  completed 
without  any  serious  mishap  from  this  cause. 

In  passing  the  telephone  poles  which  came  immediately  on  the 
side  of  the  trench,  the  top  setting  of  timber  was  left  in  for  safety. 
In  addition  stays  were  placed  on  the  poles  and  left  there  after 
completion  of  the  work  to  protect  them  from  heeling  over  or 
sinking  until  the  trench  settled  down  quite  firm.  In  some  places 
where  the  ground  was  very  bad,  particularly  at  a  point  where  the 
trench  passed  close  to  a  grove  of  trees,  the  whole  of  the  timbering 
was  left  in  the  trench.  After  filling  such  places  a  large  amount 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


807 


of  surplus  earth  remained  to  be  hauled  away.  The  trenches  have 
shown  very  little  sign  of  settling  down  since  being  filled,  and  it  is 
likely  that  the  caves  left  behind  the  timbering  where  it  was  not 
drawn  will  silt  up  from  underneath  quicker  than  the  filling  ma- 
terial will  find  its  way  through  from  above. 

Pumping  was  required  at  all  times.     At  the  beginning  of  the 


16-0 


ii 


'6  Braces 


n 


Fig.  36.  Longitudinal  and  Transverse  Sections  of  a  Top  and 
Bottom  Setting  of  Timber  for  30-Ft.  Sewer  Trench  in  Quick- 
sand. 

bad  stretch  a  sump  was  located  and  the  water  was  removed  from 
this  by  a  Pulsometer  pump.  In  capacity  it  was  found  to  be 
more  than  sufficient  to  deal  with  the  quantity  of  water,  and  there- 
fore it  was  worked  intermittently.  For  this  reason  the  sand  that 
was  carried  by  the  water  settled  down  on  the  valves  during  the 
periods  of  rest  and  there  was  often  a  delay  in  getting  the  pump  to 
start  again. 


£68  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Shortly  after  the  commencement  of  the  work  on  the  flat  grade 
it  was  found  impossible  to  keep  -the  sewer  free  from  the  sand 
carried  in  suspension  in  the  water,  and  being  very  fine,  it  quickly 
settled  down  in  the  pipes  and  formed  an  obstruction.  Attempts 
were  made  by  means  of  rods  and  chains  drawn  through  to  keep 
the  pipes  clear.  Flushing  from  a  hydrant  also  was  tried.  But 
the  level  of  the  water  could  not  be  kept  down  sufficiently  to  make 
good  joints,  and  pumping  in  front  of  the  pipe  layers  had  to  be 
resorted  to.  A  4-hp.  vertical  gasoline  engine  and  a  belt-driven 
centrifugal  pump  were  provided  for  this  purpose.  The  pump  was 
set  down  in  the  trench  about  10  ft.  above  the  invert  of  the  sewer. 
About  35  ft.  of  flexible  suction  hose  was  attached  to  the  pump, 
making  it  possible  to  lay  about  70  ft.  of  pipe  before  moving  the 
pump  further  along  the  trench.  The  gasoline  engine  occasionally 
gave  a  little  trouble,  but  the  centrifugal  pump  proved  quite  satis- 
factory for  dealing  with  the  very  sandy  water,  which  was  raised 
to  the  surface  and  discharged  on  the  other  side  of  the  road. 

The  sand  flowed  so  freely  into  the  trench  that  often,  after  stand- 
ing over  the  week-end,  it  had  filled  the  trench  up  to  the  level  of 
the  top  of  the  pipes.  The  bottom  of  the  trench  was  good,  as 
a  rule.  The  quicksand  came  from  a  few  feet  higher  up.  In  some 
places,  however,  where  the'  bottom  was  soft,  timbers  were  put  in 
to  give  a  firm  bearing  for  the  pipes.  As  a  result  of  the  flow  of 
sand  into  the  trench,  caves  were  formed  behind  the  sheeting. 
When  a  delay  occurred  which  caused  the  trench  to  be  left  open  a 
little  longer  than  usual,  big  falls  of  sand  took  place,  due  to  the 
cave  and  the  weight  of  earth  above.  These  falls  often  pulled  down 
the  top  setting  of  timber  a  few  feet,  causing  the  walings  to  snap. 
This  constituted  a  great  danger  and  the  work  was  delayed  on 
several  occasions  by  the  caving  in  of  the  sides  of  the  trench  from 
this  cause. 

Building  a  Brick  Sewer  in  Quicksand.  Curtis  Hill  gives  the 
following  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Cornell  Society  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers (1905).  In  St.  Louis  an  oval-shaped  sewer,  4x6  ft.  in 
size,  was  constructed  on  a  quicksand  bed,  the  three  lowest  feet 
being  in  quicksand.  The  trench  was  excavated  until  quicksand 
was  found  when  sheeting  was  driven  first  along  the  sides  and  then 
across  the  line  of  sewer  to  below  subgrade,  thus  boxing  off  a 
section  of  quicksand.  This  was  excavated  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
and  burlap  sacks,  loosely  filled  with  dry  concrete,  were  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  immediately  and  tamped  into  the 
sand.  These  sacks  were  placed  slightly  lapping  one  another,  the 
outside  ones  resting  upon  the  sheeting  at  the  sides,  and  roughly 
conformed  to  the  shape  of  the  sewer  invert.  Nine  or  ten  inches 


METHODS  AND  COST  Of  TRENCHING  SCO 

of  concrete  gave  a  stable  foundation  and  the  brickwork  was 
built  directly  upon  it. 

Solidifying  Quicksand  by  Injecting  Cement  Grout.  At  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  according  to  Engineering  Neics,  Apr.  28,  1892,  great 
trouble  was  experienced  in  1891  in  the  construction  of  a  large 
sewer  in  quicksand.  The  contractors  were  unable  to  proceed,  and 
petitioned  for  cancellation  of  their  contract,  which  petition  was 
granted  by  the  cjty  council. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  sewer  a  large  section  of  wooded  area  about 
150  x  75  ft.  in  extent  sank  several  feet  after  a  pump  had  been 
operating  in  the  trench  for  2  days.  The  trench  had  to  be 
from  12  to  15  ft.  wide  and  20  to  30  ft.  deep  in  quicksandy  ma- 
terial saturated  with  water  almost  to  the  surface.  The  force 
of  the  flow  of  quicksand  was  almost  irresistible,  4-in.  splined 
spruce  sheeting  in  a  30-ft.  trench  snapped  off  several  planks  at  a 
time,  and  spruce  struts  were  forced  into  the  rangers. 

An  experiment  was  made  with  an  invention  of  Robert  L.  Har- 
ris. Four  pipes,  4  ft.  apart,  were  driven  to  a  depth  of  17  ft. 
Water,  forced  down  two  of  the  pipes,  washed  out  a  chamber  while 
seeking  an  outlet  through  the  other  pipes.  A  smaller  pipe,  with 
suitable  valves,  was  then  put  do^vn  inside  one  of  the  larger  pipes. 
When  this  small  pipe  extended  below  the  outside  of  the  larger 
pipe  there  was  a  free  passage  for  fluid  up  or  down.  When  the 
inner  pipe  was  drawn  up  a  little,  it  acted  as  a  valve  and  closed 
the  larger  pipe.  Cement  grout,  "  doctored  "  with  sand  and  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  was  then  forced  down  the  smaller  pipe.  By  repeat- 
ing this  a  floor  of  concrete  was  formed. 

Freezing  Quicksand.  Maurice  Deutsch,  in  Engineering  News, 
Jan.  30,  1913,  describes  the  successful  employment  of  the  freez- 
ing process  in  the  excavation  of  a  building  foundation  in  Berlin, 
Germany,  where  ordinary  methods  had  previously  proved  a  failure 
and  had  caused  settlement  of  adjoining  buildings.  The  material 
was  quicksand,  extending  to  considerable  depth.  The  cellar  ex- 
cavation was  carried  a  distance  of  36  ft.  belew  ground  water  level 
and  25  ft.  below  the  foundations  of  the  adjoining  buildings. 

Closed  pipes,  on  3-ft.  centers,  5  in.  in  diameter  and  %6  in. 
thick,  were  driven  vertically  59  ft.  deep,  around  the  site,  6.5  ft. 
from  adjoining  buildings.  Inside  these  pipes  was  set  a  l-in. 
brine  pipe.  Refrigerating  brine  was  pumped  down  the  l-in.  pipe 
and  up  the  annular  space  between  that  pipe  and  the  surrounding 
5-in.  pipe,  at  a  velocity  of  11.5  ft.  per  min.  After  four  weeks, 
the  ground  was  frozen  sufficiently  for  excavation  which  was  ac- 
complished by  dredging.  The  bottom  of  the  excavation  was  cov- 
ered with  a  thick  bed  of  concrete  placed  under  water. 


870  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Bleeding  Wet  Sand  at  Gary,  Ind.  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Aug.  5  and  Oct.  14,  1908,  gives  the  following, 

The  sand  at  Gary,  Ind.,  is  very  fine,  and  is  such  a  sand  as  forms 
the  dunes  of  Michigan  and  other  states  bordering  Lake  Michi- 
gan. When  water  soaked  it  slopes  at  a  grade  of  1  vertical  to  15 
horizontal.  On  the  location  of  the  work  this  fine  sand  was  water 
soaked  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface.  In  places  the  water 
covered  the  surface. 

In  constructing  a  brick  sewer  of  oval  section,  6  ft.  4  in.  by  8 
ft.  11  in.  in  size,  the  trench  was  dug  to  depths  varying  between 
18  and  30  ft.  A  preliminary  wide  shallow  cut  was  excavated 
first  by  a  grab  bucket  and  later  by  scraper  bucket.  For  the  first 
1,900  ft.  a  %-cu.  yd.  Hayward  orange-peel  bucket,  operated  by  a 
25-hp.  engine,  was  used.  This  machine  removed  21,250  cu.  yd. 
at  the  following  cost. 

Engineman,  56  days,  at  $6  $    336.00 

Fireman,   56  days,   at  $3.50    196.00 

Laborers,  255  days,  at  $1.75  446.25 

Coal,   56  shifts,   at  $5    280.00 


Total     ..............................................     $1,258.25 

Cost  per  cu.  yd  ...................................         $0.059 

At  this  point  the  orange-peel  was  removed  to  the  rear  to  work 
on  backfilling  and  a  Page  &  Schnable  drag  scraper  excavator  was 
substituted.  This  machine  had  a  2-cu.  yd.  bucket  and  a  40-hp. 
engine.  This  engine  was  found  to  be  too  weak  and  was  used  only 
until  a  larger  one  could  be  secured.  Another  objection  to  the 
first  arrangement  was  that  two  men  were  required  to  operate  the 
bucket,  one  at  the  hoist  and  one  at  the  swing  engine.  With  the 
machine  as  first  equipped  and  operated  15,300  cu.  yd.  of  material 
were  excavated  at  the  following  cost: 

Engineman,  31  days,   at  $6   .............................  $186.00 

Fireman,  31  days,   at  $3.50   .............................  108.50 

Engineer,  31  days,   at  $3   .........  ......................  93.00 

Laborers,  118  days,  at  $1.75  ............................  206.50 

Coal,  31  shifts,  at  $5   ...................................  155.00 

Total    ................................................     $749.00 

Cost  per  cu.  yd  .....................................      $0.049 

The  40-hp.  engine  was  replaced  by  one  of  60-hp.,  so  arranged 
that  one  man  operated  both  hoist  and  swinging  engine.  With  the 
remodeled  outfit  11,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  were  excavated  at  the 
following  cost: 


Engineman,  21  days,  at  $6  ..  ....[^^Y..  «  ..'  $126.00 

Fireman,  21  days,   at  $3.50  .............................  73.50 

Laborers,  84  days,  at  $1.75  .............................  147.00 

Coal,  21  shifts,  at  $5   ........  '...'..::..  .  .....  .  ...........  105.00 

Total  ...............  ............  "....:.':.!;'-V.»'.'!:..  $451.50 

Cost  per  cu.  yd  .....................................  $0.041 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  871 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  change  of  engines  reduced  the  cost 
per  cubic  yard  by  the  amount  of  the  wages  of  one  engineman;  the 
saving  was  0.83  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Summarizing  we  have  a  cost  of 
$2,488  for  excavating  47,550  cu.  yd.,  or  of  5.23  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
For  the  4,258  ft.  of  sewer  the  cost  was  57.9  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  The 
machine  was  mounted  on  rollers  traveling  on  a  track  of  timbers. 
One  merit  of  the  machine  was  that  some  of  the  excavated  material 
could  be  dumped  straight  ahead  in  the  path  of  the  work  so  that 
it  built  its  own  roadbed  over  the  swamps  in  front.  The  machine 
was  pulled  ahead  by  simply  lowering  the  bucket  and  letting  it  get 
a  good  bite  in  the  ground  ahead,  then  pulling  on  the  digging 
cable. 

When  the  scraper  bucket  had  excavated  to  water  level  the 
ground  water  was  partially  removed  by  the  method  known  as 
"  bleeding."  This  method  proved  eminently  successful.  It  en- 
abled sand  that  normally  flow's  at  a  slope  of  1  on  15  to  be  ex- 
cavated in  narrow  trenches  to  some  22  ft.  below  water  level  with 
only  ordinary  rough  sheeting  reaching  to  a  point  6  ft.  above 
the  bottom.  So  important  a  factor  in  the  successful  prosecu- 
tion of  the  work  was  the  "  bleeding "  that,  according  to  one  of 
the  engineers  on  the  work,  had  the  pumping  been  stopped 
for  half  an  hour  the  trench  would  have  been  dangerous  to 
work  in. 

The  method  of  bleeding  was  essentially  as  follows:  A  4-in. 
pipe,  132  ft.  long,  in  six  22-ft.  sections,  stretched  along  the  center 
line  of  the  sewer.  On  each  side  of  this  pipe,  about  3  ft.  away,  is 
sunk  a  row  of  well  points  2  ft.  apart.  These  well  points  are  3 
ft.  long  and  are  attached  to  13-ft.  pipes.  The  tops  of  the  driven 
pipes  are  connected  by  hose  to  the  4-in.  pipe  line  which  has  cross- 
valves  for  the  purposes.  A  pump  connects  with  the  4-in.  pipe 
line  and  also  with  a  4-in.  well  point  sunk  vertically  underneath. 
An  extension  of  the  4-in.  pipe  line  with  strainer  end  also  takes 
the  surface  water  from  a  sump. 

This  battery  of  well  points  lowers  the  water  so  that  a  further 
excavation  of  6  to  8  ft.  can  be  made  between  sheet  piling.  A 
second  battery  of  well  points  is  then  sunk  at  this  new  level.  In 
this  battery,  however,  the  points  are  sunk  close  to  the  sheeting, 
and  each  row  feeds  into  a  separate  2-in.  pipe  along  the  trench. 
This  battery  lowers  the  water  level  enough  to  permit  excavation 
to  sub-grade,  which  is  some  6  ft.  below  the  bottom  of  the  sheeting. 
The  brick  sewer  is  then  built  in  the  usual  manner  and  the  back- 
filling is  done  by  means  of  a  derrick  and  Hay  ward  clam-shell 
bucket. 

Fig.  37  shows  the  general  plan  of  procedure  described.  It  was 
noted  that  the  vacuum  type  of  pump  seemed  to  be  particularly 


872 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


successful  owing  to  its  ability  to  work  with  a  large  amount  of 
air  in  the  suction  and  to  its  ability  to  handle  gritty  water. 

Referring  to  Fig.  37  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first  battery  of 
well  points  occupies  a  narrow  space  along  the  center  of  the 
trench;  this  permits  the  sheeting  to  be  driven  outside  of  the 


I  I 


nimiiiiiiin 


Fig.  37.     Scraper  Excavator  on  Trench  Work. 

well  points.  The  well  points  are  2  in.  x  3  ft.,  and  they  are  at- 
tached to  2-in.  x  13-ft.  pipes  with  ells  at  their  tops.  A  4-ft. 
length  of  wire-lined  hose  is  attached  to  each  ell.  These  points 
are  sunk  vertically  by  jetting.  Points  of  similar  type  but  of  less 
diameter  that  were  used  on  a  narrow  trench  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  38. 


Fig.  38.     Pump  Point  for  "  Bleeding. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  873 

Two  men  were  timed  in  jetting.  They  used  1-in.  jetting  pipes 
with  about  100  Ib.  water  pressure  and  sunk  four  points  in  one 
minute.  This  time  did  not  include  making  connections.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  two  rows  of  2-in.  points,  a  4-in.  point  is  sunk  directly 
under  the  pump. 

The  well  points  are  connected  by  the  short  hose  lengths  to  a 
4-in.  horizontal  suction  pipe.  Six  22-ft.  sections  of  suction  pipe 
are  used  with  flanged  joints.  Each  section  has  11  cross-valves 
with  double  bushings  for  the  hose  connections.  A  gate  valve  near 
the  end  of  each  section  permits  the  rear-sections  to  be  removed 
arid  placed  ahead  as  fast  as  the  work  progresses.  An  extension 
of  the  4-in.  suction  pipe  forward  to  a  sump  in  the  excavation  be- 
ing made  by  the  scraper  bucket  handles  the  surface  water. 

rlhe  water  is  drawn  from  the  suction  pipe  by  an  Emerson  No.  3 
pump  with  5-in.  suction  and  4-in.  discharge.  rlhe  pump  is  hung 
to  a  chain  fall  from  an  A-frame  mounted  on  rollers.  It  discharges 
into  a  tile  drain  alongside  the  trench;  this  drain  leads  back  to 
the  completed  sewer  discharging  behind  a  temporary  dam  of  bags 
of  sand  inside  the  sewer.  Summarized,  the  first  battery  of  well 
points  is  composed  as  follows: 

One  No.  3  Emerson  pump;  1  (4-in.)  well  point  sunk  below 
pump;  132  (2-in.)  well  points  sunk  in  two  rows;  1  (4-in.)  suc- 
tion pipe  with  extension  to  surface  water  sump.  The  trench 
Was  sheeted  10  ft.  wide,  the  sheeting  being  carried  along  so  as  to 
embrace  about  one  section  (the  rearmost)  of  the  first  battery  of 
well  points.  The  sheeting  was  2  x  8-in.  x  12-ft.  planks  and  is 
driven  by  mauls.  Waling  pieces  and  trench  braces  were  placed 
as  the  excavation  proceeded.  This  excavation  was  carried  down 
about  6  ft.  by  shovelers,  and  at  this  level  the  second  battery  of 
well  points  was  placed.  The  sheeting  was  pulled  as  the  back- 
filling proceeded. 

The  second  battery  of  well  points  consisted  of  two  rows  like  the 
first,  but  the  rows  were  placed  wide  apart  (close  inside  the  sheet- 
ing on  both  sides)  and  each  had  a  separate  suction  pipe.  The  suc- 
tion pipes  were  2  in.  and  the  well  points  1}4  in-  in  diameter.  The 
well  points  and  pipes  were  10  ft.  long,  and  when  sunk  they  pen- 
etrated about  2  ft.  below  sub-grade  and  6  ft.  below  the  bottom  of 
the  sheeting. 

Two  pumps  similar  to  those  used  for  the  first  set  of  points  op- 
erated this  battery.  Each  drew  water  from  both  rows  of  well- 
points  and  also  from  a  4-in.  well  point  sunk  directly  under  thn 
pump.  From  a  4-way  connection,  2-in.  pipes  branched  right  and 
left  to  connections  with  the  2-in.  suction  pipes.  A  third  connec- 
tion was  made  to  the  4-in.  point.  The  pumps  could  concentrate 
their  work  on  one  portion  of  the  battery  or  could  pump  from  the 


874  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

entire  system.  The  pumps  discharged  into  the  same  drain  as  the 
first  pump.  The  methods  of  advancing  the  second  battery  wen- 
substantially  the  same  as  for  the  first  set  of  well  points.  Gen- 
erally the  forward  end  of  the  second  battery  was  kept  far  enough 
ahead  to  overlap  the  rear  section  of  the  first  battery. 

The  pumping  was  continuous  day  and  night,  but  the  jetting  of 
well  points  and  changing  of  piping  was  confined  to  the  regular 
shift  of  9  hr.  In  this  method  of  pumping  it  is  important  to  keep 
lowering  the  points  as  the  excavation  deepens.  If  the  points  are 
driven  to  bottom  grade  at  the  beginning  of  the  excavation  work, 
an  unnecessarily  large  amount  of  material  must  be  unwatered. 

The  item  of  pumping  comprises  all  the  work  of  sinking  and 
shifting  the  well  points  and  pipe  line  and  the  removal  of  the 
backwater  in  the  finished  part  of  the  sewer.  Three  Emerson 
pumps  took  water  from  the  well  points,  a  fourth  handled  the 
backwater  and  a  duplex  pump  furnished  water  for  boilers,  mixing 
mortar,  jetting,  etc.  The  cost  was  as  follows: 

Laborers,  542  days,  at  $1.75  $   948.50 

Pipe  line  men,  958  days,  at  $2.50 2,395.00 

Total  for  pipe  work  $3,343.50 

Coal,  100  days,   at  $15    $1,500.00 

Firemen,  855  days,  at  $3.50  2,992.50 

Total   for    pumping    $1,492.50 

Grand   total    $7,836.00 

Cost  per  lin.   ft $1.837 

Pumping  eosts  and  pipe  line  costs  have  been  separated,  since 
the  first  in  a  continuous  expense  which  does  not  vary  from  day  to 
day,  and  the  second  cost  is  operative  only  when  construction  is 
actually  going  on. 

Hand  Excavation.  The  bottom  13  ft.  in  depth  of  the  trench  was 
excavated  by  hand  between  sheeting;  the  width  of  the  excavation 
was  approximately  10  ft.  The  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows: 

Laborers,  6,441  days,  at  $2   $12,882.50 

Foreman,  84  days,   at  $3   J 522.00 

Total     $13,434.00 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $0.565 

The  total  amount  of  hand  excavation  was  23,800  cu.  yd. 

Sheeting.  The  sheeting  consisted  of  vertical  2  x  8-in.  by  12-ft. 
planks  held  by  two  pairs  of  6  x  8-in.  waling  pieces  and  !)-ft.  cross 
braces  spaced  8  ft.  apart.  In  cases  of  very  wet  trench  a  third 
row  of  waling  and  braces  was  put  in;  occasionally,  also,  hori- 
zontal sheeting  was  used  in  the  bottom.  Sheeting  was  driven  to 
within  6  ft.  of  the  trench  bottom.  The  cost  of  driving  the  sheet- 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  875 

ing  and  placing  the  bracing  and  also  of  pulling  it  was  as  fol- 
lows: 

Placing : 

Laborers,   882  days,   at  $2 $1,764 

Foreman,    80  days,   at  $3.50   280 

Carpenters,  50  days,  at  $3   150 

Total $2,194 

Pulling : 
Laborers,  242  days,  at  $2   484 

Total    $2,678 

Cost  per  lin.  ft $0.629 

The  materials  were  hauled  1,500  ft.  in  steel  dump  cars  running 
on  portable  track;  the  cars  were  pushed  by  hand.  Coal,  lumber, 
supplies,  etc.,  purchased  from  local  dealers,  were  hauled  by  team. 
The  cost  of  hauling  was  as  follows : 

Laborers,  1,219  days,  at  $2  $2,438 

!•  oreman,  80  days,  at  $3.50   280 

Teams  and  drivers,   180  days,  at  $5.50   990 

Total     $3,708 

Cost  per  lin.  ft $0.87 

The  construction  of  the  4,258  ft.  brick  sewer  was  as  follows: 

Laborers,  1,506  days,  at  $2   $  3,012.00 

Carpenters,   50  days,   at  $3    150.00 

Form  setters,  225  days,  at  $3.75  843.75 

Bricklavers,    471   days,   at  $10    4,710.00 

Scaffold  men,   236  days,  at -$2.75   649.00 

Brick  tenders,   236  days,   at  $3.75    8S5.0u 

Mortar  mixers,  387  days,  at  $2.25   860.75 

Total     - $11,110.50 

Cost  per  lin.  ft ' $2.609 

As  noted  further  on,  the  cost  of  brick  and  cement  for  the  job 
was  $14,436.50,  or  $2.384  per  foot  of  sewer,  making  the  total  cost 
for  labor  and  material  $4.093  per  lin.  ft.  Since  there  were  520 
bricks  per  lin.  ft.  of  sewer,  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  the  brick- 
work was  approximately  the  same  as  the  cost  per  lineal  foot.  The 
bricklayers  averaged  4,710  bricks  per  man  per  9-hr.  day.  Two 
barrels  of  cement  were  used  per  1,000  bricks. 

Enough  backfiUing  was  done  by  hand  to  cover  the  sewer  and  to 
permit  the  sheeting  to  be  pulled;  the  remainder  was  done  with 
the  clam-shell  excavator  first  used  for  preliminary  trenching. 
The  cost  of  backfilling  by  hand  was  as  follows: 

Per  lin.  ft. 
Laborers,   378  days,   at  $2    $0.18 


876  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  cost  of  backfilling  by  machine  was  as  follows:  •;]    ''- 

Laborers,  307  days,  at  $1.75  $   537.25 

Engineers,  93  days,   at  $6   558.00 

Firemen,  93  days,  at  $3.50  325.50 

Coal,   93  shifts,    at  $5   465.00 


Total     $1,885.75 

Cost  per  lin.   ft $0.440 

The  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the  job  was  as  follows: 

2,221,000  brick,  at  $5  $11,105.00 

Utica  cement,  6,663  sacks,  at  20  ct 1,332.60 

Universal  cement.   6,663  sacks,  at  30  ct 1,998.90 

30  M.  ft.  B.  M.  lumber,  at  $20   600.00 

Total     $15,036.50 

Cost  per  lin.  ft $3.529 

The  costs  of  superintendence  and  general  expenses  were  as  fol- 
lows: 

Superintendence : 

Superintendent,   4  mo.,   at  $150   $    600 

General  foreman,  4  mo.,  at  $125   500 

Master  mechanic,  4  mo.,  at  $200  800 

Timekeeper,   3   mo.,   at  $60    180 

Team,  100  days,  at  $4   400 

Total    $2,480 

General  Expenses: 

Waterboys,  220  days,  at  $1.50   $    330 

Clearing  right  of  way,  60  days  at  $150  90 

Total $    420 

Cost  per  lin.  ft $0.099 

Summarizing  we  have  the  cost  per  lineal  foot  of  sewer  as  fol- 
lows: 

Excavation  by   machine    $0.58 

Excavation  by    hand    3.15 

Sheeting     0.63 

Hauling  brick  and  other  materials  0.87 

Pumping     1.84 

Laying  brick  sewer    2.61 

Backfilling  by  hand    '••  0.18 

Backfilling   by    machine    0.44 

Materials     3.53 

Superintendence  and  general 0.68 

Depreciation,  repairs,  setting  up  machines   1.50 

Making  3  railway   crossings  $2,500)    0.58 

Total  per  ft fc $16-59 

•sii; '-.*}({ p   !H{i  ••iinT..  - 

The  work  was  begun  on  April  2  and  was  completed  on  Aug.  5, 
1908,  during  which  time  only  11  days  were  lost  by  the  brick- 
layers. 

Cost  of  a  Sewer  in  Quicksand  at  Gary,  Ind.     The  following  is 
given  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  27,  1909; 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  877 

A  66-in.  brick  sewer  was  constructed  at  Gary,  Ind.,  by  methods 
similar  to  those  used  for  constructing  an  oval  sewer  described 
above.  The  land  consisted  of  alternating  ridges  and  marshes  dif- 
fering in  elevation  about  10  ft.  The  trench,  therefore,  varied  in 
depth  from  14  to  24  ft.,  averaging  17  ft.  The  material  was  a  fine 
sand  saturated  with  water  to  a  height  of  13  or  14  ft.  above  the 
trench  bottom.  ,'i 

Construction  was  begun  Aug.  1  and  finished  Oct.  1,  1908.  La- 
borers on  excavation,  sheeting,  pumping,  etc.,  worked  a  10-hr, 
day;  tenders,  cement  mixers  and  helpers  to  bricklayers  worked  a 
0-hr,  day;  bricklayers  worked  an  8-hr,  day;  firemen  on  pumps 
worked  in  12-hr,  shifts,  and  excavating  machine  crews  worked 
a  9-hr.  day.  The  costs  of  the  various  items  of  the  work  were 
as  follows. 

Drag  Bucket  Excavator  Work.  The  preliminary  cut  was  about 
30  ft.  wide  and  from  4  to  10  ft.  deep;  there  were  33,350  cu.  yd. 
of  excavation  for  the  4,062  ft.  of  sewer  or  about  8.21  cu.  yd. 
per  lin.  ft.  The  excavator  worked  83.5  shifts  and  so  averaged 
nearly  400  cu.  ft.  per  shift  of  9  hr.  The  cost  of  operating  the 
excavator  was  as  follows: 

1  engineman,   at  $6 $  6.00 

1  fireman,    at   $3.50    .' 3.50 

4  laborers,    at   $2    8.00 

Coal    (estimated)     5.00 

Oil,  repairs,  etc 2.00 


Total  per  9  hr $24.50 

This  gives  a  cost  of  6.1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  and  of  50.3 
ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  sewer. 

Excavation  by  Hand.  The  excavation  between  sheeting,  approx- 
imately 8i/£  x  10  ft.,  was  done  by  hand,  scaffolding  the  material 
from  3  to  5  times  and  an  average  of  4  times.  The  cost  of  the 
work  was  as  follows: 

Foreman,  51  days,  at  $3.25   $    165.75 

Laborers,  2,184  days,   at  $2.25   4,914.00 


Total    $5,079.75 

This  gives  a  cost  of  39.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  of  $1.25  per  lin. 
ft.  of  sewer. 

Pumping.  The  pumping  plant  consisted  of  3  No.  3  Emerson 
pumps  drawing  from  the  well  points;  1  No.  2  Emerson  pump  tak- 
ing water  from  the  pools  formed  behind  the  drag  bucket  ex- 
cavator; 1  duplex  pump  for  boiler  feed,  jetting  points,  wetting 
brick,  etc.,  and  4  30-hp.  horizontal  boilers  mounted  on  wheels. 
This  plant  worked  continuously.  The  cost  of  operation  was  as  fol- 
lows : 


878  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Laborers,  464  days,  at  $2 $ 

Fireman,   439  days,   at  $3.50   -•   1,536.50 

Pipe  linemen,   1,238  days,   at  $2.50  3,09400 

Foreman,  27  days,  at  $3.50  94.50 

Coal,  60  days,  at  $15   (estimated)    900.00 


Total     $6,553.00 

This  gives  a  cost  per  lineal  foot  of  sewer  of  $1.01  for  pump- 
ing. Charged  entirely  against  the  excavation  between  sheeting 
which  was  closely  12,893  cu.  yd.,  the  cost  of  pumping  per  cubic 
yard  of  excavation  was  50.8  ct. 

Sheeting.  The  sheeting  consisted  of  2  x  8-in.  x  12-ft.  plank 
driven  close  on  each  side  of  the  trench.  This  sheeting  was 
braced  apart  by  two  6  x  8-in.  waling  pieces  set  3  ft.  apart  ver- 
tically and  G  x  8-in.  x  8^-ft.  cross-braces  spaced  8  ft.  apart  along 
trench.  The  cost  for  sinking,  bracing,  pulling  and  bringing  for- 
ward was  as  follows: 

Labor,  placing  and  driving,  392  days  at  $2.25 $    882.00 

Labor,  pulling  and  bringing  ahead,  182  days,  at  $2.25  409.50 

Foreman,  27  days,  at  $3  50   94.50 

Carpenter,   36  days,   at  $3    108.00 

Total     $1,494.00 

This  gives  a  cost  for  sheeting  of  36.8  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  trench 
and  of  11.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  between  sheeting.  There 
were  about  73  ft.  B.  M.  of  sheeting  and  bracing  per  lineal  foot  of 
trench,  so  that  the  cost  per  M.  ft.  B.  M.  was  practically  $5  for 
labor  placing,  pulling,  etc. 

Laying  Brick  Rewer.  The  sewer  was  built  of  two  rings  of  brick. 
The  invert  was  built  in  24-ft.  sections.  Wooden  centers  with  lag- 
ging 16  ft.  long  were  used  in  laying  the  arch  and  2  men  knocked 
the  centers  down,  brought  them  forward  and  re-erected  them  as 
fast  as  6  bricklayers  could  work.  The  cost  of  laying  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

Bricklayers,  223  days,  at  $10 $2,230.00 

Tenders,  112  days,  at  $3.75   420.00 

Scaffoldmen,  111  days,  at  $2.75  305.25 

Mortar  mixers,    225  days,   at  $2.50    562.50 

Form  setters,  100  days,  at  $3.75  375.00 

Laborers,  715  days,  at  $2  1,430.00 

Carpenter,   18  days,   at  $3   54.00 

Total    $5,376.75 

This  gives  a  cost  of  $1.32  per  lin.  ft.  of  sewer  and  of  $5.28  per 
1,000  bricks  laid. 

Backfilling.  The  backfilling  to  a  height  of  2  ft.  above  the  brick- 
work was  done  by  hand,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  height  by  a 
1-cu.  yd.  Hay  ward  clam-shell  excavator.  The  backfilling  by  hand 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  879 

called  for  277  days'  labor  at  $2  and  cost,  therefore,  $554  or  13.0 
ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  sewer.  The  cost  of  the  clam-shell  excavator  work 
was  as  follows : 

1  engineer,    at  $6 T  6.00 

1  fireman,    at   $3    3.00 

3  laborers,  at  $2   6.00 

Coal   (estimated)    5.00 

Oil,  repairs,  etc 2.00 

Total   per   day    $22.00 

There  were  55  shifts  worked  giving  a  total  cost  of  $1,210.  In 
addition  the  drag  bucket  excavator  was  worked  backfilling  for 
18  shifts  at  $24.50,  making  a  total  of  $441.  Lumping  the  work 
of  both  machines,  the  cost  of  backfilling  was  40.6  ct.  per  lin.  ft. 
of  sewer  and  6.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Materials.     The  cost  of  materials  was  as  follows: 

1,018,000  brick,   at  $5  per  M $5,090.00 

3,054  bags  Utica  cement,  at  20  ct 610.80 

3,054  bags  Universal  cement,  at  35  ct 1,065.90 

Lumber    (estimated)    600.00 


Total    $7,369.70 

This  is  a  cost  of  $1.81  per  lin.  ft.  of  sewer. 

Hauling  Materials.  For  about  3,000  ft.  of  the  work  all  ma- 
terials were  hauled  from  the  railway  siding  in  2-cu.  yd.  steel  dump 
cars  running  on  narrow  gage  track.  The  average  haul  was  1,700 
ft.  For  the  remainder  of  the  work  the  hauling  was  done  with 
teams;  brick  were  hauled  by  subcontract  for  70  ct.  per  M.  Two 
teams  were  also  employed  throughout  the  work  to  haul  supplies 
from  local  dealers  and  to  haul  coal  to  the  excavators  when  they 
were  beyond  reach  of  the  contractors'  railway.  The  cost  of  haul- 
ing was  as  follows : 

Laborers,   767  days,   at  $2 $1,534.00 

Foreman.  52  days,  at  $3.50   182.00 

Brick,  hauled  by  team  at  70  ct.  per  M „  . .  194.60 

Teams,  100  days,  at  $5.50  550.00 


Total     $2,460.00 

The  cost  of  hauling  was  thus  60.7  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  sewer. 
Superintendence  and  (teneral  Expenses.     The  costs  under  these 
items  comprised  the  following: 

Superintendent,  2  months,  at  $150  $    300.00 

General  foreman,  2  months,  at  $150 300.00 

Master  mechanic.  1  month,  at  $200  200.00 

Clearing  right  of  way    80.00 

Waterboys,   160  days,"  at  $1.50   240.00 

Handy  teams,  52  days,  at  $3   156.00 


Total     $1,226.00 


880  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

This  gives  a  cost  of  30  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  sewer. 
Summary.     Summarizing  the  costs  of  the  work  per  lineal  foot 
of  sewer  we  have: 

Drag   bucket  excavation    $0.503 

Hand   excavation    1.250 

Pumping     1.610 

Sheeting 0.368 

Laying  sewer 1.320 

Backfilling  by  hand    0.136 

Backfilling  by   machine    0.406 

Materials     1.810 

Hauling  materials   0.607 

Superintendence    and   general    0.300 

Depreciation  of  plant,   repairs,   etc.    (estimated) 1.500 

Total  per  ft $9.810 

Draining  Quicksand  by  "Bleeding."  Frank  I.  Barrett,  in  En- 
gineering News,  Sept.  25,  1913,  describes  a  method  used  for  car- 
rying a  22  x  40-ft.  opening  through  an  8-ft.  bed  of  quicksand  35 
ft.  below  a  river  bottom.  The  quicksand  was  so  soft  that  a  man 
could  not  stand  on  it,  and  water  boiled  up  under  sheeting  that 
had  been  driven  12  ft.  below  the  top  of  the  sand.  The  method 
successfully  used  was  to  fasten  at  the  inner  side  of  the  sheeting, 
19  ft.  above  grade,  a  6-in.  pipe  header,  with  T-joints  and  valves 
spaced  3  to  5  ft.  apart.  To  these  Ts  were  connected  2-in.  pipes 
with  60-mesh  well  points,  3  to  4  ft.  long,  driven  6  in.  below 
grade.  The  water  was  removed  from  the  header  pipe  by  a  G-in. 
duplex  pump.  A  second  pump,  with  a  large  supply  of  spare 
valves,  stems,  etc.,  was  kept  in  reserve.  The  pit  was  dry  af  H- 
9  hr.  of  pumping  and  was  excavated  in  12  hr. 

Pumping  Quicksand  from  a  Trench.  A  description  of  the 
methods  and  costs  of  constructing  pipe  sewers  in  quicksand  at 
Wildwood,  N.  J.,  is  contained  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
June  3,  1908.  The  land  originally  was  covered  at  high  tide  by 
3  ft.  of  water,  but  had  been  filled  in  above  high  tide  level  by 
dredged  material.  The  original  soil  was  black  mud  covered  with 
thick  meadow  sod,  with,  here  and  there,  piles  of  sand  which  were 
shifted  by  the  tide. 

The  trench  for  the  entire  distance,  12  miles,  was  through 
quicksand,  from  which  water  bubbled,  and  known  locally  as 
"  boiling  sand."  This  made  both  expensive  and  difficult  work, 
adding  to  the  cost  of  laying  the  pipe,  as  it  was  difficult  to  keep 
the  pipes  at  the  proper  grade  and  in  good  alignment,  and  the  joints 
were  hard  to  caulk,  owing  to  the  water  in  the  ditch. 

The  greatest  cutting  was  6}£  ft.  deep  and  the  entire  trench  was 
double  sheeted  throughout,  great  trouble  being  experienced  in 
keeping  the  trench  even  partially  dry.  Sumps  or  wells  could  not 
be  made,  as  the  pumps  pulled  out  so  much  sand  under  the  sheet- 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  881 

ing  as  to  cause  either  the  ditch  to  fill  or  the  sheeting  to  cave 
in. 

The  sheeting  was  put  down  to  a  depth  of  10  ft.  with  a  \vater 
jet  in  advance  of  the  excavation,  this  being  the  only  way  the  con- 
tractor could  make  any  headway.  Owing  to  the  numerous  "  salt 
holes  "  encountered,  through  which  the  line  at  times  ran,  it  was 
necessary  to  make  a  foundation  for  the  manholes  and  pipe.  This 
was  done  by  piling  spaced  7  ft.  apart  and  6  in.  c.  to  c.  On  the 
piles  4  x  4-in.  yellow  pine,  8  ft.  long,  was  spiked,  and  to  this  were 
spiked  hemlock  planks  2x8  —  12  ft.  long.  The  pipe  was  laid  on 
this  and  the  hole  filled  with  sand  and  salt  hay. 

If  a  manhole  was  located  at  one  of  these  "  salt  holes,"  4  piles, 
10  to  15  ft.  long  were  driven  4%  ft.  c.  to  c.  Four  railroad  ties 
were  then  spiked  together  'with  two  pieces  of  batten,  and  the  whole 
bolted  securely  to  the  piles.  On  this  foundation  \vas  placed  a  box 
5  ft.  square  and  10  in.  deep,  the  bottom  being  covered  with  tongue 
and  grooved  floor  boards,  and  in  some  cases  lined  with  canvas 
and  the  inside  covered  with  coal  tar  pitch.  The  concrete  was 
placed  in  the  box,  the  pipe  line  run  through,  and  the  brick  work 
completed. 

As  a  general  rule,  water  was  struck  in  excavating  the  trench 
about  18  in.  below  the  surface.  The  pipe  laid  was  8  and  12-in. 
terra  cotta,  hence  the  ditch  was  made  only  wide  enough  for  a 
man  to  work  in  it  easily,  this  width  being  2  ft.  for  a  ditch  6  to 
7  ft.  in  depth. 

The  method  of  excavating  was  as  follows:  By  using  the  piston 
pump  the  sheathing  was  put  down  for  a  distance  of  150  ft.  along 
the  trench,  and  a  closure  made  at  each  end.  Then  10  laborers 
were  put  in  the  trench  and  excavation  made  to  the  water  line, 
when  rangers  and  braces  were  set. 

The  piston  pump  was  then  started  pumping  water  into  this 
"  land  coffer  dam."  A  centrifugal  pump  was  moved  into  position, 
and  the  discharge  pipe  placed  midway  in  the  last  section,  where 
the  sewer  pipe  had  already  been  laid.  Thus  tiie  centrifugal  pump 
excavated  the  material  from  the  forward  section  and  backfilled 
the  last  section  at  the  same  time.  See  Fig.  39. 

When  grade  was  reached,  the  foundation  piles  were  jetted  down 
and  the  cradle  constructed.  The  pipe  was  then  laid,  the  joints 
being  made  with  cement  and  tar.  The  next  section  was  then  done 
in  the  same  manner. 

The  sand  excavated  was  quite  coarse,  and  but  little  agitation 
was  necessary  with  shovels,  in  order  to  allow  the  pump  to  pick  up 
the  sand.  When  the  sand  is  fine  grained,  much  more  water  is 
needed,  and  likewise  the  sand  must  be  agitated  with  shovels. 
With  extremely  fine  sand,  the  men  must  be  relieved  frequently,  as 


882 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  work  is  hard,  and,  as  the  pumps  take  up  a  much  smaller 
percentage  of  the  sand,  the  ditch  must  be  kept  with  a  larger 
amount  of  water  in  it,  and  the  men,  being  compelled  to  stand  in 
the  water,  feel  the  effect  of  it  quickly. 

At  times  when  the  contractor  got  as  deep  in  the  trench  as  the 
original  ground  surface,  he  encountered  a  considerable  number 
of  roots  that  had  to  be  cut  out,  but  this  was  seldom  necessary. 


Cng-Contr 


Fig.  3.— (1)  Centrifugal  Pump;  (2)  Boiler;  (3) 
Piston  Pump;  (4)  Pipe  in  Trench;  (5)  Trench  Be- 
ing Excavated;  (6)  Suction  Pipe;  (7)  Discharge 
Pipe;  (8)  and  (9)  Steam  Pipes;  (10)  Pipe  to 
Water  Supply. 

Fig.    39.     Arrangement   of    Plant    for    Excavation    in    Quicksand. 


Fig.  39  shows  the  layout  of  ihe  plant  to  do  the  work  in  the 
manner  described.  In  this  way  an  average  of  300  lin.  ft.  of  trench 
was  dug  and  pipe  laid  per  day,  while  another  contractor  doing 
similar  work  by  another  method  averaged  only  from  35  to  50  ft. 
per  day. 

The  cost  of  driving  the  sheeting  and  pulling  it  for  the  300  lin. 
ft.  of  trench  done  per  day  was : 

Boss  timberman    %  2.50 

Fireman  on  jet  pump   .-  1.50 

One  man  setting  sheeting  2.00 

Two  helpers,    at  $1.50    3.00 

Three  men  pulling  sheeting,  at  $1.50  4.50 

One  man   carrying  sheeting    1.50 

Two  men  bracing  trench,  at  $2.00  4.00 

One  man  pumping   1.75 

Coal  and  oil   1.00 


Total 


$21.75 


This  gives  a  cost  per  lin.  ft.  of  trench  of  7  ct.  for  driving  and 
pulling  sheeting,  and  as  there  was  6,080  lin.  ft.  of  sheeting  driven 
and  pulled  a  day,  it  makes  a  cost  per  lin.  ft.  of  sheeting  y3  ct. 
With  2-in.  sheeting  used,  the  amount  of  timber  was  6,000  ft.  B.  M., 
which  cost  $26  per  M.  This  timber,  being  driven  with  a  water 
jet,  was  used  time  and  time  again.  The  sound  piles,  which  were 
from  10  to  15  ft.  long,  cost  25  ct.  apiece,  and  the  cost  of  driving 
them  was  1.5  ct.  per  lin.  ft. 

The  cradle  for  the  pipe  was  built  by  two  men,  each  at  $2  per 
day.  They  built  200  lin.  ft.  per  day,  which  meant  a  cost  per  ft. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  883 

of  trench  of  2  ct.  The  amount  of  lumber  in  200  ft.  of  cradle  was 
866  ft.  B.  M.,  which  meant  a  labor  cost  for  framing  of  about 
$5  per  M.  The  lumber  cost  $26  per  M. 

The   daily  cost  of  digging  the  trench  and  backfilling,   and  of 
laying  the  pipe  was: 

Foreman,   10  hr $  4.00 

Eight  men  digging,  at  $1.50   12.00 

Two  men  trimming,  at  $1.50  3.00 

One    engineman    3.00 

One    pumper     2.50 

Two  pipemen,  at  $2.00  4.00 

Coal,   at  $5.00  per  ton   1.25 

Rent  of  boiler 2.00 

Rent  of  pumps    2.50 

Rent  of  engine    2.00 

Two  pipelayers,  at  $2.00 4.00 

Two  pipe  carriers,  at  $1.50  3.00 

One  man  on  mortar  and  jute   1.50 

Total    $44.75 

Each  day  this  plant  excavated  about  200  cu.  yd.,  hence  the  cost 
of  excavation  per  cu.  yd.  was: 

Labor    $0.047 

Coal    0.006 

Plant   rental    0.032 


Total    $0.085 

This  is  equivalent  to  5.8  ct,  per  ft. 

This  is  a  very  low  cost  for  excavating  earth  from  a  trench  and 
backfilling  it. 

The  terra  cotta  pipe  cost  16  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  and  the  hauling  of 
it  cost  2  ct. 

The  total  cost  per  lin.  ft.  of  pipe  laid  was  as  follows,  exclusive 
of  manholes: 

Foreman    $0.013 

Excavating  and  backfilling  by  hand   „ 0.050 

Excavating  and  backfilling  by  pump: 

Labor    0.032 

Coal     0.004 

Plant  rental    0.022 

Driving   sheeting    0.040 

Bracing  trench    0.013 

Pulling  and  carrying  sheeting  0.020 

Piles  in  place 0.105 

Cradle,   lumber   and  labor    0.132 

Pipe     0.160 

Hauling  pipe    0.020 

Laying    pipe    0.028 

Materials  for  joints    0.013 


Total  per  ft $0.652 

This  cost  does  not  include  any  allowance  for  general  expense  nor 
for  the  materials  used  in  shoring  the  sides  of  the  trenches.     The 


884  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

sheeting  was  used  many  times,  as  driving  the  planks  with  a  water 
jet  did  not  injure  the  planks  or  break  them  up. 

The  cost  of  this  work  in  a  ground  difficult  to  excavate  is  ex- 
ceedingly low,  and  can  be  attributed  to  the  methods  used  in  carry- 
ing on  the  work. 

Backfilling  Trenches.  Backfilling  on  sewer  work  is  not  often 
given  the  consideration  that  its  importance  warrants.  If  the 
excavated  material  is  placed  on  both  sides  of  the  trench  it  is 
sure  to  be  walked  over  and  compacted,  often  requiring  picking 
before  it  can  be  thrown  back  into  the  trench.  One  man  can  back- 
fill 20  cu.  yd.  of  loose  material  in  10  hours. 

It  is  frequently  specified  that  there  be  one  man  ramming  the 
earth  for  each  two  men  shoveling.  A  man  will  ram  40  cu.  yd.  of 
loose  earth  in  a  day.  In  heavy  clays,  two  rammers  to  a  shoveler 
are  often  required. 

It  is  a  mistake  not  to  tamp  around  the  pipe.  This  is  often 
omitted  because  of  fear  of  deranging  the  alignment  or  disturbing 
the  joints.  There  is  more  danger  of  this  being  done  through  un- 
even settling  of  the  backfill  if  this  tamping  is  omitted.  Tamping 
around  pipe  should  be  done  carefully  with  a  light  wooden  tamper. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  man  tamping  can  consolidate 
almost  as  much  earth  with  his  feet  as  with  the  ram,  and  that  it  is 
of  advantage  to  have  him  keep  moving  around. 

A  very  common  method  of  compacting  earth  in  trenches  is  by 
puddling  it  with  water.  This  is  usually  cheap  and  effective. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  puddle  before  cement  work  has  had 
time  to  set.  Puddling  should  not  be  attempted  in  unstable  ma- 
terials, such  as  muck  or  quicksand,  where  the  trench  bottom  will 
become  softened  with  the  water  and  disturb  the  alignment  of  the 
pipe. 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  of  backfilling  trenches  besides  doing 
it  by  hand.  Plows  and  scrapers  of  various  kinds  are  used  with 
success  on  small  trenches.  In  open  fields  the  bank  carrying  the 
excavated  material  can  be  caved  in  with  a  hose  and  water,  thus 
filling  and  compacting  at  the  same  time.  Work  done  in  this  man- 
ner will  require  finishing  by  hand  or  with  scrapers.  There  are  a 
number  of  light  traction  machines  on  the  market,  on  the  order  of 
dragline  excavators,  which  are  especially  designed  for  backfilling 
trenches. 

Where  backfilling  is  done  under  paved  streets  the  proper  com- 
pacting of  the  fill  is  of  great  importance.  This  is  a  most  fruit- 
ful source  of  dispute  between  the  "  city  "  and  the  "  contractor." 
Valuable  suggestions  for  avoiding  this  trouble  will  be  found  in 
the  following  abstract: 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  885 

Backfilling  for  Water  Pipe.  At  Corning,  N.  Y.,  a  trench  for  a 
10-in.  water  pipe  was  excavated  2,y2  ft.  wide  X  5  ft.  deep,  X  1,500 
ft.  long  =  600  cu.  yd.  in  4i/£  days  by  24  men,  or  at  the  rate  of 
6  cu.  yd.  per  man  per  10-hr,  day,  equivalent  to  11  ct.  a  running 
foot  or  25  ct.  a  cu.  yd.  The  backfilling  was  done  in  3  days  by  2 
men  and  1  horse  with  driver,  using  a  drag  scraper  and  a  short 
length  of  rope  so  that  the  horse  worked  on  one  side  of  the  trench 
while  the  two  men  handled  the  scraper  on  the  opposite  side,  pull- 
ing the  scraper  directly  across  the  pile  of  earth.  In  this  way  200 
cu.  yd.  of  backfilling  was  made  per  day  at  a  cost  of  2i£  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.,  there  being  no  .ramming  of  the  backfill  required.  This  is  a 
remarkably  low  cost  for  backfilling,  and  one  not  ordinarily  to  be 
counted  upon.  The  material  was  a  loamy  sand  and  gravel. 

At  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  size  of  trench  and  kind  of  material  prac- 
tically the  same  as  at  Corning: 

1  man  excavated  8  cu.  yd.  a  day  at  cost  of  19  ct.  cu.  yd. 
1  man  backfilled  16  cu.  yd.  a  day  at  cost  of  9  ct.  cu.  yd. 

Total  cost  of  excavation  and  backfill  28  ct.«cu.  yd. 

Backfilling  Trenches  Under  Paved  Streets.  In  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Oct.  9,  1907,  George  C.  Warren  gives  the  follow- 
ing recommendations  for  backfilling  trenches: 

In  the  case  of  permits  to  service  corporations,  plumbers  and 
property  owners,  to  cut  into  the  streets,  whether  paved  or  un- 
paved  (the  former  is  but  little  more  important  than  the  latter), 
it  is  only  necessary  to  stipulate  in  the  permit  that  "  The  trenches 
shall  be  backfilled  by  such  means  as  the  city  engineer  may  direct, 
depending  on  the  character  of  the  excavated  material,  in  such 
a  manner  that  all  excavated  material  shall  be  replaced  in  the 
trench  without  raising  the  grade  of  the  roadway.  Flushing  will 
only  be  permitted  in  cases  where  the  sub-soil  is  sand  or  gravel 
or  other  material  from  which  the  surplus  water  will  readily  drain 
away,  and  in  the  case  of  concrete  or  brick  sewers  or  pipe  sewers, 
the  joints  of  which  have  been  made  water-tight 'with  bituminous 
cement  pipe  jointing  cement." 

In  the  case  of  contract  work  for  sewers,  etc.,  the  case  is  more 
difficult  in  view  of  the  necessary  uncertainty  .of  conditions  to 
be  met  underground,  and  consequent  uncertainty  of  the  most 
economical  way  to  properly  "  back  fill  "  the  trench  and  conse- 
quent impracticability  of  the  contractor  accurately  figuring  in 
advance  what  the  cost  per  lin.  ft.  will  be.  On  this  account  some 
contractors  are  sure  to  bid  far  too  low  to  permit  proper  work. 
Others  figure  "  safe "  with  the  probability  that  if  they  receive 
the  contract,  the  total  price  will  be  too  much  above  the  estimated 
cost.  In  one  case  the  city  has  the  almost  impossible  task  of 


886  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

forcing  the  contractor  to  do  proper  work  at  a  loss.  In  the  other 
case  the  city  will  pay  too  much  for  the  work.  An  effort  should 
be  made  to  avoid  both  evils. 

My  suggestion  is  to  apportion  the  prices  in  such  a  way  that 
whatever  material  is  encountered  a  fair  price  will  be  allowed  the 
contractor  for  each  as  follows: 

(a)  Furnishing  and  setting  pipes  per  lin.  ft. 

(b)  Earth  excavation  per  lin.  ft.  (providing  for  varying  prices 
for  varying  depths  of  sewer). 

(c)  Rock  excavation  per  lin.  ft.    (providing  for  varying  prices 
for  varying  depths  of  earth). 

(d)  Hauling  excavated  material  to   spoil  bank    (if   unsuitable 
for  backfilling  and  its  removal  directed  by  the  engineer)   per  cu. 

yd. 

(e)  Lumber  delivered  on  work   (if  any  is  required  for  shoring) 
per  M.  B.  M. 

(f)  Placing  and  replacing   (if  lumber  reused)    in  sewer  trench 
per  M.  B.  M. 

(g)  Refilling  trench  by  flushing  earth  excavated  from  trench 
per  cu.  yd. 

(h)  Refilling  trench  by  tamping  earth  excavated  from  trench 
per  cu.  yd. 

(i) Refilling  trench  by  flushing  suitable  borrowed  material  (to 
replace  unsuitable  excavated  material  drawn  to  spoil  bank  by 
order  of  engineer)  including  furnishing  the  material  per  cu.  yd. 
measured  in  the  wagons  as  material  is  delivered. 

(j)  Refilling  trench  by  tamping  suitable  borrowed  material 
(conditions  the  same  as  item  "i"),  per  cu.  yd. 

(k)  Refilling  trench  with  rock  excavated  from  the  trench  per 
cu.  yd. 

Corresponding  with  such  a  schedule  of  prices  in  proposal  and 
contract,  the  specifications  should  provide  as  follows: 

1st.  Material  excavated  from  the  trench,  which  in  the  opinion 
of  the  engineer  is  unsuitable  for  backfilling,  shall  be  hauled  by 
the  contractor  to  a  spoil  bank  and  shall  be  paid  for  at  the  price 
bid  per  cu.  yd.  for  "  hauling  excavation  to  spoil  bank,"  meas- 
urement to  be  made  in  the  wagons  at  point  where  loaded. 

2d.  Flushing  in  back  filling  will  be  permitted  only  in  case  the 
material,  is  sand  or  gravel  or  other  material,  from  which  in  the 
opinion  of  the  engineer  the  surplus  water  will  readily  drain  away 
and  leave  the  earth  filled  solid. 

3d.  Except  where  flushing  is  directed  by  the  engineer,  the  back- 
filling shall  be  done  by  thorough,  hard  tamping  in  layers  not  ex- 
ceeding six  (6)  inches  in  depth.  Flushing  will  not  be  permitted 
except  in  cases  of  brick  or  concrete  sewers  or  pipe  sewers,  the 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  887 

joints  of  which  have  been  made  water-tight  with  bituminous  pipe 
jointing  cement. 

4th.  Whether  backfilling  of  earth  is  done  by  flushing  or  tamp- 
ing the  full  amount  of  material  excavated  from  the  trench,  less 
the  volume  of  the  sewer,  shall  be  refilled  into  the  trench  without 
raising  the  grade. 

5th.  In  case  rock  is  excavated  from  the  trench,  it  shall  be  back- 
filled by  carefully  placing  the  excavated  rock  in  layers  with  suc- 
ceeding layers  of  earth  well  flushed  into  the  voids  between  the 
pieces  of  placed  rock. 

6th.  In  case  the  excavated  material  is  clay,  which  in  the  opin- 
ion of  the  engineer  is  too  wet  to  enable  solid  backfilling  by  tamp- 
ing, the  excavated  wet  clay  and  reasonably  dry  "  borrowed " 
earth  shall  be  tamped  into  the  trench  in  succeeding  layers,  using 
enough  of  the  dry  earth  to  overcome  the  excess  of  water  in  the 
clay  and  to  provide  a  solidly  filled  trench  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  engineer.  The  "  borrowed "  earth  including  tamping,  to  be 
paid  for  per  cu.  yd.  of  "  borrowed  material "  tamped  into  the 
trench.  Measurement  of  the  borrowed  material  is  to  be  made  in 
the  wagons  as  delivered  on  the  work. 

Handling  Backfill  in  Freezing  Weather.  The  following  in- 
structions given  by  C.  P.  Chase,  City  Engineer,  Clinton,  Iowa, 
were  published  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  4,  1909. 

(1.)  It  is  much  cheaper  to  thaw  out  ground  with  fire  or  steam 
than  to  pick  frost. 

(2.)  Watch  frozen  banks  for  caving  when  frost  goes  out.  It 
will  drop  all  at  once. 

(3.)  In  backfilling  frozen  ground  allow  20%  more  shrinkage 
than  when  dry.  (This  does  not  apply  to  rock.) 

(4.)  Cover  all  work  as  fast  as  laid  wi'th  unfrozen  earth,  if  pos- 
sible. 

(5.)  Backfill  and  clean  up  as  close  to  work  as  possible  before 
excavating  materials  freeze. 

Methods  and  Cost  of  Backfilling.  The  cost  of  backfilling  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  and  condition  (whether  frozen,  wet,  packed, 
or  dry  powder)  of  the  material,  the  means  employed  for  back- 
filling, and  the  amount  of  tamping  required.  If  the  material  is 
left  in  the  spoil  pile  for  some  time  and  is  subject  to  rain  and 
the  trampling  of  men  and  horses,  it  may  become  so  consolidated 
as  to  cause  the  backfilling  to  cost  almost  as  much  as  the  original 
excavation.  When  backfilling  by  hand  the  men  should  not  stand 
upon  the  pile  and  shovel  from  beneath  their  feet,  but  should 
stand  at  the  edge  of  the  trench  or  ditch  and  should  excavate 
the  material  by  pushing  their  shovels  under  it.  When  the  ground 
surface  is  very  rough  it  will  pay  to  lay  down  steel  "  slick  sheets  " 


888 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


for  the  excavated  earth  to  be  thrown  upon.  This  will  later  ma- 
terially decrease  the  cost  of  backfilling,  as  it  is  very  much  easier 
to  slide  the  shovel  along  the  smooth  surface  of  the  "  slick  sheet " 
than  over  rough  ground.  An  efficient  man  shoveling  backfill 
material,  that  is  well  broken  up,  into  a  trench  not  over  3  or 
4  ft.  wide  or  6  or  8  ft.  deep,  will  handle  20  to  25  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr. 
Observations  show  that  in  backfilling  average  loam,  clay  and 
sand  materials,  one  man  will  handle  9  shovelfuls  per  minute,  or 
about  0.045  cu.  yd.  or  1.2  cu.  ft.  per  minute.  This  is  at  the  rate 


Fig.  40.     Drag  Scraper  Backfilling  Trenches. 

of  27  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day.  However,  interference  with  the 
work  and  periods  of  rest  required  by  the  men  will  reduce  this 
daily  output.  On  the  other  hand,  if  shovels  larger  than  No.  2 
or  3  are  used,  the  output  can  be  increased.  With  loosened  earth 
and  the  short  throw  required  in  backfilling  the  shovels  used  for 
backfilling  should  be  larger  than  those  used  for  excavation. 

In  shallow  trenches  a  team  and  scraper  can  drag  the  material 
directly  into  the  cut.  As  a  rule  the  scraper  is  operated  on  one 
side  of  the  trench  and  the  team  on  the  other,  the  scraper  being 
attached  to  the  horses  by  a  long  rope  or  chain,  and  being  pulled 
back  by  two  men.  Another  method  is  to  fill  in  narrow  runways 
by  hand  across  which  a  team  can  travel  and  to  dump  the  earth 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  889 

as  close  to  the  side  of  the  runway  as.it  is  possible.  Fig.  40  il- 
lustrates this  method  as  used.  This  method  cannot  be  practiced 
successfully  with  any  but  the  steadiest  of  horses.  The  Doane 
and  Lehr  scrapers,  both  of  which  are  built  of  hardwood  sheathed 
with  iron,  are  used  for  backfilling  trenches.  They  are  broad  and 
wide  and  dump  easily.  Buck  or  fresno  scrapers  can  be  used  for 
filling  shallow  trenches.  A  wing  plow,  with  a  deep  and  long 
mold  board  can  be  used  where  a  neatly  finished  appearance  is  not 
necessary.  The  earth  being  piled  close  to  the  sides  of  the  trench 
is  thrown  in  by  the  plow  as  it  is  pulled  through.  The  horses 
may  be  worked  first  on  one  side  of  the  trench  and  then  on  the 
other,  or  they  may  straddle  the  trench  if  a  long  double  tree  ia 
used.  This  is  the  cheapest  method  of  backfilling.  In  sand  and 
light  clays  the  earth  may  be  caved  in  with  a  hose  and  water. 
This  method  also  leaves  the  trench  with  a  bad  appearance,  and  it 
should  be  trimmed  off  with  scrapers. 


Fig.  1. 

Fig.  41.    Trench  at  Gary,  Ind. 

Fig.  41  illustrates  a  trench  in  sand  at  Gary,  Indiana.  The  top 
4  ft.  of  this  trench  were  excavated  with  scrapers,  and  the  re- 
mainder with  hand  shovels.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept. 
8,  1908,  gives  the  following  data  relative  to  this  work, 

The  sheeting  was  of  slab  wood  cut  in  lengths  of  4  and  6  ft.  The 
lower  2  ft.  of  trench  being  free  from  sheeting  permitted  the  pipe 
laying  to  be  done  much  more  easily.  In  backfilling  the  trench 
dirt  was  shoveled  in  over  the  pipe  and  up  to  the  lower  waling; 
then  the  sheeting  was  taken  out  and  a  water  jet  turned  on  the 
banks;  this  caused  them  to  cave  in,  bringing  down  into  the 'trench 
the  excavated  material  piled  on  the  sides.  This  was  followed  by 
a  drag  scraper  that  leveled  up  the  ground.  The  cost  of  digging 
this  trench  was  12  ct.  for  shoveling  per  cu.  yd.,  and  4i£  ct. 
for  shoring,  making  a  total  cost  of  16^  ct.  for  excavating  and 


890  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

shoring,  the  pumping  being  extra.  This  is  a  low  cost  for  exca- 
vating such  a  trench.  The  cost  of  backfilling  was  less  than  4  ct. 
per  cu.  yd. 

When  a  team  with  a  drag  scraper  attached  by  a  long  rope  is 
used,  about  15  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  can  be  handled,  provided  the  gang 
is  efficient.  A  team  and  driver  and  two  laborers,  at  $1.20  an 
hour,  will  thus  scrape  earth  back  into  a  trench  for  8  ct.  per  cu. 

yd. 

Ernest  McCullough  gives  the  following  description  of  a  method 
of  using  a  hoisting  engine  and  a  scraper  to  refill  trenches.  The 


Fig.  42.     Doane  Scraper. 

hoist  is  set  at  one  end  of  the  street  and  a  cable  is  run  alongside 
the  trench  to  a  pulley  fastened  to  a  tree  (first  wrapped  with 
canvas  or  burlap  to  avoid  chafing)  or  to  posts.  From  this  pul- 
ley the  cable  goes  across  the  trench  and  is  fastened  to  the  scraper 
which  is  larger  and  heavier  than  an  ordinary  drag  scraper,  and 
has  ropes  fastened  to  the  handles,  by  means  of  which  two  men 
haul  it  back  and  turn  it  over.  This  requires  an  engineman  who 
does  His  own  firing,  a  boy  to  signal  him,  and  the  two  scraper 
holders.  The  total  cost  for  labor,  fuel,  etc.,  is  about  $10  per 
day,  which  includes  interest  and  depreciation.  One  hundred  yards 
per  day  is  all  that  can  be  figured  on  steadily  on  an  average,  so 
that  the  cost  will  be  10  ct.  per  yard.  By  adding  two  more 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  891 

scraper  holders  and  working  the  men  in  10  or  15  min.  shifts,  as 
much  as  225  cu.  yd.  have  been  put  into  a  trench  in  10  hr.  It  is 
almost  necessary  to  have  an  old  horse  to  pull  the  cable  back  when 
the  men  haul  back  the  scraper,  or  else  have  a  double  cable  and  a 
tackle.  When  the  horse  is  used  the  signal  boy  rides  him.  The 
increase  in  expense  is  not  great  and  it  lightens  the  work  of  the 
scraper  holders. 

Backfilling  with  a  Keystone  Traction  Shovel  equipped  with  a 
ditcher  scoop  has  been  successfully  done  by  mounting  a  back- 
filling board  on  the  scoop  as  shown  in  Fig.  43.  In  this  way 
the  scoop  is  converted  into  a  power-operated  drag  scraper. 


Fig.    43.     Ditcher    Scoop   of    Keystone    Shovel    Equipped   with    a 
Backfilling  Board. 


A  Backfill  Drifting  Scraper.  Engineering '  and  Contracting, 
July  23,  1913,  gives  the  following:  This  scraper,  or  so-called 
"go-devil,"  Fig.  44,  was  used  for  backfilling  a  trench  on  a  154- 
mile  oil  pipe  line  near  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  The  machine  was  de- 
signed by  James  R.  Kelly.  The  appliance  was  made  of  a  share 
from  a  road  grader  and  a  handle  was  attached  as  shown.  By 
means  of  chains  of  adjustable  length  the  machine  could  be  drawn 
by  4  horses.  The  labor  required  consisted  of  1  driver  and  1  guide- 
man. 

With  this  force  about  5,000  ft.  of  trench,  3  ft.  deep  and  1.5  ft. 
wide,  or  830  cu.  yd.  were  backfilled  per  day  of  9  hr.,  at  a  cost  as 
follows : 


892 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATIOK 


4  head  of  stock,  at  $1.50 

1  driver    

1  laborer 


$  6.00 
4.00 
3.50 


Total  at  1.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd $13.50 

If  an  attempt  was  made  to  move  too  much  dirt  at  one  time 
great  difficulty  was  encountered.  Four  to  six  rounds  were  usu- 
ally necessary  for  backfilling  a  3  or  4-ft.  trench. 


V"" 

Fig.  44.     Drifting  Scraper  for  Backfilling  Trench. 

The  Monahan  Backfilling  Machine.  This  is  described  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  June  17,  1914. 

Fig.  45  illustrates  the  Monahan. backfilling  machine  in  operation. 
This  machine  comprises  a  self-propelling  10-hp.  engine  and  boiler 
with  winding  drums,  and  a  bucket  or  scraper  that  slides  on  a 
frame  transversely.  This  bucket  has  a  hinged  bottom  or  apron 
that  is  tilted  in  operation  like  a  slip  scraper  in  filling.  The  tilt 
of  this  apron  governs  the  depth  of  spoil  removed.  This  bucket 
holds  about  ^  cu.  yd.  and  can  make  15  strokes  per  minute  on  the 
average. 

The  Parsons  Backfilling  Scraper  with  Caterpillar  Traction. 
This  machine,  Fig.  46,  is  described  in  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Apr.  12,  1916.  Its  center  of  gravity  is  low.  The  cable  pull 
is  from  the  under  side  of  the  drum  and  is  only  18  in.  from  the 
ground.  Thus  a  great  pull  can  be  exerted  without  overturning 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


893 


the  machine.  A  10-hp.  gasoline  engine  is  \used,  giving  a  speed  of 
95  ft.  per  min.  on  the  backfill  line  and  A  pull  of  3,500  Ib.  The 
scraper  will  work  at  the  rate  of  four  loads  a  minute.  The  weight 
in  working  order  is  4,800  Ib.  This  machine  is  made  by  the  Par- 
sons Co.  of  Newton,  Iowa. 

Cost  with  Austin  Backfiller.  According  to  Alvin  C.  Vogt 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  19,  1916,  one  of  three  back- 
filling machines  made  by  the  F.  C.  Austin  Co.  of  Chicago,  111., 
was  used  on  sewer  work  in  Norwood  Park,  111.  The  trenches  were 
24  in.  to  36  in.  wide  in  stiff  clay,  and  the  backfilling  was  heavy 


Fig.  45.     Monahan  Backfilling  Machine  in  Operation. 


work.  The  machine  has  a  10-hp.  gasoline  engine  and  is  self-pro- 
pelling. The  operating  cost  was  $10  per  day  and  the  average 
fill  has  been  600  ft.  of  10  to  16-ft.  trench  per  day.  The  machine 
referred  to  is  similar  to  the  Parsons  backfiller,  except  that  it  has 
ordinary  traction  wheels  instead  of  caterpillar  treads. 

The  Waterloo  Backfiller.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct. 
31,  1915,  gives  the  following: 

The  Waterloo  "  Double-Quick  "  gasoline  machine,  illustrated  in 
Fig.  47,  is  used  in  backfilling  trenches;  for  light  hoisting  opera- 
tions, hauling  overground  materials  such  a  heavy  timbers;  load- 
ing, unloading  and  placing  heavy  pipe,  valves,  etc.,  in  trenches; 
for  cleaning  sewers,  and  for  pulling  aerial  and  underground  cables. 


894 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  machine  probably  finds  its  greatest  field  of  usefulness  in 
the  backfilling  of  trenches.  It  has  done  this  work  at  a  cost  as 
low  as  2  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  essential  elements  of  the  machine  are  an  engine  and  a  wind- 
ing drum;  these  are  mounted  on  a  turntable.  This  table  swings 
easily  and  can  be  locked  in  any  one  of  four  position  to  permit 
the  use  of  the  winding  drum  from  the  front,  rear  or  sides  of  the 
machine.  At  each  setting  of  the  turntable  the  scraper  is  readily 
operated  through  an  arc  of  90°.  A  dead-man  is  furnished  with 
the  machine  and  so  also  are  300'  ft.  of  %-in.  manilla  rope  and  a 
sheave.  The  machine  moves  along  the  trench  under  its  own 
power  by  means  of  the  rope  attached  to  the  end  of  the  tongue  and 


Fig.  46.     Parsons  Backfilling  Machine. 


passing  through  the  sheave  on  the  dead-man  and  back  to  the 
winding  drum.  A  ditching  scraper  also  comes  with  the.  outfit. 
With  the  scraper  is  supplied  50  ft.  of  %-in.  steel  cable  which 
passes  to  the  winding  drum.  The  trucks  are  standard  wagon 
gage  and  the  wheels  have  wide  tires.  The  total  shipping  weight 
is  2,630  Ib.  A  4^-hp.  gasoline  engine  furnishes  the  power.  The 
speed  can  be  varied  by  a  change  of  sprockets  on  the  crankshaft 
of  the  engine.  The  scraper  travels  150  ft.  per  minute  in  common 
soil  and  100  ft.  per  minute  in  clay  soil.  Two  men  are  required 
to  operate  the  machine  when  backfilling;  one  holds  the  scraper 
and  the  other  the  single  controlling  lever. 

The  machine  in  operation  possesses  two  incidental  advantages 
of  importance.  It  can  be  set  on  lawns  or  parking  without  dam- 
aging them  when  backfilling  dirt  piled  on  the  side  of  the  trench 
nearest  the  center  of  the  street.  In  such  cases  teams  cannot  be 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


895 


used  for  it  is  not  permissible  to  drive  them  over  the  grass.  The 
hoisting  ability  of  the  machine  is  utilized,  also,  in  pulling  out 
trench  bracing  which  otherwise  would  have  to  be  left  in  the 
trench. 

The  machine  is  built  by  the  Waterloo  Cement  Machinery  Cor- 
poration of  Waterloo,  la. 

J.  L.  Bridges,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  writes  as  fol- 
lows: On  Center  and  High  Streets  in  Decorah,  Iowa,  about  1,500 
ft.  of  ditch,  8  to  131/2  ft.  deep,  6  ft.  wide  at  top  (necessary  be- 


SC*APCR] 


m 


\                                         1 

\            I       1      I 

\              \s™H  **">{ 

x         \         / 

/ 

/                / 
/            / 

\          \          ' 

/                            / 

\      \   '  / 

1            / 

/ 


/ 


r.,,,,,^,,™,7  .,j,,,,  ,y 
\J-U7  / 


Fig.  47.     Waterloo  "  Double  Quick "  Backfiller,  Plan  Showing 
Method  of  Operation. 

cause  blasting  caused  banks  to  cave)  in  nearly  solid  rock,  were 
filled  with  the  Waterloo  filler  and  two  men  in  six  days'  time. 
About  300  ft.  of  this  ditch  stood  open  from  November  to  April, 
and  I  have  never  seen  a  team  that  could  handle  a  scraper  under 
these  conditions.  There  has  been  considerable  work  in  the  alleys 
here  and  we  have  used  this  backfiller  very  successfully  where  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  use  a  team  on  account  of  the  width 
of  the  alley,  it  being  only  19  ft.  between  buildings.  What  I  value 
the  most  is  the  fact  that  we  have  the  filler  on  the  job  all  the 
time,  wasting  no  time  waiting  for  a  team,  thereby  keeping  the 
ditches  filled  ahead  of  rain  and  keeping  the  streets  open  to 
traffic. 

On  straight,  clean   work,  where  there  is   plenty   of  room  and 
enough  to  keep  a  team  busy  steadily,  the  cost  of  backfilling  by 


890 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


machine  is  approximately  one-half  of  the  cost  of  doing  it  by  the 
team  and  scraper  method.  But  on  difficult  work,  and  for  short 
stretches  where  the  team  would  not  be  available  or  would  stand 
idle  a  part  of  the  time,  machine  work  costs  from  10  to  40% 
of  team  or  hand  work. 

At  Decorah,  la.,  we  used  four  machines,  following  two  Austin 
trenchers  and  five  hand  crews,  the  latter  working  largely  in  rock. 

At  Rockwell  City,  la.,  we  laid  13,000  ft.  of  4-in.  water  main  in 
a  6-ft.  trench  in  13  working  days,  using  two  trench  fillers,  at  a 
cost  of  1  ct.  per  ft.  for  backfilling.  The  backfillers  were  hitched 
tandem  following  the  trench  machine. 


Fig.  48.     Flushing  Trench;  Tamped  Walls  at  Intervals. 


Puddling  the  Backfill.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  1, 
1907,  gives  the  following, 

After  the  first  foot  of  backfilling  has  been  tamped  with  a  light 
tamping  stick,  the  remainder  of  the  material  should  be  shoveled 
in  and  should  be  tamped  in  6-in.  layers  by  not  less  than  one 
tamper  to  each  shoveler.  If  water  is  available  the  best  method 
is  to  build  hand  tamped  walls  across  the  trench  at  intervals  of 
about  25  ft.,  fill  the  space  between  the  walls  half  full  of  water  and 
then  shovel  the  earth  into  the  water. 

A  trench  averaging  12^  ft.  deep  and  containing  a  48-in.  main 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  897 

was  filled  in  the  following  manner:  The  trench  was  first  filled 
with  earth  to  within  about  1  ft.  of  the  top.  An  ordinary  fire 
hose  was  then  attached  to  a  hydrant,  the  play  pipe  being  about 
20  in.  long,  with  1^-in.  nozzle.  A  2-in.  meter  was  attached  which 
allowed  only  about  75  gallons  of  water  a  minute  to  go  through  the 
hose.  The  pipe  was  shoved  down  into  the  trench  within  3  ft.  of 
the  bottom  and  the  water  turned  in  until  the  ground  settled. 
The  pipe  was  then  pulled  out  and  shoved  down  again.  When  the 
ground  stopped  settling  and  the  water  came  to  the  surface,  the 
operation  would  be  started  over  again  4  ft.  or  5  ft.  away,  zig- 
zagging along  the  trench.  After  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water 
had  been  run  into  the  trench  it  was  evened  off,  the  top  material 
placed  and  rammed  and  the  trench  left  fairly  well .  crowned. 
The  trench  in  this  case  was  7  ft.  wide  and  after  letting  it  stay 
for  about  a  week,  a  steam  roller  was  run  over  it.  The  street 
was  said  to  have  been  left  in  as  good  condition  as  it  was  before 
the  excavation  was  begun. 

Tamping  Clay.  The  following  is  from  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Aug.  11,  1909, 

Clay  containing  a  little  moisture  is  ideal  material  in  which  to 
excavate  trenches,  but  is  extremely  difficult  to  compact  prop- 
erly when  refilling.  As  ordinarily  placed  back  in  the  trench  it 
occupies  a  much  greater  space  than  it  did  before  being  disturbed, 
and  many  wagon  loads  must  be  wasted.  The  clay  placed  in  the 
trench  always  settles,  sometimes  occupying  years  in  the  process. 
Puddling  is  sometimes  tried,  but  this  method  is  only  successful 
when  the  clay  contains  a  large  amount  of  sand.  The  best  method 
of  filling  clay  trenches  is  to  place  the  loose  material  in  thin 
layers  around  the  pipes,  tamping  it  carefully.  Then  put  in  loose 
material  another  foot  deep.  Pour  in  water  until  this  material 
is  barely  covered.  On  this  put  enough  material  to  hide  the  water 
and  tamp  it,  adding  dry  material  where  soft  spots  appear,  until 
the  mass  is  firm.  As  long  as  mud  appears  the  tamping  is  incom- 
plete. Then  deposit  another  foot  of  loose  filling,  cover  with  water 
and  tamp  as  before.  Repeat  these  operations  until  the  trench  is 
full.  If  the  work  is  properly  done  it  will  be  necessary  to  borrow 
some  material  to  complete  the  filling. 

The  Cost  of  Backfilling  and  Tamping.  Engineering  Record, 
May  23,  1914,  gives  the  following:  The  data  were  gathered  by 
the  Construction  Service  Co.  Tamping  was  rigidly  enforced. 
When  water  could  be  obtained  sections  of  the  trench  were  dammed 
at  each  end,  the  trench  filled  with  water  and  the  earth  cast 
therein.  For  soils  other  than  clay  this  is  the  most  efficient  method 
of  compacting.  The  earth  composing  these  dams  was  thoroughly 
tamped  by  hand.  In  one  case  water  was  used  exclusively  and  the 


898  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

cost  of  backfilling  and  puddling  was  7.6  ct.   (exclusive  of  the  cost 
of  water),  wages  being  15  ct.  per  hr. 

Short  time  observations  on  work  gave  the  speed  of  tamping 
with  ordinary  hand  tampers  as  60  strokes  per  minute  or  1  stroke 
per  second.  If  the  face  of  the  tamper  covered  a  fresh  place  in 


Fig.    49.     View    Showing    Construction    Tamping    Machine. 

the  trench  on  each  stroke  and  the  material  was  tamped  in  6-in. 
layers,  then  one  man  would  tamp  220  cu.  yd.  per  day.  This 
is  manifestly  impossible.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  tamper  is 
dropped  repeatedly  on  almost  the  same  spot,  and  one  man  will 
compact  about  the  same  amount  that  another  man  will  backfill, 
namely,  about  20  cu.  yd. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING  899 

Where  the  material  is  stiff  dry  clay  and  compactness  is  in- 
sisted upon,  the  amount  tamped  will  be  very  small.  In  The 
Technic  of  1896  costs  of  tamping  are  given.  From  the  data  we 
have  deduced  the  fact  that  when  the  material  (clay)  was  rammed 
dry  in  4-in.  layers  the  amount  rammed  per  man  was  only  1.1  to 
2.8  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

The  Stanley  Tamping  Machine.  The  Stanley  power  tamping 
machine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  49.  The  description  is  taken  from 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  15,  1912.  The  tamper  is  lifted 


•^•""•"  •  "  '  "i«»**e»». 

Fig.  50.     A  Pavement  Picking  and  Trench  Tamping  Machine. 


up  and  allowed  to  drop  by  a  simple  mechanism  similar  to  that 
used  on  drop  hammers  in  forge  shops.  The  tamper  moves  auto- 
matically across  the  trench  and  the  movement  along  the  trench 
is  attained  by  moving  the  machine  forward  about  8  in.  As 
regularly  equipped  the  machine  will  work  in  trenches  1  to  4.5  ft. 
wide  and  tamp  at  a  depth  as  great  as  6  ft.,  but  can  be  furnished 
with  a  special  arm  enabling  it  to  reach  a  depth  of  16  ft.  The 
machine  requires  a  crew  of  2  men  and  consumes  about  1.5  gal. 
of  gasoline  in  10  hr.  The  manufacturer  states  that  1,200  to 


900 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


1,500  sq.  ft.  per  hr.  can  be  tamped  by  the  machine.  If  the  ma- 
terial be  compacted  in  0-in.  layers,  and  assuming  that  50%  of  the 
time  is  lost,  and  that  wages  are  $2  per  day  of  10  hr.  and  gasoline 
costs  15  ct.  per  gal.,  then  125  cu.  yd.  can  be  tamped  per  day  at  a 
cost  of  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  weight  of  the  machine  is  950  Ib. 
and  the  cost  (pre-war)  is  approximately  $300. 

The  P.  &  H.  Tamping  Machine.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Sept.  30,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

This  machine,  Fig.  50,  was  made  for  purpose  of  providing  a 
rapid  and  economical  means  of  cutting  through  pavements  where 
trenches  are  to  be  opened  and  also  to  tamp  backfilled  material  at 
a  low  cost.  The  interesting  feature  of  the  machine  is  the  ease 
with  which  it  may  be  converted  for  service  on  one  type  of  work 


Fig.  51.     Chisel  and  Pick  Heads  and  Tamper  Head  for  Use  with 
Power  Picking  and  Tamping  Machine. 

after  use  on  another  type.  The  only  change  necessary  consists 
in  substituting  the  pick  or  chisel  point  illustrated  for  the  tamp- 
ing h^ad,  also  shown. 

A  recent  test  of  this  device  by  the  Wisconsin  Telephone  Co.  of 
Milwaukee  was  conducted  as  follows:  The  machine  was  equipped 
with  the  concrete  breaking  pick  and  was  tried  out  in  competition 
with  a  hand  picking  gang.  The  machine  removed  372  sq.  ft.  of 
G-in.  concrete  base  in  410  min.,  an  average  of  0.91  sq.  ft.  a  min- 
ute. By  hand  labor  one  man  removed  23i£  sq.  ft.  in  71  min.,  an 
average  of  0.33  sq.  ft.  a  minute. 

On  asphalt  the  machine  cut  64  lin.  ft.  of  groove  in  26^  min., 
a  rate  of  72^  lin.  ft.  an  hour,  or  in  square  yards  of  36  in.  wide 
trench,  16  sq.  yd.  per  hour.  Hand  labor  cut,  in  one  case,  6  lin. 
ft.  in  20  min.,  and  in  another  5  lin.  ft.  in  15  min.,  equivalent  to 
18  lin.  ft.  an  hour  or  2  sq.  yd.  of  surface  in  the  first  case,  and 
20  lin.  -ft.  or  2.22  sq.  yd.  an  hour,  in  the  second  case. 


METHODS  AND  COST  OF  TRENCHING 


901 


The  stroke  of  the  tamping  head  is  22  in.  (average),  the  total 
weight  of  head  and  ram  is  150  lb.,  and  about  45  strokes  per  min- 
ute are  made.  The  head  travels  a  distance  of  20  in.  across  the 
trench,  enabling  it  to  cover  a  trench  32  in.  wide.  When  in  use 
on  the  trench  the  machine  is  fed  forward  at  the  rate  of  6  to  15 
ft.  per  minute,  and  when  traveling  on  the  road  1.33  miles  per 
hour  is  the  speed  attained.  This  machine  can  tamp  in  trenches  as 
wide  as  40  in.,  and  as  deep  as  7.5  ft.  It  is  made  by  the  Pawling 
and  Harnischfeger  Co.  of  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Rolling  Backfill.  Engineering  News,  May  25,  1911,  gives  the 
following: 

Rolling  backfill  is  sometimes  successful,  provided  the  trenches 
are  not  too  deep.  Fig.  52  illustrates  a  concrete  roller  used  for 


Fig.  52.     Concrete  Trench  Roller. 


compacting  telephone  duct  trenches.  After  the  ducts  had  been 
laid,  6  in.  of  dirt  was  carefully  filled  in  around  them  and  tamped. 
Then  the  remaining  dirt  was  backfilled  in  layers  of  6  in.,  each 
layer  being  tamped  and  rolled  by  a  small  concrete  roller. 

On  another  section  the  earth  was  loosely  backfilled  and  crowned 
about  6  in.  above  the  roadway.  Then  a  10-ton  steam  roller  was 
put  on  and  the  trench  rolled.  It  is  doubtful  if  this  method  of 
rolling  the  surface  compacts  the  earth  to  a  depth  greater  than  a 
few  inches  or  a  foot. 

Trench  Tamping  with  Pneumatic  Rammers.  C.  M.  Hartley, 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  7,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

Where  compressed  air  is  available,  the  Crown  floor  rammers 
(type  22-SR),  manufactured  by  the  Ingersoll-Rand  Co.  of  New 
York,  may  be  used  to  good  advantage.  These  machines,  which 
consume  28  cu.  ft.  of  free  air  per  minute  at  a  gage  pressure  of 
100  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  are  easily  operated  by  one  man,  who  does  not 
need  to  be  a  skilled  laborer,  and  they  do  not  require  any  great 


902  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

amount  of  care  to  keep  them  in  order,  aside  from  cleaning  and 
oiling. 

Comparative  tests  of  hand  tamping  and  machine  tamping 
have  shown  that  the  cost  of  the  latter  is  about  one-third  the 
former,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  backfill  is  much  better  tamped. 

We  have  backfilled  a  50-ft.  section  of  trench,  24  in.  deep  and 
20  in.  wide,  containing  6.3  cu.  yd.,  in  one  hour,  with  three  men 
shoveling  and  six  men  hand  tamping.  This  backfilling  cost  $1.80, 
or  28  ct.  per  cubic  yard,  and  this  ratio  of  tampers  to  shovelers 
insures  good  tamping.  The  hand  tamping  cost  in  this  instance 
was  19  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Another  50-ft.  section  27-in.  deep  and  20-in.  wide,  containing 
7.1  cu.  yd.,  was  backfilled  and  machine  tamped  in  one  hour,  four 
men  shoveling  and  one  man  running  the  rammer.  I  have  never 
seen  earth  filling  better  compacted  than  it  is  by  these  tampers. 
The  cost  of  this  backfilling  was  18  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  of  the  tamp- 
ing alone,  6.9  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Other  tests  have  verified  these  figures,  and  we  have  found 
that,  as  a  rule,  the  cost  of  tamping  with  these  pneumatic  ram- 
mers, on  this  class  of  work,  is  about  7  ct.  per  cubic  yard. 

Bibliography.  "  Sanitary  Engineering,"  E.  C.  S.  Moore  and 
E.  J.  Silcock ;  "  American  Sewerage  Practice,"  3  vols.,  Leonard 
Metcalf  and  Harrison  P.  Eddy ;  "  Cost  Data,"  Halbert  P.  Gil- 
lette; "Hand-book  of  Construction  Plant,"  R.  T.  Dana;  "Exca- 
vating Machinery,"  A.  B.  McDaniel ;  "  Practical  Farm  Drainage," 
C.  G.  Elliot. 

"  Quicksand  in  Excavation,"  Charles  L.  McAlpine,  Trans.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  10,  1881. 

"The  Florence,  Colorado,  Water  Works,"  R.  P.  Garrett,  Eng. 
Rec.,  Feb.  10,  1900;  "The  Winston  Salem  Intercepting  Sewer," 
J.  N.  Ambler,  Eng.  News,  June  25,  1908;  "Concrete  Sewer  Con- 
struction at  Coldwater,  Mich.,"  Harry  V.  Gifford,  Eng.  News, 
Jan.  30,  1902;  "Light  and  Heavy  Equipment  on  Identical  Sewer 
Construction,"  Eng.  News-K.,  Jan.  23,  1919;  "Machine  for  Shal- 
low Excavation  and  Loading,"  Eng.  and  Con.,  Jan.  30,  1918. 


.Y/».?4'1bU 

•k 

• 

;;•>:•' 


CHAPTER  XVII 
DITCHES  AND  CANALS 

Types  of  Ditches.  The  word  ditch  is  here  used  to  indicate  a 
small  artificial  open  channel  for  the  passage  of  water.  A  "  ditch  " 
dug  for  the  purpose  of  holding  an  earth  covered  pipe  conduit 
should  be  called  a  trench. 

The  sides  of  ditches  are  sloped  or  so  finished  that  they  will 
withstand  the  action  of  water  or  the  elements,  while  the  sides  of 
trenches  have  to  be  trimmed  only  enough  to  permit  the  use  of 
sheeting  or  the  entrance  of  the  structure  they  are  to  contain. 
Large  drainage  and  irrigation  ditches  are  often  called  canals. 
Ditches,  however,  are  channels  with  sufficient  slope  to  discharge 
the  waters  they  receive  so  rapidly  that  they  will  ordinarily  be 
empty,  whereas  canals  are  channels  of  little  slope  whose  slow  rate 
of  discharge  makes  them  flow  full  continuously. 

The  classes  of  ditches  commonly  constructed  are  as  follows: 

Drainage  Ditches  are  meant  to  carry  water  in  the  open  ditch, 
for  drainage  purposes.  When  such  ditches  become  wide  and  deep, 
they  are  no  longer  known  as  ditches,  but  are  termed  canals,  al- 
though both  in  drainage  and  irrigation  systems,  all  lateral  canals 
are,  as  a  rule,  called  ditches.  Thus  a  ditch  in  one  system  may  be 
of  larger  size  than  a  canal  in  some  other  system. 

Gopher  Ditches  are  small  underground  channels  made  with 
special  plows.  Their  construction  is  possible  only  in  certain 
soils. 

Irrigation  Ditches.  The  remarks  on  drainage  ditches  are  "ap- 
plicable to  irrigation  ditches.  However,  in  irrigation  work  there 
are  small  ditches  used  between  rows  of  trees  and  plants  that  tap 
the  lateral  ditches  and  carry  water  to  the  roots  of  the  plants. 
Such  ditches  are  made  by  hand  or  with  a  light  turning  plow,  or 
some  sort  of  scraper. 

Double  Levee  Ditches  are  a  special  type  of  irrigation  ditch 
used  where  the  land  is  very  flat.  Parallel  levees  are  built  of 
material  taken  from  both  inside  and  outside  of  the  proposed 
canal,  and  water  is  carried  between  these  levees  at  a  height 
sufficient  to  flood  the  adjoining  land. 

Roadbed  Ditches.  Ditches  are  excavated  for  drainage  purposes 
in  connection  with  both  wagon  roads  and  railroads.  Small 
ditches  are  always  made  in  cuts.  For  railroads  these  ditches 
are  usually  made  12  in.  deep,  12  in.  wide  on  the  bottom  and 
with  1  to  1  slope  on  the  sides,  making  a  ditch  3  ft.  wide  on  top. 
This  is  for  cuts  through  earth.  Some  engineers  use  the  same 
size  and  kinoT  for  wagon  roads,  but  as  a  ditch  of  this  shape 

903 


904  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

has  to  be  excavated  by  hand,  the  shape  is  changed  on  wagon 
roads  so  that  they  can  be  excavated  by  plows,  scrapers,  road  ma- 
chines or  elevating  graders.  'This  is  done  by  carrying  the  slope 
of  the  roadbed  to  meet  a  shoulder  of  the  side  of  the  cut,  thus 
forming  a  V-shaped  ditch. 

Surface  Ditches  are  excavated  to  prevent  rain  water  from 
running  into  railroad  or  wagon-road  cuts,  or  against  embank- 
ments. These  are  generally  small  ditches,  with  the  sides  sloped, 
and  are  excavated  by  hand,  the  material  from  the  ditch  being 
thrown  on  the  side  of  the  ditch,  between  the  ditch  and  the  ob- 
ject it  is  to  protect.  Like  roadbed  ditches,  these  are  paid  for 
by  the  cubic  yard  of  material  excavated.  These  surface  ditches 
are  often  termed  berme  ditches,  but  the  author  believes  they 
should  be  called  surface  ditches  in  order  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  ditches  described  in  the  next  paragraph. 

Berme  Ditches.  In  building  railroad  and  wagon-road  embank- 
ments, the  material  is  often  obtained  from  ditches  on  each  side  of 
the  embankment,  leaving  a  berme  from  4  to  10  ft.  wide  beteween 
the  toe  of  the  embankment  and  the  ditch.  This  berme  gives  the 
ditch  its  name.  These  ditches  are  excavated  by  hand,  by  scrapers 
and  with  elevating  graders. 

Power  Ditches  are  channels  for  carrying  water  from  a  dam  or 
stream  to  a  power  generating  plant  or  mill,  and  for  taking  the 
water  away  from  the  plant  if  it  is  not  emptied  directly  into  the 
stream.  When  used  in  connection  with  mills  they  are  termed 
mill  races,  and  the  ditch  carrying  away  the  water  is  called  the 
tail  race.  For  electrical  power  generating  plant  the  power  ditch 
carries  the  water  to  a  pressure  pipe  or  penstock  or  a  penstock  pit. 
Such  ditches  are  lined  when  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  wasting 
water. 

Military  Trenches  are  really  ditches,  as  they  are  not  excavated 
with  the  intention  of  filling  them  in.  They  are  excavated,  and 
the  earth  thrown  up  on  the  side  of  the  ditch  towards  the 
enemy  to  protect  the  soldier.  The  earth  thrown  up  is  known  as 
a  breastwork.  For  temporary  purposes  the  ditch  is  made  wide 
and  deep  enough  to  obtain  enough  earth,  so  that  when  it  is 
piled  up  it  will  stop  a  bullet,  the  soldier  lying  down  or  kneeling 
behind  the  breastwork  in  the  trench. 

A  Sap  is  a  type  of  military  trench,  less  used  now  than  for- 
merly, which  is  dug  by  specially  trained  soldiers  in  advancing 
against  an  enemy  under  fire.  Saps  are  dug  advancing  toward 
the  enemy  in  an  inclined  direction,  and  changes  of  direction  are 
made  at  short  intervals  to  avoid  enfilade  fire  down  the  trench. 
The  work  is  advanced  without  exposing  the  men  to  fire  and  in 
order  that  it  may  be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible  the  advance  man 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  005 

works  lying  down  and  excavates  a  trench  15  in.  deep  ahead  of 
himself.  A  second  man  works  kneeling,  and  others  follow  who 
deepen  and  widen  .the  trench  until  troops  can  pass  through  it 
comfortably. 

Rifle  Pits  are  small  ditches,  long  enough  to  protect  one  or 
two  men. 

Reducing  the  Cost  of  Drainage  Excavation.  Engineering 
Record,  Dec.  26,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

The  reclamation  of  488,000  acres  of  land  in  the  Little  River 
Drainage  District  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Missouri  involves 
the  construction  of  many  miles  of  flood-water  diversion  channels 
and  impounding  levees  and  624  miles  of  open  ditches  for  local 
drainage.  These  require  a  total  excavation  of  about  42.800,000 
cu.  yd.  of  material.  In  general  the  material  is  excavated  and 
deposited  in  final  position  at  one  operation  by  floating  dredges, 
mainly  of  the  dipper  type,  at  an  average  contract  price  of  7.7 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  exclusive  of  the  cost  of  clearing  the  land. 

This  work  is  located  in  a  territory  averaging  10  miles  wide 
and  90  miles  long,  most  of  which  is  continually  or  frequently 
submerged  and  is  covered  with  a  heavy  second  growth  of  tim- 
ber. There  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  dimensions  of  the  ditches 
and  channels,  which  range  in  bottom  width  from  4  to  123  ft. 
and  in  depth  up  to  12  ft.  Much  of  the  work  is  too  small  for 
large  dredges  and  too  large  for  small  ones  to  handle  to  the  best 
advantage.  Notwithstanding  these  conditions,  prices  satisfactory 
to  the  supervisors  were  obtained,  chiefly  through  the  method 
employed  of  classifying  the  work  and  arranging  the  contracts  so 
that  they  could  be  handled  advantageously  and  be  adapted  to 
continuous  work  by  given  units  of  plants.  The  fact  that  dipper 
dredges  could  be  used  for  a  large  part  of  the  excavation  helped 
keep  the  cost  down. 

The  diversion  work,  consisting  of  deep  wide  channels  and  high 
levees,  involved  8,621,591  cu.  yd.  of  estimated  excavation.  The 
bulk  of  it  was  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  contracts.  The  local 
drainage  work  involved  about  34,208,101  cu.  yd.  of  estimated  ex- 
cavation and  was  divided  into  27  contracts,  awarded  to  12  dif- 
ferent bidders. 

Governing  Considerations.  The  classification  and  allotment  of 
contracts  was  governed  as  much  as  possible  by  five  principal 
considerations:  (1)  division  of  the  work  into  units  with  chan- 
nel dimensions  particularly  adapted,  to  a  standard  type  of 
machine,  (2)  allotment  of  sufficient  yardage  to  each  contract  to 
give  at  least  2%  years'  work  to  a  suitable  machine  and  thus 
make  the  contract  attractive,  (3)  location  of  an  accessible  build- 
ing site  on  some  railroad  at  or  near  the  head  of  each  contract, 


906  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

(4)  provision  for  uninterrupted  transportation  of  fuel  to  the 
excavating  machines,  and  (5)  elimination,  as  far  as  possible,  of 
all  upstream  work. 

The  2^-year  duration  of  contracts  was  unobjectionable  for  the 
small  work.  On  the  large  work,  where  the  bottom  widths  range 
from  81  to  123  ft.,  there  is  required  a  4^-yd.  excavating  bucket 
and  a  100-ft.  boonl  which,  with  its  supplementary  equipment,  will 
cost  from  $40,000  to  $75,000,  and  in  order  to  reduce  the  cost  per 
yard  to  reasonable  limits  an  amount  of  work  is  required  that 
necessitates  the  continuous  operation  of  the  plant  for  a  long  time. 
For  these  contracts  this  time  was  figured  at  three  years,  except 
in  one  instance  where  time  limit  was  40  months. 

In  classifying  drainage  bids  there  is  great  advantage  in  di- 
viding the  work  into  contracts  before  making  the  estimates  of 
cost,  because  the  combinations  of  different  classes  of  work  greatly 
modify  their  unit  costs.  For  instance,  a  canal  with  a  bottom 
width  of  4  ft.  may  be  8-ct.  work ;  but  when  such  work  is  placed  in 
the  same  contract  with  ditches  having  25-ft  bottom  widths,  the 
cost  of  the  4-ft.  width  may  be  much  increased  because  the  re- 
quired width  of  a  dredge  suitable  to  excavate  the  25-ft.  canal  will 
be  much  greater  than  that  for  the  4-ft.  canal,  and  will  necessi- 
tate considerable  excess  excavation. 

Dressing  the  Sides  of  Ditches.  The  dressing  up  of  the  sides  of 
ditches  is  done  for  an  entirely  different  reason  than  in  the  case 
of  trenches.  As  ditches  are  to  remain  open,  there  are  few  cases 
where  the  sides  should  not  only  be  well  dressed  but  also  sloped. 

The  side  slope  is  expressed  as  a  ratio  of  horizontal  to  vertical 
measurement.  Thus  a  "  2  to  1  slope "  has  a  vertical  rise  of  1 
ft.  in  2  ft.  horizontal. 

Ditches  dug  for  irrigation,  drainage  and  for  power  purposes 
should  be  made  full  size,  and  the  banks  should  be  sloped  and 
dressed.  A  1  to  1  slope  is  very  commonly  used,  although  this  is 
varied  from  %  to  1  to  2  to  1.  Such  slopes  should  be  dressed  up 
and  trimmed,  as  the  ditches  can  be  kept  clean  easier. 

For  irrigation  and  other  purposes  it  is  frequently  necessary  to 
line  ditches.  Measurements  of  loss  by  seepage  made  on  a  large 
number  of  irrigation  ditches  in  California,  show  an  average  loss 
on  main  canals  of  about  1%  for  each  mile  that  water  is  carried. 
On  laterals  in  some  cases  the  loss  amounted  to  11  and  12%  per 
mile.  At  times  the  loss  has  exceeded  50%. 

In  gravelly  soil  the  loss  is  always  excessive,  and  the  water  so 
lost  from  irrigation  ditches  and  canals  is  more  than  wasted,  as 
this  water  collects  on  lower  lands,  filling  the  soil  and  souring  it, 
drowning  the  roots  of  trees  and  plants,  and  when  it  collects  in 
pools,  furnishing  a  place  for  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes.  The 


BITCHES  AND  CANALS 


907 


reader  is  referred  to  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec.  2,  1908, 
for  seepage  data. 

The  lining  of  ditches,  besides  preventing  loss  by  seepage,  ac- 
complishes three  other  purposes.  First,  the  ditch  can  be  kept 
clean  easier.  The  smooth  lining  does  not  impede  the  suspended 
matter  as  readily  as  does  an  unlined  ditch,  nor  do  weeds  and  grass 
grow  in  the  ditch  to  become  a  deposit  of  decayed  vegetable  mat- 
ter. The  actual  work  of  cleaning  out  the  ditch  is  also  easier. 

If  a  ditch  is  not  lined,  the  edge  of  the  ditch,  even  if  it  is  made 
a  straight  line  when  constructed,  soon  becomes  uneven  and  grown 
up  with  weeds  and  brush.  This  impedes  the  flow  of  water. 

The  third  effect  of  a  lined  ditch  is  to  prevent  the  water  from 


....  /£01~.~. 


=j 


Plan  /  TfP 

"If-   Countersunk  bolts 
t— --;^  (S'c.toc. 


_ 

Part  Ran 


E.ac. 


Fig.  1.     Details  of  Slope  Trimmer. 

:»{;V<H;> >•'"'*.  ^y^,;><i  ^-^'/iij.^u'Mir  j->irf-« 

washing  the  ditch  deeper  and  scouring  its  sides  or  banks.  Not 
only  does  the  water  in  the  ditch  do  this,  but  rain  water  falling 
on  or  near  the  banks  washes  them  badly.  However,  a  cheap  lining 
will  often  prevent  this  as  well  as  a  more  expensive  kind.  A  dry 
stone  paving,  or  even  crushed  stone  spread  over  the  bottom  and 
sides  of  the  ditch  will  serve  for  this  purpose. 

An  Irrigation  Canal  Slope  Trimmer.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, May  3,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

The  device,  Fig.  1,  is  a  three-handled  push  knife  12  ft.  long. 
The  handles  are  1%-in.  pipe.  The  practice  is  to  set  to  exact 
slope  down  the  bank  and  10  ft.  apart  l^-in.  T  girders.  The 
trimmer  is  set  on  these  tee  tracks  at  the  top  of  the  slope  and 


908  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

pushed  by  the  handles  down  slope,  thus  shaving  the  earth  to  an 
exact  plane  between  the  tees  or  girders.  This  trimmer  showed 
considerable  saving  in  labor  compared  with  men  using  shovels. 
It  was  designed  by  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service  Engineers  of  the 
Carlsbad  Project. 

Hand  Excavation.  The  appliances  described  in  Chapter  XVI 
are  meant  for  trench  work,  but  some  of  them  are  also  adapted 
to  ditch  construction. 

In  sand,  ditches  can  be  dug  entirely  with  a  shovel.  For  this 
purpose  a  long  handle  shovel  should  be  used  with  a  large  squire 
blade.  Faster  and  cheaper  work  can  be  done  by  wetting  the  sand, 
whenever  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  before  the  material  is  excavated, 
as  much  larger  shovelfuls  can  be  handled. 

In  digging  ditches  for  drainage  work  the  ground  is  always 
wet  and  frequently  is  saturated  with  water.  The  ordinary  shovel 
for  such  work  is  not  a  good  tool  as  more  spading  is  done  than 
shoveling.  Hence  a  spade  is  preferable.  The  short  handled 
spade  is  in  common  use,  though  more  efficient  work  can  be  done 
in  many  cases  with  a  long  handled  tool.  With  a  solid  blade  in 
wet  material  the  spade  is  difficult  to  handle,  as  the  suction  on  it 
causes  either  very  slow  work  or  else  breaks  the  tool.  For  this 
reason,  the  skeleton  blade  for  a  spade  has  come  into  common 
use,  as  with  it  this  suction  does  not  occur ;  and  not  only  is  rapid 
work  done,  but  there  is  little  chance  of  breaking  the  spade.  The 
blade  is  also  made  much  longer  than  the  ordinary  shovel  blade, 
so  that  it  is  possible  to  dig  a  narrow  and  shallow  trench,  except 
the  finishing,  with  this  spade  at  one  stroke  of  the  tool. 

With  a  spade  in  soft  materials  a  pick  or  mattock  is  not  needed, 
as  both  the  shoveling  and  digging  are  done  with  the  spade. 
In  wet  plastic  material  the  pick  is  of  little  use;  a  mattock  does 
better  work.  A  mattock  is  also  needed  where  roots  or  old  stumps 
are  encountered.  It  is  also  used  to  trim  the  sides  of  open  ditches, 
which  should  always  be  given  good  smooth  slopes. 

Spading  Wet  Soil.  When  ditching  in  wet  ground,  filled  with 
grass  roots,  making  hard  spading,  L.  Z.  Jones,  in  the  transac- 
tions of  the  Illinois  Society  of  Engineers  and  Surveyors,  1903, 
says  that  a  narrow  bladed  hay  knife  should  first  be  used,  pushing 
it  as  deep  as  possible  along  each  side  of  the  trench.  This  cuts 
the  roots  so  that  each  spadeful  has  one  side  free.  A  three  cor- 
nered piece  of  earth  should  then  be  spaded  out,  the  spade  being 
turned  right  and  left  alternately.  This  makes  easy  digging.  A 
flat  spade  should  not  be  used,  for  it  will  not  hold  sufficient  earth. 
Use  a  long-handled  round  point  mining  shovel  with  an  air  hole 
in  the  middle  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  wet  soil,  and  a  long  or 
short  ditching  spade  according  to  the  depth  of  cut.  In  tough 


DITCiiES  AND  CANALS 


909 


clays  nothing  equals  the  three-tilled  skeleton  spade,  as  this  enters 
easily  and  is  self-cleaning.  To  remove  the  loose  earth  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  use  a  tile  scoop  or  cleaner.  One  can  be  made 
from  an  old  scoop  shovel  by  bending  it  like  a  sun-bonnet,  and 
riveting  on  a  bent  shank  so  that  the  scoop  will  hang  like  a  hoe. 
Fasten  the  shank  to  the  large  end  of  a  buggy  shaft  and  put  a 
D-handle  on  the  small  end  of  the  shaft.  Have  all  tools  very 
sharp. 

Special  Ditching  Machines.  Although  every  type  of  equipment 
is  used  with  success  in  digging  ditches  the  following  classes  of 
machinery  are  specially  adapted  to  this  sort  of  excavation: 


Fig.    2.     Buckeye    Traction    Ditcher    for    Open    Ditches. 

Wheel  Excavators.  These  are  similar  to  the  trenching  ma- 
chines described  in  the  last  chapter  except  that  instead  of  having 
their  excavating  buckets  fixed  on  a  chain  they  carry  them  at- 
tached to  a  wheel,  like  spokes.  The  buckets  move  in  the  line 
of  the  ditch. 

Template  Ditch  Excavators.  These  excavate  by  means  of 
buckets  moving  across  the  line  of  the  ditch. 

Land  Dredges  of  the  drag  line  and  steam  shovel  types  specially 
mounted  for  ditch  work. 

Capstan  Plows.     These  are  heavy  plows  drawn  by  cables. 

Buckeye  Excavator  for  Open  Ditches.  Fig.  2  shows  this  ma- 
chine. Two  men  are  required  to  operate  the  machine,  besides  one 


910 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


man  with  horse  and  wagon  to  haul  fuel  and  water.  For  a  12-ton 
machine  only  800  Ib.  of  coal  are  needed  per  10-hr,  day. 

With  this  plant  and  crew  a  ditch  3}£  ft.  deep,  2  ft.  bottom,  and 
4%  ft.  top  was  excavated  at  the  rate  of  5  lin.  ft.  per  min.,  work- 
ing in  wet  and  very  soft  ground  at  Raeeland,  Louisiana. 

The  ditcher  is  self-propelling  and  can  be  used  for  draining 
swampy  lands,  for  cleaning  out  old  ditches,  and  for  digging  the 
side  ditches  for  roads. 

Cost  of  Operating  Wheel  Type  Excavators  in  Drainage  Ditch- 
ing. D.  L.  Yarnell  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  26, 
1916,  gives  the  following: 


Fig.  3.     Rear  View  of  Ditcher. 

Two  machines  of  the  wheel  type  designed  to  cut  a  ditch 
4  ft.  deep,  4  ft.  wide  at  the  top,  and  2  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom, 
were  used  on  the  excavation  of  some  ditches  in  one  of  the  Gulf 
States.  Each  machine  was  driven  by  a  28-hp.  gasoline  engine. 
The  digging  wheel  was  15  ft.  in  diameter  and  the  two  apron 
tractors  each  5  ft.  by  12  ft.  The  weight  of  each  excavator 
was  about  30  tons.  The  first  cost  of  the  machine  was  $5,500 
and  freight  to  the  point  of  use  was  $338,  making  the  total  cost 
of  each  machine  $5,838.  The  soil  was  a  hard,  yellow,  sandy  clay 
overlain  by  a  turfy  muck,  varying  in  depth  up  to  2y2  ft.  The 
turf  was  easily  cut,  but  the  hard  clay  caused  excessive  wearing 
on  the  bearings.  A  large  part  of  the  work  was  done  when  water 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


Oil 


was  from  2  to  3  ft.  deep  on  the  land.  The  total  length  of  the 
ditches  dug  was  165  miles,  the  average  length  of  ditch  being  2,475 
ft.  The  average  depth  of  digging  was  about  4  ft.,  with  a  4-ft. 
top  and  2-ft.  bottom.  The  average  distance  dug  per  shift  of  10 
hr.  of  actual  running  time  was  2,250  ft.;  the  maximum  distance 
dug  in  10  hr.  was  6,600  ft.  The  average  yardages  per  month 
for  the  two  machines  were  13,245  and  13,180  cu.  yd.,  respectively. 
The  average  daily  outputs  on  the  basis  of  the  actual  running  time 


Fig.  4.     Large  and  Small  Ditch  Sections  Possible  with  the  Same 
Machine. 


were  1,000  and  1,126  cu.  yd.,  respectively.  A  part  of  the  time 
the  first  machine  ran  a  double  shift,  which  accounts  for  the  higher 
monthly  and  less  daily  average.  It  required  13  months  to  com- 
plete the  work,  the  actual  time  of  operation  being  about  half  this. 
On  account  of  the  excessive  wearing  on  the  bearings,  caused  by 
the  heavy  sandy  clay,  it  was  necessary  to  make  frequent  stops  for 
rebuilding  the  machines,  which  operation  occupied  an  average  of 
nearly  two  weeks.  Ihe  total  excavation  was  317,162  cu.  yd. 


012  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVA'i  IOX 

The  daily  operating  expense  per  10-hr,  shift  for  each  machine 
was  about  as  follows: 

One  operator,  at  $100  per  month   $  4.00 

One  assistant    2.00 

50  gallons  gasoline,  at  16  ct 8.00 

Repairs     6.00 

Other   charges    12.00 

Total  per  day    $32.00 

The  itemized  cost  for   operation  for  the   entire  work   was   as 
follows : 

Labor $  5,172.11 

Interest,   discount,    and   exchange    202.05 

Maintenance   and   repairs    2,860.08 

General   expense    273.10 

Management  expense    1,600.00 

Provisions   and  cooking   (cook's  wages)    2,245.91 

Freight  and  express    75.74 

Towing     458.19 

Gasoline  •    1,792.22 

Other  oil    281.49 

Teams  and  livery   932.11 

Telephone    and   telegraph    25.29 

Motor    boat    operation    540.96 

Interest  and  depreciation  on  machinery   5,185.00 

Total  at  6.82  ct.  per  cu.  yd. $21,644.25 

Machine  Machine 

No.  1.  No.  2. 

Running  machine $    917.97  $1,509.66 

Repairing  machine    1,431.37  771.96 

Moving    machine    105.20  88.51 

Machine   bogged    156.90  190.54 


Total      $2,611.44  $2,560.67 

The  excessive  cost  of  labor  given  for  the  machines  when  bogged 
was  due  to  the  frequent  crossings  of  a  wide,  muck-filled  bayou 
which  ran  the  entire  length  of  the  district.  This  bayou  was  about 
1,500  ft.  wide;  the  muck  ranged  from  5  to  15  ft.  and  was  very 
soft.  No  tree  roots,  submerged  timber,  or  stumps  were  en- 
countered. The  work  covered  an  area  of  about  7,000  acres,  ap- 
proximately square,  which  was  traversed  by  parallel  canals  every 
half  mile.  The  ditches  cut  by  the  excavators  were  at  right 
angles  to  these  canals  and  were  spaced  330  ft.  apart.  It  was  thus 
necessary  to  turn  the  machine  around  and  run  it  light  330  ft. 
for  each  half  mile  of  ditch  cut.  The  item  "  moving "  is  for 
taking  the  machine  across  the  canals  and  for  moving  from  one 
part  of  the  district  to  another;  it  does  not  refer  to  the  moving 
between  adjacent  ditches. 

Another  machine  worked  on  comparatively  solid  ground.  Power 
was  supplied  by  a  28-hp.  gasoline  engine.  The  first  cost  was 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  913 

$4,000,  and  freight  charges  from  factory  to  works  were  $350. 
After  the  machine  had  been  operated  for  a  short  time  it  became 
apparent  that  the  excavating  wheel  was  far  too  light  and  a  new 
wheel  was  substituted.  The  soil  was  a  silt  loam,  firm  and  uni- 
form but  not  tenacious.  No  special  difficulties  due  to  soil  con- 
ditions were  encountered  in  this  work.  The  chief  obstacles  to 
rapid  progress  were  at  first  the  weakness  of  the  light  excavating 
wheel,  and  afterwards  the  extra-heavy  excavating  wheel  which 
unbalanced  the  machine.  The  tractors  were  larger  than  neces- 
sary and  often  broke  down  when  turning  on  the  hard  ground. 
At  the  time  the  following  cost  records  terminated,  the  work  had 
been  carried  on  intermittently  for  about  18  months;  about  one- 
half  this  time  was  occupied  in  repairs.  During  this  time  the 
machines  dug  117,000  ft.  of  ditch  4%  ft.  deep,  45,500  ft.  3^  ft. 
deep,  and  9,250  ft.  twice  over,  the  machine  making  two  4%-ft. 
cuts  side  by  side.  The  average  length  of  ditch  cut  per  day  was 
800  ft.,  while  the  maximum  was  1,950  ft.  The  daily  cost  of 
operation  was  as  follows: 

Labor    $  5.50 

Fuel     4.20 

Incidentals     0.50 

Repairs     2.40 

Total   per   day    $12.00 

The  average  excavation  per  day  was  410  cu.  yd.,  Imsed  on  the 
average  of  800  ft.  of  ditch,  4i£  ft.  deep,  4^  ft.  wide  at  the  top, 
and  20  in.  wide  at  the  bottom.  The  machine  excavated  82,330  cu. 
yd.  in  18  months  at  the  following  itemized  cost: 

Gasoline  based  on  215  actual  days'  operation   $    903.00 

Repairs,    actual    cost    860.00 

Incidentals  at  50  ct.  per  day   120.25 

Labor  of  foreman,  18  months,  at  $75  per  month 1,350.00 

Other  labor,  two  men,  $2.50  per  day  for  250  days 625.00 

Interest  and  depreciation    '. ...  2,675.25 

Total  at  7.93  ct.  per  cu.  yd $6,533.50 

Low  Costs  of  Ditching  in  the  Evergtodes.  W.  J.  Kackley  in 
Engineering  Record,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

Fig.  5  shows  a  ditcher  which  is  now  operating  on  the  property  of 
the  Everglades  Sugar  &  Land  Company  in  Dade  County,  Florida. 
This  machine  was  built  by  the  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher  Com- 
pany, of  Findlay,  Ohio,  but  was  completely  remodeled  by  our 
forces  to  meet  the  conditions  as  found  in  the  Everglades.  The 
machine  weighs  37  tons  and  is  equipped  with  a  45-hp.  gasoline 
engine.  The  bearing  on  the  ground  is  approximately  350  Ib.  per 
sq.  ft. 


914 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Living  quarters  are  provided  for  the  crew  on  top  of  the  ma- 
chine. This  house  will  accommodate  eight  men.  An  independent 
electric  generator  furnishes  light  for  the  living  quarters  and  for 
a  searchlight,  which  makes  it  possible  to  run  at  night.  The 
machine  cuts  a  ditch  9  ft.  wide  on  top,  2}£  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom 
and  5  ft.  deep  at  an  average  rate  in  sand  and  muck  of  8  ft. 
per  min.,  or  480  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  It  has  cut  1  mile  of  ditch  in 
10  hr.,  or  528  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  Our  records  for  December,  1913, 
show  a  total  of  43,030  cu.  yd.  of  material  excavated  at  a  cost 
of  2.9  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  including  overhead  expense,  fixed  charges 
on  the  machine  and  cost  of  clearing  line.  Some  exceptionally 


Fig.   5.     Ditching  Machine  with   Quarters   for  Eight   Men   Used 
in  the  Florida  Everglades. 


hard  sand  cutting  and  heavy  clearing  were  encountered  during 
the  month. 

From  Jan.  1  to  Jan.  23«  the  machine  has  excavated  58,630  cu. 
yd.  of  sand  and  muck  at  a  total  cost  of  2.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  muck  soil  is  too  soft  and  spongy 
to  permit  of  transportation  by  animals,  the  machine  must  carry 
supplies  for  an  8-mile  run,  4  miles  out  from  the  canal  and  back, 
cutting  in  both  directions  on  lines  %  mile  apart. 

The  Stockton  Ditcher.  This  machine,  Fig.  6,  is  unique  in  that 
it  can  excavate  and  widen  a  ditch  by  taking  off  successive  slices. 
This  enables  the  machine  to  be  used  for  digging  trenches  or  wide 
canals  or  for  stripping  areas.  The  limit  of  the  width  that  can 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


915 


be  removed  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  belt  conveyor,  as  the 
spoil  bank  will  eventually  interfere  with  the  operation  of  the  ma- 
chine. The  machine  is  fitted  with  caterpillar  traction  enabling 
it  to  travel  over  very  soft  ground  or  to  span  a  ditch  6  ft.  wide. 
Fig.  6  shows  the  machine  widening  a  ditch  in  soft  peat  soil. 

The   machine    is   manufactured   by   the   Stockton   Ditcher   Co., 
Stockton,  Calif. 


Fig.  6.     Stockton  Ditcher  Widening  a  Ditch   in  Soft  Peat   Soil. 

The  Austin  Template  Excavator.  The  distinguishing  feature 
of  this  machine  (Fig.  7)  is  that  it  is  designed  to  cut  a  ditch 
true  to  grade  having  banks  sloped  to  any  desired  angle,  with 
the  spoil  bank  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  ditch  to  prevent 
the  banks  from  caving. 

This  machine  constructs  a  ditch  of  practically  any  depth,  width 
of  top  or  width  of  bottom  desired,  and  slopes  the  sides  to  any 
angle  at  a  single  operation.  The  waste  banks  are  also  constructed 
at  a  distance  from  the  ditch,  and  it  is  possible  to  make  them 
serve  as  continuous  dikes,  in  this  way  increasing  the  capacity 
of  the  ditch  during  times  of  flood.  The  machinery  is.  run  on 
temporary  rails,  laid  one  on  each  side  of  the  ditch.  The  ma- 
chine can  operate  either  up  grade  or  down.  The  work  can  be  done 
whether  there  is  water  in  the  ditch  or  not.  An  advantage  claimed 


916 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


. 


••.£}  sii 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  917 

for  this  machine  is  that  being  carried  on  a  track,  it  travels  in  a 
straight  line,  making  a  perfectly  straight  ditch. 

A  frame  work  upon  which  the  digging  buckets  operate  is  made 
to  conform  to  the  shape  and  size  of  the  ditch,  thus  acting  as  a 
template  for  shaping  the  ditch  as  it  is  being  excavated.  A  berm 
from  10  to  15  ft.  wide  is  left  between  the  top  of  the  slope  of 
the  ditch  and  the  spoil  bank. 

The  excavating  buckets,  two  in  number,  are  mounted  on 
wheels,  and  they  cut  in  opposite  directions,  one  always  being 
in  readiness  to  dig  while  the  other  is  dumping  its  load.  The 
guiding  frame  is  fed  down  automatically  to  any  depth  desired 
within  the  capacity  of  the  machine  and  is  under  control  of  the 
operator. 

The  guiding  frame  can  be  elevated  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  the  excavator  can  thus  be  carried  across  the  coun- 
try'under  its  own  steam  on  a  temporary  track.  So  rigged,  it 
can  be  moved  a  mile  a  day.  The  machine  is  made  of  steel.  It 
can  be  run  on  rails,  mounted  on  a  walking  device,  or  on  a  pon- 
toon or  boat,  but  its  best  work  is  done  when  operated  on 
rails.  It  takes  four  men  to  handle  this  excavator.  An  engine- 
man,  a  fireman  and  two  men  to  care  for  the  track. 

This  machine  is  made  by  the  F.  C.  Austin  Co.  of  Chicago. 

The  Judkin  Ditcher.  This  machine  (Fig.  8)  is  a  dry  land 
excavator  consisting  of  a  car  wrhich  runs  on  rails,  one  being  laid 
on  each  side  of  the  trench.  A  steel  frame  extends  under  the 
machine  and  over  it.  On  this  frame  in  front  is  an  endless  chain 
carrying  a  series  of  plows.  At  the  rear  of  the  frame  are  two 
belts  running  in  opposite  directions.  The  endless  chain  runs 
transversely  to  the  direction  of  the  ditch,  being  controlled  by 
pulleys,  so  the  lower  half  of  the  frame  will  conform  to  the 
cross  section  of  the  ditch.  The  general  method  of  operating 
this  machine  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Austin,  the  ditch  being 
cut  in  sections,  the  frame  being  raised  up  to  the  surface  after 
a  section  is  excavated,  and  work  started  on  a  new  section. 

"  At  the  back  of  the  car,  transversely  to  the  direction  of  the 
ditch,  is  a  triangular  shaped  cutting  frame,  the  lower  part  of 
which  is  constructed  to  conform  to  the  bottom  and  slopes  of  the 
proposed  ditch.  Over  each  half  of  this  frame  are  two  chain 
belts,  30  in.  apart,  and  between  these  belts  are  riveted  at  equal 
distances  14  buckets,  which  excavate  and  carry  the  material. 
The  cutting  edge  of  these  buckets  can  be  detached  from  the  main 
part  for  sharpening  if  occasion  requires.  The  buckets  over  each 
half  of  the  frame  travel  in  opposite  directions,  so  that  each  set 
passes  up  the  slope  of  the  ditch  where  it  does  the  excavation. 
Their  direction  is  changed  at  the  apex  of  the  triangle  by 


918 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


sheaves,  each  bucket  making  a  complete  revolution  every  45  sec- 
onds, although  in  easy  digging  they  can  be  run  at  a  speed  of  two 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  excavating  frame  can  be  put  to- 
gether in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  cut  a  narrow  or  wide  bot- 
tom, or  a  different  slope.  The  excavated  material  is  cut  up 
very  fine  and  deposited  on  either  bank.  The  spoil  banks  have 
uniform  slopes  coming  to  a  sharp  edge  at  the  top. 

"  Strips  30  in.  wide  are  excavated  at  a  time,  and  after  the  ma- 
chine has  made  an  advance  of  30  ft.  it  goes  back  over  the  ditch 
to  clean  up  the  loose  material  and  the  slopes.  Then  it  goes 


Fig.  8.     The  Judkin  Ditcher. 

ahead  once  more.  In  the  center  of  the  ditch  there  is  left  a  small 
ridge  of  earth,  caused  by  the  excavating  buckets  crossing.  This 
can  be  shoveled  out  by  hand  or  the  water  will  wash  it  away, 
extra  earth  being  taken  from  the  bottom  to  allow  the  material 
in  the  ridge  to  bring  the  bottom  back  to  grade.  The  entire 
machine  is  under  one  man,  but  he  has  a  fireman,  an  oiler,  a  man 
and  team  for  hauling  water  and  4  men  and  team  for  moving 
track,  which  is  laid  in  30  ft.  sections."  The  description  of  this 
machine  is  taken  from  a  bulletin  of  the  Northeastern  Experi- 
ment Farm  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  where  one  of  them 
used  at  Bowesmont,  N.  D.,  is  described. 


DITCHES  AND  CAtfALS  010 

An  average  of  two  tons  of  coal  for  a  day's  run  of  14  hr.  is 
required.  This  machine,  in  a  33  days'  run  of  14  hr.  per  day, 
made  an  average  of  1,449  yd.  per  day,  or  a  little  over  100  cu. 
yd.  per  working  hr.  The  machine  has  a  total  weight  of  60 
tons,  will  cut  a  bottom  7  to  10  ft.  in  width  with  side  slopes  1% 
to  1. 

Ditch  Excavation  with  Templet  Excavators.  D.  L.  Yarnall,  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb.  9,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

A  single-bucket  templet  excavator  wras  used  in  southern  Louis- 
iana on  the  construction  of  7,825  ft.  of  ditch  having  a  24-ft.  bot- 
tom width  and  ranging  in  depth  from  3.5  to  7  ft.  The  side 
slopes  were  1  to  1,  and  the  width  of  berm  was  15  ft.  The  total 
excavation  was  43,128  cu.  yd.  The  total  cost  of  this  machine 
on  the  work  was  $8,506.  The  soil  was  a  yellow  clay  with  a  few 
spots  of  gravelly  clay,  and  the  top  soil  was  baked  very  hard. 
No  special  difficulties  were  encountered  except  that  considerable 
cribbing  was  necessary  to  level  up  the  track  supporting  the  ex- 
cavator when  crossing  natural  water  courses.  Except  for  these 
streams  the  ground  was  level.  Some  trouble  was  also  experi- 
enced with  the  traction  device,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ditch  was 
larger  than  that  for  which  the  machine  was  designed.  The  ac- 
tual number  of  working  days  was  128  days,  of  which  73  were  spent 
in  actual  digging.  The  cost  of  operation  per  day  was  as  follows: 
One  operator,  $3.85;  one  fireman,  $2.28;  three  deck  hands,  $0.27; 
one  team  and  teamster,  $5.40.  Total  per  day,  $17.80.  The  aver- 
age daily  excavation  for  the  number  of  days  worked  was  107  ft. 
of  ditch  or  337  cu.  y  1.  The  total  cost  of  operation  for  5  months 
was  $3,500.  Interest  and  depreciation  in  that  time,  at  41%  per 
annum,  would  amount  to  $1,452,  making  the  total  cost  $4,953  and 
the  cost  per  cubic  yard  11.5  ct. 

The  operating  cost  was  distributed  thus: 

Labor,    operating    $1,885.25 

Labor,    repairs     294.48 

Material,    operating    '. .  496.03 

Material,    repairs    222.99 

Fuel     601.84 

Total  operating  cost  at  8.1  ct.  per  cu.  yd $3,500.58 

Land  Dredges.  These  machines  may  be  divided  into  two  types : 
( 1 )  Those  moved  on  wheels  or  caterpillar  traction,  or  travelling 
on  rollers,  and  (2)  wralking  dredges.  The  term  includes  almost 
any  kind  of  locomotive  crane  or  travelling  derrick  operating  a 
dipper  or  bucket,  and  used  for  the  excavation  of  ditches.  The 
disadvantage  of  the  land  dredge,  as  compared  with  the  floating 
dredge,  is  that  it  is  impossible  to  use  one  in  excessively  soft 
ground.  Platform  traction  wheels,  however,  will  enable  a  dredge 


020 


HANDBOOK* OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


to  travel  on  moderately  soft  ground.  The  chief  advantage  of 
the  land  dredge  is  that  with  one  of  these  machines  it  is  possible 
to  begin  digging  a  ditch  at  any  point.  With  a  tloating  dredge, 
excavation  is  usually  begun  at  the  head  of  the  ditch  in  order 
that  there  may  be  sufficient  water  to  float  the  hull.  If  work  is 
abandoned  at  any  time  that  part  of  the  ditch  already  dug  is  in 
most  cases  useless.  In  fact,  it  may  be  a  detriment,  for  an  un- 
usual flood  would  carry  a  large  volume  of  water  to  the  point 
where  the  ditch  ended  and  possible  cause  considerable  destruction 
to  property.  The  land  dredge  can  start  work  at  the  outlet  of  a 


Fig.  9.     Gopher  Traction  Ditcher. 

ditch,  and,  as  far  as  dug,  the  ditch  becomes  a  useful  work,  drain- 
ing the  land   through  which  it  flows. 

The  Gopher  or  Straddle  Ditcher.  This  machine  (Fig.  9)  is 
built  by  Mayer  Brothers,  Inc.,  Mankatp,  Minn.  The  machine  is 
mounted  on  two  steel  beams  that  straddle  the  ditch  the  machine 
digs.  The  four  outer  ends  of  these  beams  are  each  provided 
with  a  two-wheeled  oscillating  truck.  The  wheels  are  2  ft. 
high  and  18  in.  wide.  They  run  on  plank  track  6  in.  thick,  3  ft. 
wide  in  six  sections,  each  20  ft.  long.  One  section  on  each  side 
is  always  loose  and  the  sections  are  moved  forward  by  two 
special  cranes  with  which  the  machine  is  provided  for  this  and 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  021 

other  purposes.  The  planks  are  wide  enough  to  hold  the  ma- 
chine up  on  the  softest  ground  and  slough.  The  dredge  will  dig 
12  ft.  deep  and  22  ft.  wide  on  firm  ground.  It  will  deposit  the 
dirt  32  ft.  out  from  the  center  of  the  ditch  to  the  center  of 
the  bank  to  either  side,  making  it  64  ft.  from  center  to  center  of 
said  bank.  The  dipper  will  swing  free  over  a  bank  14  ft.  high. 

The  machine  is  pulled  ahead  with  a  cable  from  the  engine 
hooked  to  the  track  from  both  sides,  and  run  to  a  dead  man 
ahead  of  the  dredge.  The  moving  is  done  without  interfering 
with,  or  stopping  the  work  of  digging.  The  total  weight  of  the 
dredge  is  about  25  tons,  and  it  is  equipped  with  a  dipper  hav- 
ing a  capacity  of  one  cu.  yd.  It  is  stated  that  the  dredge 
will  excavate  from  500  to  800  cu.  yd.  of  earth  in  10  hr.  This 
machine  is  meant  to  operate  either  in  dry  material  or  where 
there  is  water  in  the  ditch. 

The  King  Ditcher.  Another  type  of  dipper  machine  is  known 
as  the  King  Ditcher,  manufactured  by  the  Marion  Steam  Shovel 
Co.,  of  Marion,  Ohio.  This  machine  is  for  dry  land  excavating. 
However,  water  will  do  no  harm  unless  it  is  high  enough  to  in- 
terfere with  the  working  of  the  machinery. 

The  boiler,  engines  and  boom  are  all  mounted  on  a  large  drag 
or  mud  boat.  As  the  hull  is  comparatively  narrow,  easily  ad- 
justible  jackarms  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  machine  to 
prevent  it  from  tipping.  It  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  inde- 
pendent cable  drums  with  cables  attached  to  anchors  placed  in 
the  ground  on  each  side  of  the  ditch.  By  this  means  it  is  pro- 
pelled along  the  ditch  as  fast  as  the  material  is  thrown  out. 
It  can  be  used  on  any  kind  of  work,  from  soft  material  to  the 
hardest  clay  or  hardpan,  and  material  may  be  dumped  into  cars 
or  carts,  or  deposited  on  the  banks  as  required.  The  material  is 
dug  with  a  regular  steam  shovel  or  dredge  dipper. 

This  ditcher  is  adapted  for  excavating  lateral  ditches,  where 
there  is  not  sufficient  water  to  float  a  dredge,  or  narrow  trenches 
or  ditches  where  little  or  no  slopes  are  needed.  For  large 
ditches,  especially,  with  water  in  them  the  Marion  Steam  Shovel 
Co.  makes  floating  dredges  of  various  sizes  and  capacities.  They 
also  mount  some  of  these  dredges  with  dipper  capacities  from 
11/4  to  2^  cu.  yd.  and  with  booms  from  35  to  70  ft.  long,  on 
wheels.  These  are  known  as  Traction  Dredges.  Under  each 
corner  of  the  dredge  is  placed  a  small  four-wheeled  car  or 
truck,  and  these  cars  run  on,  two  rails  or  a  track  laid  down 
for  that  purpose.  By  means  of  cables  the  dredge  is  propelled. 
The  platform  or  hull  is  of  such  width  as  to  make  the  use  of 
bank  spuds  or  jack  screws  unnecessary. 

The  Fairbanks  Walking  Dredge.     Engineering  News,  Apr.  26, 


922 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


1011,  describes  a  ditching  machine  (Fig.  10)  that  is  made  by 
the  Fairbanks  Steam  Shovel  Co.,  of  Marion,  0.,  and  is  known  as 
a  "  walking  dredge."  This  machine  is  designed  to  excavate 
ditches  where  it  is  impossible  to  get  enough  water  to  float  an 
ordinary  boat.  It  does  not  require  any  track  or  rollers  to  move 
it  ahead.  The  machinery  is  placed  on  a  timber  hull  or  platform 
well  braced,  to  go  over  the  constructed  ditch  and  the  boom  is 
operated  like  that  of  an  ordinary  dredge  by  a  turntable.  The 
shovel,  which  is  the  digging  part  of  the  machine,  is  shaped  very 
much  like  a  slip  or  drag  scraper.  It  has  a  capacity  of  from 


Fig.    10.     View   of   Walking   Dredge   for    Dry    Ditching. 


one  to  two  yards.  It  is  attached  to  a  long  arm,  which  is  let 
down  to  the  ground  and  the  shovel  is  filled  by  means  of  a  drag 
line  from  the  engine.  The  shovel  has  two  tails  and  two  lines  on 
it.  The  second  tail  keeps  the  shovel  in  an  upright  position  as 
it  is  being  loaded,  and  by  releasing  the  line  the  load  is  dumped. 
A  somewhat  similar  machine  to  this  and  also  called  a  walking 
dredge,  has  been  used  in  Minnesota  on  ditch  work.  This  ma- 
chine has  a  second  boom,  known  as  the  walking  beam,  suspended 
from  the  boom.  Pivoted  on  the' end  of  the  walking  beam  is  the 
shovel  arm,  and  the  shovel  or  scraper  instead  of  working  to- 
ward the  machine  as  in  the  Fairbanks  dredge,  when  loading 
works  away  from  it.  This  is  accomplished  by  pulling  with  a 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


923 


chain  on  the  upper  end  of  the  shovel  arm.  The  load  is  released 
by  a  pull  on  a  chain  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  shovel  arm. 
" "  The  peculiarity  of  this  machine  is  the  method  of  moving. 
Under  each  corner  is  a  timber  platform  the  shape  of  a  stone 
boat,  called  a  foot  (Fig.  11).  Each  of  these  corner  feet  is  6 
ft.  wide,  8  ft.  long  and  4  in.  thick.  They  are  joined  together 
transversely  by  a  light  timber.  This  requires  them  both  to 


HOf 

My 


Fig.   11.     Corner  Foot  of  Walking  Dredge. 

move  in  the  same  direction,  the  direction  being  controlled  by  a 
chain  which  runs  from  each  corner  foot  to  a  drum  that  is  op- 
erated by  the  craneman.  Near  the  outside  of  each  corner  foot 
there  is  a  knife  made  of  iron,  one-half  inch  thick  by  6  in. 
wide  and  6  ft.  long,  which  prevents  the  foot  slipping  sidewise. 
Midway  of  the  machine  on  either  side  is  a  center  foot  6  ft.  wide, 
14  ft.  long,  6  in.  thick.  On  the  under  side  a  6x6  in.  timber 


924  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

is  bolted  crosswise,  to  prevent  slipping  back.  This  foot  is  at- 
tached to  a  heavy  triangle  frame,  free  to  move  longitudinally 
between  the  double  side  frame  of  the  hull.  A  chain,  the  end  of 
which  is  attached  to  the  side  timbers  of  the  hull,  passes  over 
two  pulleys  in  this  triangular  frame  and  then  passes  along  the 
hull  to  the  back  corner  and  across  the  back  end  to  a  drum  which 
is  located  about  the  center  of  the  hull.  When  it  is  desired  to 
move  the  machine  the  power  is  turned  on  to  this  drum  and  the 
chain  wound  up.  As  the  chain  tightens,  the  hull  of  the  ma 
chine  rises,  the  weight  coming  on  the  center  foot.  The  winding 
on  the  drum  is  continued  until  the  weight  in  lifting  the  hull 
becomes  greater  than  the  friction  at  the  corner  feet,  when  the 
entire  hull  moves  ahead  about  6  ft.,  although  an  8-ft.  move 
can  be  made.  The  chain  is  then  released,  taking  the  weight  off 
the  center  ^foot,  which  is  pulled  by  another  chain  attached 
to  a  drum  in  the  front  part  of  the  hull. 

"  This  machine,  when  not  digging,  has  moved  across  country 
at  the  rate  of  one  mile  in  11  hr.  While  working,  the  machine 
threw  7  shovels  of  dirt  and  moved  ahead  6  ft.  8  in.  in  7  min. 
It  worked  at  this  rate  several  times  and  this  seemed  to  be 
about  an  average  speed.  Short  bends  cannot  be  made,  as  the 
feet^  are  liable  to  slip  into  the  ditch  and  wet  caving  material 
causes  trouble.  When  the  banks  are  dry  and  firm  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  moving." 

The  Monighan  Walking  Excavator.  An  excavator  which  is 
mounted  upon  a  tractor  device  having  a  "  walking "  motion 
instead  of  being  mounted  upon  rollers  or  wheels,  has  been  brought 
out  recently  and  is  used  especially  in  land  drainage  work.  The 
advantages  claimed  for  this  method  of  moving  the  machine  are 
in  giving  a  much  larger  bearing  area  than  rollers,  wheels,  or 
caterpillars;  and  in  giving  only  a  direct  pressure  upon  the 
ground,  thus  avoiding  the  tearing  up  and  churning  of  soft  soil 
by  wheels  or  caterpillars.  It  requires  no  tracks  for  wheels  and 
no  skids  or  plankways  for  rollers,  and  thus  dispenses  with 
men  required  to  handle  such  auxiliary  parts.  The  machine  can 
travel  in  any  direction  and  can  change  its  direction  readily,, 
turning  angles  or  curves  without  any  skidding.  The  mechanism 
for  moving  comprises  few  parts,  which  are  large  and  substantial 
and  not  liable  to  wear. 

The  excavator  is  of  the  drag-line  type  and  is  shown  at  work 
in  Fig.  12,  while  Fig.  13  shows  the  details  of  the  tractor  or 
traveling  device.  The  steel  frame  carrying  the  machinery  and 
boom  revolves  upon  a  turntable  or  circular  base  which  rests  on 
the  ground  and  forms  the  support  of  the  machine  when  work- 
ing. The  bottom  of  this  base  frame  is  covered  with  steel  plates, 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  925 

so  that  it  provides  a  large  bearing  area.  Across  the  upper  or  re- 
volving frame  extends  a  9-in.  shaft  carrying  at  each  end  a 
cast-steel  sector  A,  to  which  is  pivoted  a  lifting  beam  B. 
From  this  beam  is  suspended  the  shoe  or  platform  C,  which  has 
a  steel  frame  shod  with  plank.  Upon  the  shaft  is  a  large  spur 
wheel  D,  gearing  with  a  pinion  which  is  mounted  on  the  shaft 
of  the  loading  drum  and  is  fitted  with  a  jaw  clutch  and  a  band 
brake. 

When  the  machine  is  excavating,  there  is  no  load  upon  the 
shoes,  which  are  swung  clear  of  the  ground,  the  entire  weight 
being  carried  by  the  base  of  the  turntable.  When  the  machine 
is  to  be  moved,  the  pinion  clutch  is  thrown  in  and  the  engine 


Fig.  12.  Monighan  Walking  Excavator.  When  working,  the 
weight  is  carried  by  the  solid-base  turntable  frame  A.  When 
moving,  the  weight  is  carried  by  the  two  shoes  B  B. 

started,  thus  driving  the  cross-shaft.  As  this  revolves,  the  sec- 
tors and  beams  lift  the  side  shoes  and  swing  them  8  ft,  forward, 
till  they  rest  upon  the  ground.  The  continued  revolution  of 
the  shaft  causes  the  sectors  to  ride  or  rock  upon  steel  plates 
on  top  of  the  shoes,  the  entire  weight  of  the  machine  being  thus 
transmitted  to  these  shoes  while  the  machine  is  lifted  bodily  and 
shifted  8  ft.  forward.  The  total  advance  is  thus  16  ft.  When 
the  movement  is  completed,  the  sectors  lift  the  shoes  clear  of  the 
ground,  and  the  machine  is  again  carried  upon  the  broad  base 
of  the  turntable.  The  clutch  is  then  released,  and  the  machine 
resumes  work. 

As  the  shoes  are  carried  by  the  revolving  frame,  there  is  no 
skidding  in  turning  the  machine  at  an  angle  or  curve.  With 


920 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  shoes  raised  clear  of  the  ground,  the  machine  is  revolved 
into  the  desired  line  of  direction,  the  shoes  being  then  lowered 
and  the  machine  advanced  in  this  line.  Thus  it  is  readily  mov- 
able in  any  direction,  and  wide  ditch  work  can  be  handled  with 
a  comparatively  short  boom,  the  machine  working  alternately  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  center  line  of  the  cut.  The  shorter  boom 
permits  of  a  larger  bucket  and  greater  excavating  capacity.  As 
the  shoes  are  raised  about  2  ft.  from  the  ground,  it  is  easy  to 
place  timbers  or  earth  filling  beneath  them  if  required  in  very 
soft  ground. 


Fig.   13.     Walking  Mechanism  of  Monighan   Walking  Excavator. 


The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  12  is  at  work  on  a  drainage  ditch 
3i/£  mi.  long,  near  Wheeling,  111.,  the  contract  involving  about 
100,000  cu.  yd.  of  excavation.  The  ditch  is  10  ft.  wide  on  the 
bottom,  with  side  slopes  of  1:1  and  a  depth  of  5  to  10  ft.  There 
is  a  15-ft.  berm  and  a  spoil  bank  on  each  side  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  distance,  but  in  some  places  these  are  on  one  side 
only.  The  machine  has  a  50-ft.  boom  and  handles  a  21^-yd. 
scraper  Bucket.  Its  turntable  track  is  17  ft.  diameter.  The  two 
shoes  or  side  platforms  are  20  x  4  ft.,  each  composed  of  two 
12-in.  I-beams  with  %-in.  cover-plates  on  top  and  3-in.  oak 
planks  bolted  to  the  bottom  flanges. 

The  boiler  is  of  the  locomotive  type,  carrying  125  Ib.  pressure 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS     /?.£]  927 

and  there  is  a  750-gal.  water  tank.  The  weight  of  the  machine 
is  about  65  tons.  A  larger  size  is  made,  having  a  24-ft.  turn- 
table, 65-ft.  boom  and  3%-yd.  bucket;  this  weighs  about  85  tons. 
The  machines  may  be  operated  by  gasoline  engines  or  electric  mo- 
tors if  required. 

These  "  walking  "  drag-line  excavators  are  built  by  the  Moni- 
ghan  Machine  Co.,  of  Chicago.  The  walking  mechanism  is  the 
invention  of  0.  J.  Martinson. 

Ditching  with  Special  Plows.  The  simplest  ditch  can  be  dug 
with  an  ordinary  plow.  For  this  purpose  a  turning  plow  is  used. 
A  furrow  is  turned  from  6  to  10  in.  deep,  and  the  plow  in  re- 
turning throws  the  earth  in  the  opposite  direction,  giving  a  ditch 
on  the  bottom  from  6  to  12  in.  in  width.  The  earth  is  thrown 
to  each  side  of  the  furrow. 

A  better  ditch  can  be  excavated  for  either  drainage  or  irriga- 
tion work  by  first  plowing  four  furrows  with  an  ordinary  plow 
and  then  by  using  a  shovel  plow,  which  has  a  square  bottom  mold 
board,  flat  like  a  shovel  with  a  14  or  16-in.  blade,  the  plowed 
earth  is  pushed  to  each  side,  leaving  a  ditch  from  one  to  two 
feet  wide  and  from  8  to  12  in.  deep. 

A  wing  plow,  which  has  a  long  mold  board,  can  also  be  used 
to  excavate  a  ditch.  More  efficient  work  can  be  done  by  first 
plowing  the  ground  as  is  done  for  the  shovel  plow. 

A  lateral  plow,  which  is  the  name  given  to  a  plow  used  in  irri- 
gation countries,  is  made  by  bolting  together  the  beams  of  a 
right  hand  and  a  left  hand  plow.  The  shears  are  spread  out, 
and  rounded  instead  of  being  pointed.  On  top  of  the  mold  boards 
are  riveted  two  other  mold  boards  taken  from  other  plows. 
Wide  handle  bars  are  bolted  to  the  plow  and  well  braced  to  the 
beams.  Such  a  plow  is  drawrn  by  from  4  to  8  horses,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  depth  of  the  ditch  to  be 
made.  One  operation  of  this  plow  turns  two  furrows,  one  to 
each  side  of  the  ditch,  throwing  the  dirt  high  on  the  ground. 
A  ditch  with  a  clean  bottom  about  2  ft.  wide  is  left.  A  tool 
of  this  kind  should  have  extensive  use  in  many  sections  of  the 
country.  The  excavated  earth  could  be  afterwards  leveled  off 
with  a  two-horse  grader  or  leveler. 

Ground  can  also  be  broken  with  a  plow  and  then  pushed  to 
either  side  with  an  A-shaped  drag,  such  as  is  used  to  clean 
paths  through  snow,  made  either  of  steel  or  timber.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  timber  should  be  shod  with  iron. 

Ditching  with  Cable  Operated  Plows.  Engineering  News,  Feb. 
,3,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

For  excavating  the  smaller  sizes  of  farm  ditches,  too  small 
for  the  use  of  a  floating  dredge  or  a  land  dredge,  a  ditching  plow 


928 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


was  invented  about  40  years  ago  in  western  Indiana.  It  has  a 
double  moldboard  and  cuts  a  ditch  about  4  ft.  wide  on  top  and 
2  ft.  deep,  with  a  bottom  width  of  less  than  1  ft.  To  draw  this 
plow,  80  oxen  were  used,  making  the  ditch  at  one  cut.  This  type 
of  ditching  machine  finally  developed  into  a  standard  outfit,  con- 


Fig.  14.  Plow  for  Ditching  by  Horse  Traction.  The  plow, 
shown  in  raised  position,  is  fitted  with  a  side  wing  to  form  a 
berm  along  top  of  ditch. 

sisting  of   one   plow  and   two   capstans,   using   several   thousand 
feet  of  steel   cable  with  each  rig. 

Work  of  Horse  Capstan  Plows.  With  this  outfit  the  plow 
will  cut  a  ditch  8  ft.  wide  on  top,  18  in.  on  the  bottom  and 


Fig.  15.  Capstan  for  Ditching  by  Horse  Traction.  The  long 
horizontal  pole  is  the  sweep  by  which  the  horses  turn  the  drum 
and  the  inclined  timbers  (one  on  each  side)  are  anchors. 

about  3  ft.  deep.  It  is  drawn  by  two  %-in.  steel  cables,  one  from 
each  capstan,  both  being  operated  at  the  same  time.  It  makes 
a  ditch  with  one  cut,  either  dry  or  under  water,  and  places  on 
sides  of  the  ditch  the  earth  excavated,  pushing  the  earth 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  929 

back  so  as  to  leave  a  clean  berm  of  3  ft.  The  two  capstans  used 
to  draw  the  plow  are  self-anchoring  and  have  14-in.  vertical 
drums,  each  drum  holding  1,000  ft.  of  cable. 

Four  heavy  horses  are  used  on  each  capstan,  working  abreast 
and  pulling  at  the  end  of  a  sweep  that  is  attached  direct  to  the 
drum.  This  sweep  is  usually  about  24  ft.  long,  and  the  horses 
describe  a  circle  nearly  50  ft.  in  diameter  in  order  to  wind  in 
3  or  4  ft.  of  cable.  The  work  is  so  severe  that  relays  of  horses 
are  used,  and  there  are  usually  about  20  horses  with  each  ditch- 
ing rig. 

These  horse-driven  ditching  plows  cut  about  100  rods,  or  1,650 
ft.  of  ditch  per  day.  In  Wisconsin  they  frequently  cut  50  miles 


Fig.  16.  Caterpillar  Tractor  with  Drum  for  Hauling  the  Ditch- 
ing Plow.  When  plowing,  the  tractor  is  stationary  and  is  an- 
chored by  the  inclined  spuds  while  the  60-hp.  engine  drives  the 
drum  for  winding  in  the  plow  cable. 

of  ditch  in  one  season  at  a  contract  price  of  .from  $1.25  to  $2 
per  rod  of  ditch,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  soil. 
Ditches  made  in  stony  or  timbered  lands  are  the  more  ex- 
pensive. 

Power  Operated  Capstan  Plows.  A  gasoline  tractor  supported 
by  two  long  caterpillar  wheels  30  in.  wide  carries  a  cable  drum 
(Fig.  1C).  Two  anchor  flukes,  2x10  ft.  are  placed  near  the 
front  of  the  machine,  one  on  each  side.  They  are  held  at  the 
proper  angle  by  heavy  chains  attached  to  the  frame  of  the 
tractor.  These  anchors  hold  the  power  capstan  stationary  when 
the  plow  is  being  pulled  forward  to  cut  the  ditch. 


030  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  1%-in.  steel  pulling  cable  is  wound  upon  a  large  built-up 
cast-steel  drum  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  machine.  This 
drum  is  24  in.  long,  16  in.  in  diameter,  with  flanges  36  in.  in 
diameter.  It  is  driven  by  two  heavy  link-belt  chains  from  the 
main  driving  shaft  of  the  tractor  and  is  so  back-geared  that 
when  the  60-hp.  motor  is  running  at  its  normal  speed  the 
drum  winds  in  the  pulling  cable  at  a  rate  of  14  to  18  ft.  per 
min.,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  cable  on  the  drum.  The 
drum  holds  about  1,000  ft.  of  cable.  When  greater  length  is  re- 
quired, on  account  of  inaccessible  grounds,  etc.,  removable  sec- 
tions of  500  or  600  ft.  of  cable  are  used  to  attain  the  desired 
length. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  pulling  power  is  so  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  horse  machines  that  the  size  of  the  plow  can  be 
increased.  The  new  plows  will  cut  ditches  2  ft.  wide  on  the  bot- 
tom and  3i£  ft.  deep.  They  are  made  by  the  Glencoe  Foundry 
and  Machine  Co.,  of  Glencoe,  Minn. 

Operating  the  Power  Ditching  Plow.  The  power  capstan  re- 
itains  its  original  feature  as  a  tractor  and  is  used  to  haul  the 
plow  which  weighs  4  tons  when  mounted  on  its  removable  trucks. 
It  also  hauls  a  wagon  loaded  with  cable  and  supplies,  and  a 
boarding  cabin  mounted  on  wheels.  It  takes  this  outfit  over 
ordinary  country  roads  at  the  rate  of  about  2  mi.  per  hr.  The 
machine  weighs  about  15  tons;  but  owing  to  its  large  bearing 
surface,  it  can  travel  under  its  own  power  over  swamp  lands  too 
soft  to  support  a  team.  It  is  driven-  by  a  four-cylinder  four- 
cycle gasoline  engine  of  60  hp.,  which  also  furnishes  power  to 
drive  the  winding  drum. 

In  operation  the  plow  is  left  at  the  starting  point  of  the 
ditch,  the  cable  being  attached  to  the  beam  of  the  plow.  Then 
the  power  capstan  moves  ahead  to  some  point  on  the  line  of 
the  ditch  to  be  cut,  paying  out  the  cable  as  it  advances.  When 
this  point  is  reached,  the  traction  gear  is  released  and  the  wind- 
ing apparatus  to  the  drum  is  thrown  into  gear.  The  anchors 
are  released,  allowing  the  points  to  drop  to  the  ground.  As  the 
cable  to  the  plow  becomes  taut,  it  draws  the  machine  backward, 
causing  the  anchor  flukes  to  enter  the  ground  until  the  tractor 
with  its  capstan  becomes  firmly  anchored. 

When  all  the  cable  is  wound  on  the  drum,  or  a  change  in  the 
direction  of  the  ditch  is  to  be  made,  the  winding  gear  is  thrown 
out  of  action  and  the  traction  gear  is  thrown  in.  As  the  tractor 
then  advances,  it  pays  out  the  cable  and  withdraws  the  anchors, 
which  are  hooked  up  clear  of  the  ground  by  power,  and  the  ma- 
chine proceeds  to  a  new  point  of  setting,  as  determined  by  the 
foreman. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


931 


The  power  capstan  is  operated  by  one  man  and  a  helper ;  one 
man  rides  on  the  plow,  and  a  tram  with  driver  is  used  in  hauling 
supplies  to  the  camp  and  to  the  machine.  A  cook  in  the  port- 
able cabin  on  wheels  furnishes  the  food  for  the  crew.  A  fore- 
man directs  the  movements  of  the  whole  outfit. 

Ditching  with  Cable  Plow  Operated  from  Barges.  In  ditch- 
ing land  that  is  too  soft  to  permit  the  operation  of  a  caterpillar 
traction  ditcher,  or  other  traveling  plants,  either  hand  work,  or 
the  use  of  some  sort  of  ditch  plow  operated  from  barges  is  the 
only  alternative.  According  to  A.  M.  Shaw,  in  Engineering 


EN6.NEW& 


"dnchorerqe  for 

Swrhh  Block 


Fig.   17.     Method  of  Excavating  Ditches  by  a  Cable 
Operated  Plow. 

News,  Aug.  14,  1913,  ditches  in  soft  ground  were  excavated  with 
an  outfit  consisting  of  the  following:  (1)  two  barges,  16  by  20 
ft.;  (2)  a  special  compound-geared  pulling  engine,  made  by 
Clyde  Iron  Wks. ;  (3)  two  lengths  of  %-in.  steel  cables,  each 
1,350  ft.  long;  (4)  one  length  of  light  message  cable;  (5)  one 
ditching  plow.  The  engine  has  7  by  10-in.  cylinders  and  a  ver- 
tical boiler  (4  by  9  ft.)  carrying  100  Ib.  pressure.  The  total 
weight  of  boiler  and  engine  is  about  9  tons. 

The  power  plow  consisted  of  a  heavy  log  forming  the  main 
stem  or  keel,  with  a  long  steel  "  coulter  "  hinged  to  the  under 
side.  This  "  coulter  "  was  made  from  a  steel  bar  about  %  in. 
thick,  4  in.  wide  and  4  ft.  long.  The  pulling  cable  was  attached 
to  the  top,  and  another  cable  was  also  attached  to  the  top  of 


932 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  "  coulter  "  and  carried  back  by  an  adjustable  hitch  on  the 
top  of  the  center  log.  This  latter  cable  was  used  for  regulating 
the  depth  of  cuts.  From  the  front  end  of  the  log  extended  two 
heavy  plank  wings  or  mold  board. 

The  method  of  working  was  to  excavate  two  main  canals  about 
•1,200  ft.  apart,  and  to  open  the  land  between  them  by  a  series 
of  connecting  ditches  (Fig.  17).  On  one  canal  a  ditching  plow 
was  floated  while  on  the  other  canal  was  a  barge  carrying  the 
pulling  engine.  A  steel  cable  ran  from  the  plow  to  the  forward 
drum  of  the  engine,  capable  of  exerting  a  20,000-lb.  pull.  This 
cable  pulled  the  ditching  plow  through  the  intervening  1,200 
ft.  of  ground  at  a  speed  of  about  3,000  ft.  per  hr.  Another 
cable  ran  from  the  rear  drum  of  the  engine  to  a  snatch  block 


Lattra/DMies  formed  by  Cable 
Experiments/  Tile  Drains 
Lerees 


Fig.  18.     Plan  of  a  Canal  and  Ditch  System  for  Drainage  of  a 
Tract  of  Swamp  Land  in  Louisiana. 

on  the  farther  bank  of  the  lower  canal,  and  thence  to  the  rear 
of  the  plow.  This  latter  drum  (single-gear)  exerted  a  pull  of 
8,000  Ib.  to  haul  the  plow  back  through  the  newly  dug  ditch  to 
the  canal,  whence  it  was  floated  down  to  the  next  proposed  ditch 
and  the  operation  was  repeated. 

It  was  not  found  practicable  to  cut  a  ditch  more  than  about 
30  in.  deep  with  this  device,  and  it  lacked  the  adjustable  fea- 
tures of  a  more  elaborate  ditching  machine.  It  had  the  follow- 
ing advantages :  ( 1 )  low  first  cost ;  ( 2 )  economy  of  operations ; 
(3)  simplicity;  (4)  easily  transferred,  as  the  plow  is  pulled 
into  the  canal  and  floated  from  one  ditch  to  the  next. 

One  month,  156  quarter-mile  ditches  (or  39  miles)  were  cut 
with  the  plow,  each  ditch  being  gone  over  twice.  The  ditches 
averaged  about  30  in.  deep,  2  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom  and  3  ft. 
wide  on  top.  The  cost  of  operating  the  plow,  including  repairs, 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  933 

fuel,  etc.,  amounted  to  about  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.     A  crew  of  10  to 
12  men  was  required. 

Ditching  by  Explosives.  Explosives  if  properly  used  will  ex- 
cavate ditches  and  spread  the  material  removed.  The  flow  of 
water  is  depended  on  to  clean  out  the  bottom.  Holes  in  stiff 
clay  or  hard  pan  should  be  26  in.  apart  along  the  ditch,  and 
in  loose  mucky  soil  30  in.  apart.  They  should  be  punched  or 
bored  to  within  6  in.  of  the  desired  depth.  In  strongly  sodded 
soil,  cut  with  a  spade  along  the  side  lines.  All  holes  in  the 
ditch  should  be  blasted  simultaneously  with  a  battery  if  pos- 
sible, or  placed  closer  together,  18  to  24  in.  apart  along  the 
ditch,  and  exploded  by  concussion  from  the  middle  hole,  that  one 
being  detonated  by  a  fuse  and  cap.  Tables  I  and  II  give  the  re- 
quired charges.  Dynamite  of  20%  grade  is  ordmarily  used,  but 
in  stiff  tenacious  soil  40%  is  better.  When  the  material  is  soft 
at  top  and  hard  at  bottom,  use  40%  dynamite  in  the  bottom  of 
the  charge  and  20%  in  the  top. 

TABLE  I  —  OF  CHARGES  FOR  DITCH  BLASTING  (USING  BATTERY) 

Number  of  Distance 

rows  of  holes  between 

required  rows,  in. 
1 
1 

2  20 

2  28 

2  36 

2  42 

3  42 
Required  length  of 

No.  6  Victor  Elec- 
tric Fuses 4  ft.  6  ft.  6  to  8  ft. 

Distance  apart  in  rows  depends  on  nature  of  soil. 

TABLE   II  — OF   CHARGES  FOR  BLASTING  DITCH   (WITHOUT 
BATTERY) 

IB 

Distance 
between 
rows,  in. 

30 
36 
42 
48 
36 
42 

_,_.._  -  48 

Distance  apart  in  rows  depends  on  nature  of  soil. 

For  methods  of  blasting  see  Chapter  V.  Also  see  my  "  Hand- 
book of  Rock  Excavation." 


Top  width 
of  ditch 
in  ft. 

Number  of  cartridges 
required  for  various  depths 
2%  to  3  ft.              4  ft.             5  to  6  ft. 

3 

Vz 

6 

1 

2 

3 

.8 

1 

2 

3 

10 

1 

2 

3 

12 

1 

2 

3 

14 

1 

2 

3 

16 

1 

2 

3 

Top  width 

Approximate  number  of  cartridges 
per  hole  required  for  various 
depths 

Number 
of  rows 

of  ditch 

2V2  to  3  ft. 

4ft. 

5ft. 

6ft. 

required 

6 

1 

2 

2% 

3 

1 

8 

1 

2 

m 

3 

2 

10 

1 

2 

2% 

3 

2 

12 

1 

2 

2% 

3 

2 

14 

1 

2 

2% 

3 

2 

16 

1 

2 

m 

3 

3 

18 

1 

2 

2y2 

3 

3 

20 

1 

2 

2Vz 

3 

3 

934  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Three  Examples  of  Cost  of  Ditching  by  Dynamite.  The  fol- 
lowing work  done  at  Chadhourne,  N.  C.,  for  the  Brett  Engineering 
Co.,  as  reported  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  8,  1012. 

Where  the  ground  was  comparatively  free  from  stumps  and 
roots  holes  were  put  down  18  in.  apart,  3y2  ft-  deep,  and  100  holes 
in  all.  Each  hole  was  pointed  45°  and  loaded  with  one  stick  of 
Hercules  60%  N.  G.  dynamite  1^x8  in.,  the  center  hole  being 
primed  with  an  extra  stick  and  a  double  strength  exploder.  See 
Fig.  19.  The  result  was  a  good  ditch  7  ft.  wide  on  top,  3  ft. 
on  the  bottom  and  3  ft.  deep  and  150  ft.  long.  Costs  of  finishing 
and  trimming  according  to  specifications  per  running  foot  were: 

Explosives     $11.35 

Putting  down   holes    50 

Finishing  and   trimming   4.50 

Total  cost  of  150-ft.  ditch   $16.35 

Total  cost  per  running  ft 0.109 

The  next  ditch  was  shot  at  Sollo  Swamp,  where  the  ground 
was  heavily  matted  with  roots  and  stumps.  The  specifications 
here  called  for  a  ditch  14  ft.  wide,  2^  ft.  deep.  A  double  row  of 
holes  were  used,  100  in  each  row,  18  in.  apart  laterally,  4i£  ft. 
apart  longitudinally,  and  4  ft.  deep.  Both  rows  pointed  45°  in 
the  same  direction.  The  middle  holes  were  primed  with  an  extra 
stick  and  a  double  strength  exploder.  Along  the  path  of  this 
ditch  there  were  35  stumps  from  6  in  to  3  ft.  in  diameter.  The 
result  was  a  clean  ditch  12  to  14  ft.  wide,  4  ft.  deep  and  150  ft. 
long. 

Explosives  per  running  ft $0.100 

Holes   per  running   ft •••        .007 

Labor  per  running  ft .030 

Total  cost  per  running  ft $0.137 

The  next  ditch  was  shot  at  Dunn  Swamp,  150  ft.  long  in  the 
muddiest  and  stickiest  kind  of  ground.  A  double  row  of  holes 
was  used,  18  in.  apart,  4i£  ft.  laterally,  4  ft.  deep,  both  rows 
pointed  45°  in  the  same  direction.  Each  hole  was  loaded  with 
one  stick  of  60%  dynamite  and  the  middle  hole  of  each  row  was 
primed  with  a  double  strength  exploder.  All  the  holes  were 
well  tamped.  The  result  was  a  very  clean  ditch  14  ft.  wide.  3i£ 
to  4  ft.  deep  and  150  ft.  long.  The  total  cost  of  this  ditch  was 
the  same  as  the  ditch  shot  at  Sollo  Swamp. 

A  drainage  ditch  2,600  ft.  long,  containing  1,732  cu.  yd.,  was 
blasted  out  with  1,400  Ib.  of  60%  nitroglycerin  dynamite.  The 
method  used  was  to  prime  the  center  holes  in  a  line  300  to  500 
ft.  long  with  fuse  and  caps.  According  to  B.  L.  Jenks  in  the 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


935 


DuPont  Magazine  for  June,  1914,  the  land  was  very  wet  and  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  use  teams  or  a  ditching  machine. 
To  have  dug  it  by  hand  would  probably  have  cost  at  least  33 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  total  cost  by  the  dynamite  method  was  $383 
or  22.1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  itemized  as  follows:  Dynamite  delivered 


Fig.   19.     Arrangement  of  Holes  for  Excavating  Ditches  with 
Dynamite. 

on  land,  $278;  labor  putting  down  the  holes  and  shooting,  $104; 
fuse  and  caps,  $1. 

Arthur  E.  Morgan,  iu  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb.  1, 
1911,  gives  the  following  about  ditching  in  southeastern  Mis- 
souri : 

One  of  the  ditches  examined,  which  had  been  constructed  about 
a  year,  wras  6  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom,  12  ft.  wide  on  top,  3}£  ft. 


936  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

. 

deep,  and  in  good  order.  In  digging  it  two  i/£-lb.  sticks  of  50% 
dynamite  were  placed  3  ft.  apart  in  the  ground  and  between  3 
and  4  ft.  deep.  Two  men  construct  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  ditch 
in  a  day. 

At  a  cost  of  15  ct.  per  pound  for  dynamite,  and  $20  per  mile 
for  placing  the  charges,  the  ditch  had  cost  about  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
The  ditch  had  been  constructed  through  the  woods  without  cutting 
down  any  of  the  trees,  xand  in  some  instances  the  fallen  trunks 
were  lying  across  the  channel. 

Cost  of  Ditching  with  Dynamite  in  Georgia.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  July  9,  1919,  gives  the  following: 

In  connection  with  the  anti-malarial  preparations  of  the  U.  S. 
Public  Health  Service  in  the  extra  cantonment  zone  at  Camp 
Wheeler,  Ga.,  dynamite  was  used  in  the  ditching  work.  The  best 
results  were  obtained  in  mucky  areas  where  the  mud  was  so  deep 
and  soft  that  hand  excavation  became  slow  and  difficult.  In  these 
cases,  the  use  of  dynamite  proved  satisfactory.  In  a  report 
on  the  work  by  the  U.  S.  Public  Health  Service  the  following 
comparative  costs  of  ditching  by  hand  labor  and  with  dynamite 
are  given.  The  figures  are  for  two  adjacent  ditches  in  a  large 
swamp  in  the  extra  cantonment  zone.  Ditch  No.  60  was  exca- 
vated with  dynamite.  This  ditch  was  2,802  ft.  long,  12  ft.  wide 
at  the  top  and  4  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  averaged  5  ft.  deep. 
The  number  of  cubic  yards  of  material  removed  was  4,151.  Ditch 
No.  62  was  excavated  by  laborers  with  picks  and  shovels.  This 
ditch  was  3,591  ft.  long,  4  ft.  wide  and  3  ft.  dx?ep.  The  yardage 
was  1,596.  The  cost  of  excavation  in  the  case  of  ditch  60  in- 
cludes clearing  out  the  ditch  after  it  was  dynamited.  In  the 
case  of  ditch  62  the  cost  of  excavation  includes  the  cost  of  a  small 
quantity  of  dynamite  used  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  large 
stumps.  The  costs  of  excavating  each  ditch,  not  including  clear- 
ing, were  as  follows: 

Ditch  60.  Ditch  62. 

Cubic   yards    4,151  1,596 

Labor  'cost    $308.90  $671.75 

Cost  of   material    $1,265.10  $38.75 

Cost    of    excavation    $1,574.00  $710.50 

Cost   per    cu.    yd ' $0.39  $0.4o 

Man  days  at  $3    103  224 

Man  days  per  cu.  yd 0.024  0.140 

Cubic  yards  per  man  day   41.66  7.14 

The  report  states  that  it  is  probable  that  the  cost  of  exca- 
vating ditch  60  by  hand  would  have  greatly  exceeded  45  ct.  a  cu. 
yd.,  owing  to  the  very  difficult  nature  of  the  soil  —  a  mass  of 
yielding  mud,  largely  under  water,  in  which  it  was  almost  im- 
possible to  stand  up. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  937 

Blasting  a  Diteh  in  Quicksand  and  Clay.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Nov.  21,  U)17,  gives  the  following:  At  one  of  the 
plants  of  the  American  Brick  Co.  a  channel  530  ft.  long,  ex- 
tending through  a  tangle  of  underbrush,  was  successfully  blasted. 
The  soil  is  quicksand  and  clay.  In  blasting  through  the  clay  a 
hole  was  bored  and  cartridges  pushed  down  with  a  stick,  no 
tamping  being  necessary  as  the  water  filled  the  hole. 

The  strip  of  quicksand  measured  about  35  ft.  across.  Tin 
tubes  about  ^  in.  longer  than  a  stick  of  dynamite  were  made. 
Cartridges  were  encased  in  the  tin  tubes  and  then  pushed  down 
into  the  quicksand. 

The  cartridges  were  spaced  about  2  ft.  apart,  both  in  the 
quicksand  and  in  the  clay.  In  one  hole  the  charge  consisted 
of  iy2  cartridges.  The  next  hole  contained  1  cartridge.  And 
so  on  alternately  down  the  line.  The  cartridges  were  put  down 
to  a  depth  of  about  2i£  ft.  The  resulting  shot  gave  a  ditch 
about  3  ft.  deep  and  6  ft.  wide. 

Ditch  Excavation  by  Scrapers.  When  scrapers  are  used,  with 
the  exception  of  power  scrapers,  the  ground  must  first  be  loos- 
ened by  a  plow.  Two  useful  scrapers  for  small  ditches  are  the 
Chicago  Tongue  Scraper  and  the  Haslup  Side  Scraper.  These 
are  described  and  illustrated  in  Chapter  IX. 

The  rotary  scraper  can  also  be  used  for  ditch  excavation. 
This  is  a  California  invention.  The  scraper  consists  of  a  square 
pan  that  revolves  about  two  fixed  points  in  a  frame  made  up  of 
the  bail  and  the  handles,  instead  of  being  attached  rigidly  to 
the  handles  as  is  a  drag  scraper.  The  scraper  is  loaded  in  the 
usual  way,  and  is  dumped  by  the  driver  releasing  a  catch  at 
the  handle,  thus  allowing  the  movement  of  the  scraper  to  dump 
itself. 

The  other  styles  of  scrapers  can  all  be  used  either  in  exca- 
vating small  or  large  ditches.  However,  the  ground  must  be 
dry  enough  to  allow  horses  to  walk  over  it  without  becoming 
mired.  Even  if  horses  sink  but  a  few  inches  .into  the  ground  as 
they  walk,  their  work  is  greatly  retarded.  Drag  scrapers  oper- 
ate poorly  in  very  wet  places.  The  suction  of  water  on  the 
bottom  of  the  pans  makes  the  work  hard  for  the  horses,  but  in 
dry  material  good  work  can  be  done,  even  when  pulling  up 
steep  slopes.  However,  where  the  ditch  is  large  enough,  buck 
or  Fresno  scrapers  can  be  used  instead  of  drag  scrapers;  and 
with  leads  less  than  60  ft.  more  economic  work  will  be  done. 
Ditches  6  to  8  ft.  deep  can  readily  be  dug  with  buck  scrapers. 
The  mass  of  the  yardage  can  be  moved  with  them  and  then  drag 
scrapers  can  be  used  to  finish  and  dress  up  the  work. 

For    deep    ditches    and    where    the    haul    on    the    excavated 


038  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

material  is  long,  wheel  scrapers  will  be  found  superior  to  either 
drags  or  buck  scrapers.  But  the  ditch  must  be  wide  enough 
for  two  teams  to  pass  one  another,  or  else  the  loaded  scraper 
cannot  get  by  the  snatch  team  without  delaying  the  work. 

Another  kind  of  scraper  that  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  ditch 
construction  is  the  Maney  four-wheel  scraper.  This  scraper  has 
been  described  in  Chapter  IX. 

Power  scrapers  are  also  well  adapted  to  ditch  construction. 
Some  form  of  a  derrick  car  or  movable  derrick  is  used  to  oper- 
ate the  scrapers.  Descriptions  of  power  scrapers  are  given  in 
Chapter  XIV. 

Cost  of  Excavating  Ditches  with  Drag  Scrapers.  The  out- 
put of  scrapers  at  the  experimental  farm  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota  is  given  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  21, 
1008.  The  ditches  were  about  3  ft.  deep  and  4. 05  ft.  wide. 
The  scrapers  were  for  the  most  part  used  for  finishing  up  ditches 
excavated  by  elevating  graders.  On  one  ditch  a  drag  scraper 
excavated  at  the  rate  of  43.5  cu.  yd.  per  day,  and  on  another 
at  the  rate  of  41  cu.  yd.  per  day.  Each  scraper  required  the 
services  of  1  team  and  1.5  men.  The  contractor  acted  as  his 
own  foreman  handling  the  teams  in  gangs  of  4  to  0  scrapers. 
With  wages  for  laborers  and  drivers  at  $2.00  per  day,  the  cost 
of  horses  at  $1.50  each,  and  allowing  $3.00  per  day  for  the  serv- 
ices of  a  foreman,  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was  1C  c't.  On  other 
ditches  an  experienced  ditch  man  and  team  excavated  at  the  rate 
of  65  cu.  yd.  per  day,  and  a  contractor  with  2  teams  and  3 
men  in  a  gang  averaged  100  cu.  yd.  per  gang  per  day,  or  50  cu. 
yd.  per  scraper. 

See  Chapter  IX   for  other  cost   data. 

Cost  of  Main  Canal  for  Payette-Boise  (Idaho)  Irrigation 
Project.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  16,  1008,  gives  the 
following : 

Work  under  the  contract  was  begun  in  Feb.,  1006,  and  was 
completed  in  March,  1908.  The  total  amount  invested  by  the 
contractor  and  sub-contractors  in  plant  was  estimated  to  be 
$30,836,  $28,230  of  which  was  invested  in  teams  and  harness. 
In  estimating  interest  charges  the  value  of  horses  and  harness 
was  not  included  as  they  were  considered  in  the  cost  records 
at  current  rate  of  wages  for  teams. 

During  the  first  portion  of  the  contract  laborers  worked  10  hr. 
per  day,  but  during  the  latter  portion  an  8-hr.  day. 

The  following  current  wages  were  paid  for  an  8-hr,  day: 
Superintendent,  $125  per  month;  time-keeper,  $100  per  month; 
foreman,  $3  to  $4  per  day;  powder  man,  $3;  drivers,  $2.50; 
common  labor,  $2.25;  stable  boss,  $67  per  month. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  939 

No  materials  -were  furnished  by  the  contractor,  but  consider- 
able supplies  were  needed  in  conjunction  with  the  excavation  of 
rock.  Coal  delivered  on  the  work  cost  $9  per  ton,  black  powder 
$2  per  keg,  giant  powder  $0.15  per  lb.,  and  lumber  $22  per  M. 
ft.  B.M. 

The  greater  part  of  Class  I  excavation  consisted  of  a  stiff 
loam  containing  a  considerable  amount  of  clay  with  loose  rocks 
of  various  sizes  scattered  through  the  mass.  About  one-half  of 
this  material  was  handled  with  Fresno  scrapers,  the  remainder 
being  handled  in  wheel  and  drag  scrapers.  Nearly  all  of  the 
excavation  was  taken  from  the  canal  prism,  there  being  very 
little  taken  from  borrow  pits. 

Class  2  excavation  consisted  of  indurated  material  that  could 
be  plowed  by  10  horses.  This  material  was  usually  found  be- 
neath Class  1  material,  and  after  plowing  consisted  mainly 
of  a  mass  of  lumps  of  earth  of  various  sizes.  The  lumps  were 
broken  by  the  passage  of  horses  and  scrapers  over  them,  and 
were  loaded  and  hauled  by  means  of  Fresno  and  wheel  scrapers. 

Class  3  excavation  consisted  of  indurated  material  that  re- 
quired blasting  before  it  could  be  removed,  but  that  could  be  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  wheel  scrapers.  This  material  occurred  lo- 
cally and  was  found  usually  near  the  grade  plane  of  the  canal. 

Class  4  excavation  consisted  of  boulders  less  than  one-half 
cubic  yard  in  volume  that  would  prevent  plowing  and  the  use  of 
scrapers,  and  was  scattered  quite  generally  throughout  Class  1 
material.  These  boulders  were  usually  removed  by  means  of 
stone  boats  working  in  conjunction  with  wheel  or  Fresno 
scrapers. 

Class  5  excavation  consisted  of  boulders  exceeding  one-half 
cubic  yard  in  volume  an:l  solid  rock,  requiring  blasting  for  re- 
moval. All  drilling  was  performed  by  hand  and  a  greater  part 
of  the  blasting  was  done  with  black  powder,  though  a  small 
amount  of  giant  powder  was  used.  About  two-thirds  of  this 
class  of  material  was  encountered  in  three  of  the  heavier  cuts, 
the  remainder  being  scattered  along  the  entire  length  of  the 
canal.  This  material  was  moved  by  means  of  stone  boats,  but 
horse  power  derricks  were  used,  together  with  the  stone  boats, 
in  the  deeper  cuts  with  less  satisfactory  results. 

Table  I  gives  the  cost  of  the  work. 

The  following  was  the  yardage  of  each  class: 

Class  1  467,785 

Class  2  .  T 69,009 

(Mass  3  20,30:1 

Class  4  : 10,933 

Class  5.  .  85.828 


Total  cu.   yd 653,858 


940  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

There  were  207,074   cu.  yd.  of   "  overhaul "  that   cost   2.3   ct. 
per.  cu.  yd. 

TABLE   I.    COST  PER  CU.  YD.   ON   MAIN   CANAL,    PAYETTE-BOISE 
IRRIGATION  PROJECT 

Class  of  Excavation 
(1)        (2)        (3)        (4)        (5) 


001 

002 

004 

004 

008 

003 

006 

008 

009 

.020 

Repairs       

006 

.011 

.014 

.017 

042 

001 

002 

004 

003 

007 

014 

025 

031 

033 

092 

001 

001 

002 

001 

002 

019 

056 

058 

085 

Drilling   by   hand    

057 

021 

209 

098 

029 

225 

Loading,  hauling  and  spreading  .  . 

.089 
.006 

.164 
016 

.255 
021 

.294 
032 

.507 

Water,   original  cost,   and  hauling. 

.001 
143 

.003 
291 

.001 
561 

.001 

538 

.004 
1  133 

.007 

.016 

.022 

.035 

.046 

Total  cost    $.150    $.307    $.583    $.573  $1.175 

Cost  of  Canal  Excavation  for  TTncompahgre  Irrigation  Proj= 
ect,  Colorado.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Nov.  18,  1908, 
gives  the  following: 

The  work  covered  4,400  lin.  ft.  of  the  South  Canal,  which 
was  begun  in  June,  1907,  and  completed  in  May,  1908,  at  a  total 
cost  of  $22,932.  The  canal  has  a  bottom  width  of  40  ft.,  side 
slopes  of  2  to  1,  water  depth  of  8.3  ft.,  and  a  discharge  of  1,175 
second-feet. 

Class  1  excavation  contained  all  material  that  could  be  plowed 
by  an  average  six-horse  team,  each  animal  weighing  not  less 
than  1,400  lb.,  attached  to  a  suitable  breaking  plow,  and  also 
all  isolated  masses  of  rock  not  exceeding  y2  cu.  yd.  in  volume. 
Class  2  excavation  consisted  of  material  originally  of  the  na- 
ture of  Class  1,  but  so  saturated  with  water  as  to  render  the 
use  of  teams  in  the  ordinary  manner  impossible.  Class  3  exca- 
vation consisted  of  indurated  material  of  all  kinds  that  could 
not  be  plowed  as  Class  1,  or  that  required  loosening  with  powder 
before  being  removed  in  scrapers,  and  also  all  loose  material  in 
which  large  rocks  occurred  to  such  an  extent  as  to  prevent  the 
use  of  plows  and  scrapers,  excluding  masses  exceeding  1  cu.  yd. 
in  volume.  Class  4  excavation  consisted  of  rock  in  masses 
greater  than  1  cu.  yd.  in  volume  and  requiring  drilling  and 
blasting  before  removal.  The  limit  of  free  haul  was  300  ft. 
About  73%  of  the  material  was  removed  with  drag,  Fresno  and 
wheel  scrapers,  about  27%  with  a  slip  and  chain,  and  the  re- 
mainder with  shovels  and  wheelbarrows, 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


941 


The  weather  conditions  were  good  for  the  performance  of 
work  throughout  the  continuance  of  the  contract,  and  the 
management  was  good  with  the  exception  of  insufficiency  in 
the  number  of  foremen  employed.  Labor  was  scarce  and  high. 
On  the  excavation  laborers  were  pa4d  at  the  rate  of  from  $2.25 
to  $2.50  per  day;  foremen  at  the  rate  of  $3  per  day  and  the 
superintendent  at  the  rate  of  $122.50  per  month. 

The  yardage  was  as  follows: 

Class  1 24,194 

Class  2  15,054 

Class  3 .' 17,058 

Class  4  100 

Total  cu.   yd 56,406 

There  were  6,600  cu.  yd.  of  "  overhaul "  that  cost  1.7  ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

The  unit  costs  of  the  different  classes  of  work  are  given  in 
Table  I. 

TABLE   I.    COSTS  PER  CU.  YD.  OF  EXCAVATION   OF   IRRIGATION 
CANAL,  UNCOMPAHGRE  PROJECT,  COLORADO 


Class  1    Class  2    Class  3    Class  4 
$0  002      $0  005      $0  003      $0  006 

Plant    depreciation    

.  .       0.002        0.006        0.004        0.008 
0  028        0  070        0  048        0  062 

Labor    

0  197        0  503        0.339        0  439 

0  002        0  001        0  260 

Contractor's   total   cost    .  . 

..     $0.229      $0.586      $0.395      $0.775 

U.    S.    engineering    

..     $0.013      $0.009      $0.012      $0.001 

Total    cost    $0.242      $0.595      $0.407      $0.776 

.  Cost  of  Huntley  Irrigation  Canal.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Jan.  20,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

Division  1  of  the  Main  Canal  of  the  Huntley  Project  contains 
a  section  of  about  390  ft.  in  length,  having  a  depth  of  17  ft.,  a 
base  of  14.5  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  ^  on  1.  In  addition  to  the 
material  covered  in  this  prism,  there  were  about  2,000  cu.  yd. 
of  material  excavated  above  the  general  level  on  one  side  of 
the  canal  extending  to  the  top  of  a  cliff  along  the  base  of  which 
the  canal  takes  its  course.  The  work  of  excavation  of  this  sec- 
tion of  the  canal  was  done  by  contract,  and  below  is  vgiven  a 
summary  of  the  cost  of  the  work  to  the  contractor. 

The  excavation  was  divided  into  the  three  following  classes: 
Class  1,  earth  or  material  that  could  be  plowed  and  handled 
with  scrapers;  Class  2,  loose  rock  varying  in  volume  from  2  to 
20  i-u.  ft. ;  Class  3,  solid  rock  or  material  not  included  in  either 


942  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  the  foregoing  classes.  Most  of  the  material  consisted  of 
a  bluish  gray  sandstone  of  medium  hardness  and  was  paid  for 
under  Class  3. 

The  material  excavated  from  the  main  prism  of  the  canal  was 
loosened  by  blasting  with  40%  gelatine  dynamite.  All  drilling 
for  blasting  was  done  by  hand.  About  two-thirds  of  the  ma- 
terial was  removed  in  small  cars  of  ^  cu.  yd.  capacity.  The 
finer  portions  of  the  remainder  were  loaded  by  hand  into  one- 
horse  dump  carts  and  hauled  a  distance  of  about  200  ft.;  and 
the  larger  pieces  were  rolled  onto  sheet  steel  sleds,  which  were 
unloaded  by  driving  the  sleds  over  the  side  of  a  near-by  dump, 
causing  the  rock  to  roll  off  the  sled.  The  material  taken  from 
the  cliff  above  the  canal  prism  was  handled  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  coarser  portions  from  the  canal  prism. 

The  principal  superintendent  was  paid  at  the  rate  of  $6.67  per 
8-hr,  day;  the  assistant  superintendent,  $5.75;  the  foreman, 
$3.25;  laborers,  from  $2  to  $2.40;  single  horse  and  cait,  $1  ; 
team  an  1  car,  $2;  team  and  driver,  $4;  blacksmith,  $2.80. 

In  Table  I  the  cost  of  the  principal  and  assistant  superin- 
tendent and  the  foreman  has  been  charged  under  Executive,  the 
cost  of  all  other  work  under  Labor,  and  the  cost  of  coal,  oil  and 
blasting  material  under  Supplies. 

TABLE   I.    COST   PER  CU.  YD. 

Class  1  Class  2  Class  3 

391  cu.  yd.  1,507  cu.  yd.  6,427  cu.  yd. 

Executive     ~  $0.009  $0.139  $0.127 

Labor     0.094  0.646  0905 

Supplies 0.103 

Total     $0.103  $0.785  $1.135 

Cost  of  Klamath  Irrigation  Canal.  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, May  19,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

About  12.3  miles  of  South  Branch  Canal  on  Klamath  Project 
were  constructed  under  two  contracts  during  the  season  of  1908 
and  part  of  1909.  The  upper  end  of  the  canal  is  about  8  miles 
from  Klamath  Falls,  and  the  whole  of  the  work  was  divided 
into  eight  schedules  averaging  about  1}£  miles  in  length.  Sched- 
ules 1,  2  and  3  were  constructed  under  contract,  the  greater 
part  of  the  work  being  done  from  May  to  December,  1908.  The 
excavation  of  about  8,000  cu.  yd.  on  schedule  1  was  delayed  until 
the  spring  of  1909  and  was  finished  in  March.  On  schedules  1 
and  3  the  bottom  width  is  from  15  to  18  ft.  and  the  slopes  are 
])£  to  1.  On  schedule  2  the  canal  is  built  entirely  in  em- 
bankment with  a  bottom  width  of  3.8  ft.  and  on  side  slope  of 
1  to  1.  On  this  schedule  the  material  for  the  outer  triangles 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


943 


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044  HANDBOOK  OF  KA&TH  EXCAVATION 

of  the  canal  banks,  amounting  to  about  40%  of  the  total,  was 
deposited  in  12-in.  layers  in  the  ordinary  manner  of  building 
embankments,  but  the  other  60%  of  the  material  was  deposited 
in  6-in.  layers,  sprinkled,  and  rolled.  Schedules  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8 
were  constructed  under  formal  contract  and  informal  specifica- 
tions, the  greater  part  of  the  work  being  done  from  August  to 
December,  11)08.  A'  small  amount  of  work  on  schedules  4  and  8 
was  done  in  the  winter  of  1908-9,  and  finished  in  March,  1909. 
For  all  of  schedules  4,  5,  6.  7  and  8  the  bottom  width  of  canal 
is  11.5  ft.  and  the  side  slopes  1%  to  1. 

On  all  schedules  most  of  the  material  excavated  was  earth  that 
could  be  plowed  by  six-horse  teams,  and  in  general  no  bad  con- 
ditions were  encountered.  A  small  amount  of  indurated  ma- 
terial that  required  blasting  before  scrapers  could  be  used  was 
encountered,  but  no  separate  estimate  of  the  cost  of  excavating 
this  material  was  kept.  The  per  cent  of  this  material  in  terms 
of  the  whole  amount  of  excavation  on  the  several  schedules  is, 
however,  tabulated  with  the  unit  costs. 

On  the  first  contract,  covering  schedules  1,  2  and  3,  an  estimate 
of  interest  on  investment  is  made  at  6%  per  annum  on  the  es- 
timated value  of  animals  and  equipment.  For  the  second  con- 
tract, covering  the  other  schedules,  no  estimate  of  interest  on 
investment  has  been  made.  For  both  contracts  an  estimate  of 
depreciation  of  equipment  has  been  made  at  2%  per  month  on 
the  total  value  thereof.  The  weather  and  labor  conditions  were 
generally  good  under  both  contracts.  The  wages  for  common 
labor  were  $2  per  day,  and  the  cost  of  animals,  including  de- 
preciation, was  estimated  at  $1  per  day  each. 

Table  I  gives  the  unit  costs  of  the  work,  including  cost  to  the 
contractors  and  the  engineering  expenses  of  the  United  States, 
together  with  other  useful  information  relating  to  the  work. 

Using  an  Engine  Instead  of  a  Snatch  Team  to  Load  Scrapers. 
In  the  construction  of  a  canal  in  connection  with  an  irrigation 
scheme,  part  of  the  material  was  removed  by  means  of  wheel 
scrapers.  The  canal  was  to  be  40  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  with  1 
to  1  side  slopes,  varying  in  depth  up  to  42  ft.  The  canal  was 
dug  mostly  in  clay,  but  there  was  some  rock.  The  spoil  was 
placed  alongside  of  the  cutting,  leaving  a  berm  30  ft.  wide.  Part 
of  the  material  was  removed  by  scrapers  of  about  16  cu.  ft. 
capacity  drawn  by  two  horses.  An  ordinary  winding  engine  was 
used  instead  of  an  extra  team  of  horses  for  loading  the  scrapers. 
The  engine  was  placed  on  the  bank,  close  to  the  edge  of  the 
excavation,  so  that  the  %-in.  wire  hauling  rope  might  pass  either 
way  about  300  to  400  ft.  along  the  canal.  The  hauling  rope 
was  attached  and  detached  at  the  pole  of  the  scraper  by  a  la- 


DITCHKS  AND  CANALS  045 

borer;  a  pony  driven  by  another  attendant  was  used  to  drag  the 
rope  from  place  to  place  for  this  laborer.  In  order  to  prevent 
the  scraper  cutting  too  deeply  and  to  prevent  undue  pressure  on 
the  necks  of  the  horses  a  gage  wheel  was  used  under  the  rear 
end  of  the  pole. 

Cost  of  Canal,  Milk  River  Project.  A.  E.  Bechtel,  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Sept.  20,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

The  earth  work  of  the  second  unit  of  the  Dodson  North  Canal, 
Milk  River  Irrigation  Project,  near  the  town  of  Malta,  Mont., 
was  begun  on  Sept.  1,  1913,  and  completed  on  Sept.  1,  1914,  by 
contract.  There  were  230,000  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  in  canals  and 
70,000  cu.  yd.  in  waste  water  ditches.  The  canals  were  from 
5  to  10  ft.  bottoms  with  a  slope  of  2  to  1,  and  contained  from 
100  cu.  yd.  to  1,300  cu.  yd.  to  the  station  of  100  ft.,  averaging 
about  400.  Approximately  20,000  cu.  yd.  was  wet  and  30,000  cu. 
yd.  was  hillside  work. 

The  waste  water  ditches  had  from  3-ft.  to  20-ft.  bottoms 
(mostly  3  ft.)  with  a  slope  of  1^  to  1,  and  averaged  about  100 
cu.  yd.  per  station;  10,000  cu.  yd.  was  wet  excavation.  About 
35,000  cu.  yd.  were  cast  into  the  canal  banks  with  an  Austin 
reversible  elevating  grader  pulled  by  a  30-60  hp.  Pioneer  gas 
tractor,  and  25,000  cu.  yd.  of  the  excavation  of  the  waste  water 
ditches  were  cast  out  with  an  Austin  senior  elevating  grader. 
These  machines  were  operated  two  and  three  shifts  during  the 
fall  of  1913  and  one  shift  during  1914. 

The  remainder  of  the  work,  240,000  cu.  yd.,  was  done  with  5-ft. 
fresnoes,  excepting  the  finishing  of  the  waste  water  ditches, 
which  was  done  with  drag  scrapers,  and  about  5,000  cu.  yd.  of 
over-haul  done  with  wheelers.  About  60,000  cu.  yd.  of  the  work 
was  sub-contracted  but  the  costs  here  are  the  costs  to  the  sub- 
contractors. 

The  material  excavated  in  the  canals  and  laterals,  other  than 
that  designated  as  wet,  was  average  clay  soil  with  more  or 
less  gumbo.  The  waste  water  ditches  were  mostly  gumbo  and 
baked  so  hard  that  in  excavating  it  with  a*  grader,  it  was 
hard  to  keep  the  plow  in  the  ground. 

The  cost,  to  the  contractor,  of  134,517  cu.  yd.  excavated  in 
1913  was  21.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  a  typical  section  being  No.  1 
which  contained  13,192  cu.  yd.  excavated  by  fresnoes  at  a  cost 
per  cu.  yd.  of: 

Ct. 

Labor 8.2 

Teams     6.3 

Superintendence     2.4 

Equipment     0.9 

General    expense     2.7 

Total  per  cu.  yd 20.5 


946  HANDBOOK:  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  cost  of  excavating  116,124  cu.  yd.  in  1914  was  as  fol- 
lows: 

Team  Work  — 

Superintendence      $0.0100 

Foreman      0.0114 

Plow      0.0160 

Fresno     0.0771 

Blacksmith     0.0012 

Fence   and   grubbing    0.0005 

Finishing     . 0.0028 

Equipment,    hardware   and   tools    0.0161 

General    expense     0.0038 

Labor,    erecting,    moving   and   maintaining  camp..  0.0014 

Cook 0.0044 

Labor,  hauling  camp  and  table  supplies   0.0020 

Labor,    maintaining   stable    0.0036 

Total,  teams,  93,949  cu.  yd $0.1503 

Machine  Work  — 

Superintendence     $0.0024 

Labor     .            0.0302 

Gas    and   oil    0.0297 

Repairs     0.0188 

Equipment,    hardware   and   tools    0.0683 

Total  machine,   22,175  cu.  yd $0.1494 

Total  — Machine    and    teams,    116,124    cu.    yd...       0.1501 
The    machine    consisted    of    a    Reversible    Austin    Elevating 
Grader  and  Pioneer  Tractor. 

Work  on  48  structures  (spillways,  culverts,  etc.)  involving  17,- 
644  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  and  8,115  cu.  yd.  of  backfill,  was  done  at 
an  average  cost  of  61  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of  excavation,  distributed  as 
follows : 

Ct. 

Foreman     2.0 

Excavation     '•••     35.0 

Backfill     7.0 

Total   field   cost    44.0 

General   supervision    5.0 

Equipment      -5-0 

General  expense    7.0 

Total      61-° 

The  material  was  clay. 

In  small  jobs,  where  the  clay  was  hard,  the  excavation  usually 
cost  about  as  follows,  for  a  spillway  excavation  of  54  cu.  yd. 
with  no  backfill: 

Foreman '. $0.17 

Excavation     1.24 

General    supervision     0.13 

Equipment      0.19 

General    expense    0.19 

Total  per  cu.  yd $1.92 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  947 

In  excavating  for  culverts  in  average  clay,  all  the  excavation 
being  subsequently  backfilled,  the  following  was  a  typical  cost. 

Foreman $0.03 

Excavation     0.43 

Backfill 0.12 

General   supervision    0.05 

Equipment      0.07 

General   expense    0.08 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.78 

Use  of  Elevating  Graders  for  Ditching.  Elevating  graders  can 
be  used  for  ditch  construction,  but  in  very  wet  ground  they  are 
barred  as  the  horse  or  engine  used  to  propel  them  would  be 
mired. 

For  ditch  work,  especially  where  there  is  tough  grass  and  small 
roots,  a  disc  plow  on  a  grader  will  do  more  efficient  work  than  the 
ordinary  turning  plow.  The  disc  plow  also  throws  the  material 
onto  the  elevating  belt  better.  For  such  work  the  elevator  should 
be  extended  to  30  ft.  if  the  ditch  is  a  wide  one.  It  is  in  this 
class  of  work,  where  the  material  is  thrown  onto  the  banks,  that 
an  elevating  grader  reaches  its  greatest  capacity. 

One  objection  to  an  elevating  grader  in  ditch  construction 
is  that  the  machine  will  not  finish  off  the  slopes  or  the  bottom 
of  the  trench,  as  the  plow  runs  irregularly.  But  the  work  can 
be  done  very  cheaply,  and  the  ditch  can  be  finished  off  at  small 
cost  with  road  machines  and  scrapers. 

For  narrow  ditches  the  machine  is  not  very  -well  adapted,  a 
width  of  8  ft.  at  the  bottom  being  necessary,  but  in  wide  ditches 
it  will  do  excellent  work,  and  the  cost  of  dressing  up  the  ditch 
is  proportionately  smaller. 

Fig.  20  (1-4)  indicates  the  types  of  ditches  that  may  be  ex- 
cavated with  an  elevating  grader,  and  the  methods  of  attacking 
the  work.  Fig.  20-1  shows  a  ditch  2  ft.  deep  and  4  ft.  wide  on  the 
bottom  with  1^  to  1  slopes.  In  cutting  a  ditch  of  this  size  a  15-ft. 
elevator  is  used.  The  earth  is  thrown  from  the  left  side  of  the  cut 
to  the  right  bank,  and  in  returning  it  is  thrown  in  the  opposite 
direction.  This  method  is  known  as  "  cross-firing."  This  is  about 
the  minimum  size  of  ditch  which  can  be  practically  excavated  in 
this  manner. 

Fig.  20-2  shows  a  ditch  which  may  be  excavated  by  the  use  of 
two  sizes  of  elevators.  The  first  2  ft.  in  depth  is  excavated  with  a 
15-ft.  elevator  starting  the  cut  along  the  outside  of  the  ditch  and 
working  toward  the  center.  The  last  2  ft.  is  then  excavated  by 
an  18-ft.  elevator,  leaving  a  berm  of  about  2  ft.  on  each  side. 

Fig.  20-3  represents  a  ditch  which  is  deeper  than  can  be  handled 


948 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


ordinarily  with  an  elevating  grader.  By  using  the  following 
method,  however,  such  a  ditch  can  be  successfully  handled. 
Using  a  21 -ft.  elevator  the  top  2  ft,  are  first  excavated,  and  to  a 
width  6  ft.  beyond  the  required  ditch  line.  This  extra  section 
taken  out  will  be  refilled  from  the  bottom  cut.  The  second 


CngContg 


Fig.  20.     Sizes  of  Ditch  That  Can  Be  Dug  with  Elevating  Graders. 


operation  is  to  excavate  the  next  3  ft.  in  depth.  This  section  is 
narrowed  down  to  23  ft.  on  top,  this  being  the  width  of  the  re- 
quired section  of  ditch  as  shown  by  this  drawing.  The  first  two 
operations  will,  in  this  case,  take  out  5  ft.  in  depth,  using  the 
method  of  working  from  the  outer  edges  of  the  ditch"  toward  the 
center.  The  third  operation  consists  of  cross-firing  and  depositing 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  949 

the  earth  from  the  bottom  of  the  cut  into  the  sections  lettered 
a  in  the  figure. 

Fig.  20-4  shows  a  side  hill  cut.  This  ditch  cannot  be  so  eco' 
nomically  excavated  as  the  others  since  the  spoil  bank  IS  limited 
to  one  side  of  the  cut  and  the  machine  operates  in  one  direction 
only,  making  the  return  trip  empty. 

The  downhill  slope  is  usually  plowed  as  indicated  in  the  figure 
to  prevent  sliding  of  the  embankment  and  to  prevent  the  larger 
chunks  of  earth  from  rolling  down  hill.  For  a  ditch  of  the  dimen- 
sions indicated  an  18-ft.  elevator  should  be  used. 

The  outputs  of  elevating  graders  excavating  ditches  for  the 
drainage  system  of  the  Minnesota  University  experimental  farm 
are  given  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  21,  1908.  The 
ditches  were  excavated  an  average  width  of  about  3  ft.  at  the 
bottom  and  a  depth  of  4.65  ft.  On  one  ditch  a  grader  removed 
2,040  cu.  yd.  at  the  rate  of  450  cu.  yd.  per  day  of  10  hr.,  and 
on  another  ditch  it  removed  4,000  cu.  yd.  at  the  rate  of  1,000  cu. 
yd.  per  day.  Sixteen  horses  and  4  men  were  required  for  the 
operation  of  a  machine.  If  the  rate  of  pay  of  men  was  $2  per 
day  and  of  horses  $1.50  per  day  each,  the  cost  was  3.2  to  7.1  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  In  finishing  up  these  ditches  drag  scrapers  were  used. 

See  Chapter  IX  for  other  data  on  elevating  grader  work. 

Ditch  Excavation  with  a  Grab-Bucket  Excavator.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Oct.  13,  1909,  describes  work  done  in  the 
Modesto  and  Turlock  districts  along  the  San  Joaquin  river  in 
California.  An  irrigation  canal  about  20  ft.  wide  on  the  sur- 
face, and  G  ft.  deep  with  steep  sides  was  dug.  It  was  anticipated 
that  the  sides  would  cave,  leaving  a  canal  about  3y3  ft.  deep. 
Most  of  the  soil  encountered  was  sandy,  hardpan  lying  under 
the  sand  at  varying  depths. 

The  dredge  cost  $5,000.  It  is  of  the  type  which  moves  in  the 
axial  line  of  the  canal  to  be  dug  and  recedes  from  the  breast 
of  the  canal  as  it  is  excavated.  It  differs  from  the  side  line 
dredge  in  that  its  boom  motion  is  produced  by  a  turntable.  The 
dredge  machinery  is  mounted  on  a  skid  platform  18  by  30  ft., 
\vhich  rests  on  several  movable  wooden  rollers  run  on  planks 
placed  on  the  ground.  As  the  canal  is  excavated  the  dredge  is 
moved  3  to  5  ft.  at  a  time  by  means  of  a  steel  cable  anchored  to  a 
"  dead  man "  several  hundred  feet  ahead  of  the  dredge,  and 
wound  on  a  drum,  which  is  power-driven  by  a  worm  gear  from 
the  engine.  The  tower  or  A-frame  which  supports  the  40-ft. 
boom  is  20  ft.  high.  This  boom  supports  the  cable  sheaves  for  the 
bucket  and  inclines  about  45°,  but  has  no  vertical  motion,  al- 
though it  may  be  swung  about  180°  horizontally  by. a  cable-pro- 
pelled turntable  located  at  the  front  of  the  dredge  under  the 


950  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

tower.  The  bucket  is  a  1-cu.  yd.  capacity  clam-shell  type,  weigh- 
ing about  2,800  Ib.  The  machine  is  controlled  by  means  of  three 
levers  and  two  foot  brakes,  mounted  on  a  platform  on  the  A- 
frame.  "Power  is  furnished  by  a  25-hp.  single-cylinder  gasoline 
engine,  which  drives  a  series  of  combination  gear  and  friction 
brake  drums  controlling  the  motion  of  the  excavating  bucket. 
The  following  was  the  operating  cost  per  month: 

Crew: 

Foreman     $  95.00 

Assistant  foreman    85.00 

Swamper     50.00 

Swamper,  one-half  month    25.00 

Man  and  team   (half  time) 50.00 

Total    crew    $305.00 

•>.!  i       H:      . 

Supplies : 

400  ft.  %-in.  hoisting  cable   $50.40 

6%    gals,    gasoline    1.60 

3  gals,  lubricating  oil   <>-75 

5  Ib.  Hecla  compound   1.25 

595  gals,  distillate,  at  7.5  ct.  per  gal 44.62 

1  cylinder  cup    3.00 

Rollers 21.00 

Large  intermediate  gear   14.00 

172  Ib.  dynamite,  at  16  ct.  per  Ib 27.52 

1,000    ft.    fuse  ~ 7.50 

2  boxes  caps !•"" 

Depreciation   of   dredge   ($5,000) 40.00 

Total  supplies  and  depreciation   $216.24 

Total  cost  of  excavation  per  mo $521.24 

Total  cubic  yards  excavated   14,941 

Cost  per  cubic  yard  excavated   $0.0<>5 

Operation  cost  per  hour  (based  on  255  hours) $2.05 

Operation  cost  per  hour   (based  on  200  hours) $2.61 

Cubic  yards  excavated  per  hour  (based  on  255  hpurs)  58.6 

Cubic  yards  excavated  per  hour  (based  on  200  hours)  74.7 

An  actual  cost  of  3.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  is  very  good 
under  ordinary  conditions,  and  especially  low  considering  the 
fact  that  this  cost  includes  excavation  of  hardpan  and  that  the 
proportion  of  time  lost  in  making  repairs  was  abnormal.  The 
customary  contract  price  for  moving  surface  earth  with  teams 
in  this  district  has  been  about  8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  where  no  hard- 
pan  is  encountered,  and  the  excavation  of  hardpan  has  cost  as 
high  as  50  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Comparing  this  with  the  above  figure 
of  3.5  ct.  gives  a  decided  advantage  in  favor  of  dredge  operation 
where  practicable. 

The  output  was  747  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day  for  20  days  per 
month. 

Cost  of  Excavating  Drainage  Ditch  With  a  Dragline  Exca- 
vator. Ray  S.  Owen,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Mar.  11, 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  951 

1914,  gives  the  following  data  regarding  the  cost  of  excavating 
drainage  ditches  in  Rock  County,  Wis.  The  machine  used  was  a 
dragline  dredge  with  steam  power,  running  on  a  track  laid  by 
hand  and  propelled  by  pulling  on  a  dead  man  with  the  hoisting 
drum.  The  operating  crew  consisted  of  1  runner,  1  fireman,  2 
trackmen  and  1  teamster. 

The  ditches  are  in  a  hay  meadow,  the  soil  being  about  2  ft. 
of  muck  underlain  by  sand.  Ihe  ditches  averaged  5  ft.  deep  with 
1%  to  1  slope,  the  main  ditch,  2.60  miles  in  length,  having  a 
6-ft.  bottom  with  21 -ft.  top  and  the  lateral  1.36  miles  in  length, 
having  a  4-ft.  bottom  with  19-ft.  top.  The  total  excavation  com- 
puted for  the  ditch  was  53,019  cu.  yd.  The  soil  caved  very  badly 
and  a  large  amount  of  excess  material  had  to  be  excavated  to  get 
the  specified  prism  clear  of  dirt.  The  amount  of  earth  actually 
moved  was  about  75,000  cu.  yd. 

The  two  ditches  are  not  connected  but  empty  into  Sugar  River 
at  points  about  one-quarter  mile  apart.  This  arrangement  ne- 
cessitated a  tear  down  and  move  of  about  three  miles  from  the 
end  of  one  ditch,  after  it  was  completed,  to  the  other  ditch,  and  a 
set  up. 

The  costs  given  include  freight  on  machine  from  Madison, 
Wis.,  to  Sterling,  111.,  the  operation,  moving,  repair,  etc.,  of  the 
machine  during  the  work,  and  the  tearing  down  and  delivery  of 
the  machine  on  board  cars  at  Sterling,  which  is  about  8  miles 
from  the  job.  The  rent  of  2  ct.  a  yd.  included  the  furnishing,  by 
the  owner  of  the  dredge,  of  sheaves  and  cable,  which  was  a  large 
item  as  the  sand  wore  them  out  very  rapidly.  The  cost  of  coal, 
teaming  and  moving  is  rather  large,  because  of  very  bad  roads 
when  the  outfit  was  moved  out  in  the  spring  and  the  deep  sand 
through  which  the  coal  was  hauled  during  the  summer.  The 
unit  prices  are  given  for  the  contract  yardage  and  for  the  actual 
yardage. 

Contract  Actual 

yardage  yardage 

Rent  of  dredge    $0.020'  $0.014 

Labor     0  054  0.038 

Coal     0.009     .  0.006 

Express   and   freight    0.003  0.002 

Bond    and    liability    insurance    0.002  0.002 

Livery  and  carfare    0.002  0.001 

Oil     0.001  0.000 

Teaming    and    moving    0.011  0.008 

Tools,    supplies,    repairs,   la^ber    0.003  0.002 

Miscellaneous     0.001  0.001 


Total  cost  per  cu.  yd $0.106  $0.074 

Electric  Dragline  Excavators   on   Drainage  Work.     Electrical 
World,  Oct.  28,  1916,  gives  data  for  drainage  work  on  the  Boise 


052  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Project  of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service  in  the  vicinity  of  Cald- 
well  and  Nampo,  Idaho. 

Four  excavators  of  the  same  type  and  capacity,  having  cater- 
pillar traction,  50-ft.  booms,  9.5-ft.  swing  circles  and  1.25-cu.  yd. 
buckets  are  used.  They  are  designed  to  operate  on  440-volt, 
three-phase,  60-cycle,  alternating-current  supply.  The  caterpillar 
drive  and  the  drag  drums  of  the  excavators  are  driven  by  direct 
geared  80-hp.  motors  controlled  by  a  drum-type  controller  pro- 
vided with  resistance,  switchboard  and  circuit  breakers.  The 
swing  machinery  is  operated  by  a  40-hp.  motor  provided  with  a 
drum-type  controller  for  quick  acceleration,  designed  to  make  it 
possible  to  reverse  at  full  speed.  The  operating  crew  consists  of 
two  men  for  each  excavator — the  operator  and  an  oiler. 

The  total  drainage  results  accomplished  on  the  Boise  Project 
with  the  electric  excavators  to  June  1,  1916,  consists  of  the  re- 
moval of  3,762,350  cu.  yd.  of  material  in  approximately  93  miles 
of  open  ditches.  The  ditch  sections  vary  from  10-ft.  base  2  to  1 
slopes,  to  a  5-ft.  base  1.5  to  1  slopes,  and  the  average  cut  ap- 
proximates 10  ft. 

At  the  field  camp  headquarters  a  substation  is  located  which 
transforms  the  current  to  4,000  volts.  The  transmission  lines 
erected  for  the  drainage  construction  carry  4,000  volts  and  are 
built  and  rebuilt  as  needed  in  the  construction  of  the  various 
drains.  In  the  building  of  these  lines,  30-ft.  poles  are  generally 
used  and  No.  4  bare  copper  conductor.  The  connection  from  the 
transmission  line  to  the  other  transformers  which  are  carried 
on  the  dredges  consists  of  No.  6  B  &  S  gage  triple  conductor 
armored  cable,  and  connection  is  made  from  the  three  wires  of 
this  cable  to  the  transmission  lines  by  hook  switch  terminals 
fastened  on  the  ends  of  light  25-ft.  poles.  The  connection  is 
transferred  from  pole  to  pole  as  the  construction  proceeds,  and 
the  300-ft.  length  of  cable  used  allows  the  passing  of  obstruc- 
tions. 

The  average  energy  used  is  approximately  0.88  kw.-hr.  per 
cu.  yd.  of  material  excavated,  varying  with  the  material  exca- 
vated, being  as -low  as  0.39  kw.-hr.  in  light  sandy  loam  including 
all  line  and  transformer  losses. 

The  use  of  power  has  been  very  convenient  around  the  head- 
quarters camp,  where  a  machine  shop  is  electrically  operated 
to  handle  repairs  and  also  for  use  in  pumping  water  in  the  con- 
struction of  culverts.  Each  excavator  is  lighted  by  two  inclosed- 
type  flaming  arc  lamps. 

The  approximate  cost  of  excavation  to  date  has  been  as  fol- 
lows: 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  953 

Labor    cost     $0.023 

Electrical    energy    (at    1    ct.    per    kilowatt-hour)    and 

supplies    0.019 

Installing   transmission   and   telephone   lines   and   sub- 
stations,  including  cost  of  materials   0.013 

Total  per   cu.   yd $0.055 

This  is  exclusive  of  depreciation  and  general  expenses. 

Drainage  Canals  Built  by  Dredge  and  Dragline.  Engineering 
News,  Feb.  20,  1913,  gives  the  following:  Over-use  of  water 
for  irrigation  having  turned  productive  farms,  on  the  Yakima 
Indian  Reservation,  Washington,  into  swamps  and  barren  alkali 
flats,  a  drainage  system  was  constructed  by  day  labor  by  the 
U.  S.  Indian  Service. 

The  following  are  the  detailed  costs  and  construction  data  of 
the  three  machines  used: 

Marion  Dredge — 1-yd.  dipper  dredge,  40-ft.  boom.  Limit  of 
dump  above  water  15  to  18  ft.  Limit  of  digging  below  water, 
12  ft.  Center  of  hull  to  center  of  dump,  35  to  40  ft.  Size  of 
hull,  60  x  18  x  5y2  ft.  About  24,000  ft.  B.  M.  lumber  required  in 
construction  of  hull. 

Cost  of  machinery  f.o.b.  Marion,  Ohio,  $5,000.  Cost  complete 
with  hull  in  working  order  about  8  miles  haul  from  the  railroad 
(exclusive  of  freight  charges  on  machinery  from  Marion,  Ohio,  to 
Toppenish,  Wash.),  $10,034. 

Started  to  excavate,  Nov.  17,  1910,  and  worked  steadily  till 
Mar.  13,  1912,  usually  excavating  in  soft  material  with  gravel 
subsoil  and  occasional  streaks  of  hardpan.  Results: 

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated   i 502,911 

Total  in.  ft.  of  canal  57,944 

Total  8-hr,  shifts  operating   823 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.: 

Field  supervision,   including  clerical    $0.005 

Labor    operation     0.037 

Hardware,    tools,    etc 0.002 

Repairs,    shopwork,    etc ; 0.004 

Camp    maintenance     * 0  00} 

Coal,    $4.85  per  ton  delivered   0.016 

Cable     0.005 

Oil,  waste  and  carbide  for  lights  0.003 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.074 

No  depreciation  charges  have  been  added,  but  it  is  believed  that 
from  1  to  iy2c.  per  cu.  yd.  would  cover  this  item. 

Dragline — This  machine  was  constructed  by  the  Washington 
Iron  Works,  of  Seattle,  Wash.  It  had  a  50-ft.  boom,  with  1  yd. 
Channon  bucket,  operated  by  a  7  x  10^-in.  double  engine.  The 
machine  was  mounted  on  skids  and  hauled  back  by  an  independent 


954  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

engine  mounted  on  the  rear.     It  was  started  in  September,  1910, 
and  finished  on  expiration  of  lease,  Apr.  15,  1912. 

The  material  excavated  comprised  volcanic  ash  with  occasional 
streaks  of  hardpan  that  required  blasting,  underlaid  with  loose 
gravel. 

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated   539,235 

Total  lin.   ft.   9f  canal    68,590 

Total  8-hr,    shifts   operating    917 

Field  supervision,    including  clerical    $0.006 

Labor  operation,  including  $225  rent  per  mo 0.060 

Hardware,    tools,    etc 0.003 

Repairs  and  shopwork   0.011 

Camp    maintenance     0.003 

Coal,  cable,  oil,  waste,  carbide  for  lights,  etc 0.026 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.109 

Due  to  the  layout  of  the  canals,  this  machine  moved  empty 
about  2%  miles,  which  expense  is  included  in  the  above  costs. 

Lidgerwood  Class  B.  Dragline  Excavator — This  machine  com- 
plete for  operation  on  the  ground  about  two  miles  haul  from 
railroad,  exclusive  of  railroad  transportation  from  Chicago,  cost 
$11,555. 

The  material  excavated  comprised  volcanic  ash  soil  with  oc- 
casional streaks  of  hardpan,  underlain  with  loose  gravel.  The 
machine  started  to  operate  Oct.  1,  1910,  and  the  data  are  given 
to  June  20,  1912. 


Total  cu.   yd.   excavated    

Total  lin.  ft.  of  canal   92,305 

Total  8-hr,  shifts  operated    1,024 

Field  supervision  and  clerical   $0.005 

Labor    operation     0.035 

Hardware,  tools,  etc 0.004 

Repairs    and    shopAvork    0.013 

Camp    maintenance    0.002 

Coal,   cable,   oil  waste,  carbide  for  lights,  etc 0.023 

Total  per  cu.   yd '. $0.082 

No  depreciation  has  been  charged  in  the  above,  but  it  is  be- 
lieved that  about  iy2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  should  cover  this  item. 

This  machine  moved  empty,  a  total  distance  of  about  18  miles, 
which  expense  is  included  in  the  above  costs. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  the  total  amount  disbursed, 
including  engineering,  structures,  clearing,  fence  moving  and  in- 
ventory, which  covers  all  depreciation,  added  to  the  excavation, 
shows  a  cost  of  about  12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  when  applied  wholly  to 
to  the  excavation. 

Floating  Dredges  for  Ditching.  The  methods  and  costs  of 
floating  dredge  operation  will  not  be  treated  at  length  here  as 
a  full  discussion  of  this  subject  is  given  in  Chapter  XV.  There 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  955 

are  a  number  of  companies  manufacturing  dredges  especially  for 
ditch  work.  Almost  all  dredges  -used  for  this  type  of  construc- 
tion are  either  grab-bucket  or  dipper  dredges,  the  latter  being 
generally  used. 

While  dipper  dredges  do  not  make  as  neat  a  ditch  or  one  to  as 
exact  grades  and  slopes  as  many  of  the  other  types  of  machines, 
they  have  gained  favor  because  they  can  be  worked  under  all 
kinds  of  adverse  conditions  and  in  any  sort  of  material,  not  ex- 
cepting blasted  rock. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country  stumps  and  roots,  as  well  as 
buried  logs,  impede  the  work  of  the  machines.  Any  contractor 
who  has  worked  through  such  ground  knows  what  difficulties  he 
has  had  to  overcome.  Sunken  logs  are  a  prolific  source  of 
trouble,  especially  when  they  are  of  any  length,  and*  more  than 
half  of  the  log  protrudes  under  the  banks  of  the  ditch.  A  dipper 
dredge  has  been  the  only  successful  machine  for  such  work. 

A  finished,  well-sloped  ditch,  with  a  true  grade  and  solid  bot- 
tom without  holes  in  it,  and  spoil  banks  in  good  shape  with  a 
sufficient  berm  between  them  and  the  ditch  to  prevent  the  ma- 
terial from  sloughing  back  into  it,  is  much  to  be  desired,  to  secure 
cheapness  of  maintenance  and  to  make  the  ditch  do  efficiently  the 
work  for  which  it  is  designed. 

A  very  important  feature  of  dredges  is  the  spuds.  A  dredge 
is,  as  a  rule,  either  equipped  with  vertical  or  bank  spuds,  or  both. 
These  are  necessary  to  balance  the  boat  and  hold  it  to  its  work, 
especially  in  digging  hard  materials  or  in  handling  large  logs 
or  stumps.  They  also  prevent  the  boat  from  being  wrecked  or 
sunk.  They  must  be  adjustable  in  case  of  sudden  high  water 
and  also  for  receding  water.  If  they  cannot  be  adjusted  in  a 
reasonable  length  of  time,  delays  occur  that  are  expensive.  Spe- 
cial attention  should  always  be  paid  to  the  spuds  both  in  pur- 
chasing a  dredge  and  in  operating  it. 

Clam-shell  or  orange-peel  bucket  dredges  are  used  to  a  large 
extent  in  ditch  construction.  In  both  styles  of  these  buckets  dif- 
ferent types  are  made  for  soft  and  hard  digging.  In  both  the 
clam-shell  and  orange-peel  buckets,  makers  build  a  type  to  grapple 
boulders  and  stumps. 

Ladder  Dredge  Used  in  Excavating  a  Small  Canal.  A.  M. 
Shaw,  in  Engineering  News,  Aug.  14,  1913,  gives  a  description 
of  machines  used  in  excavating  ditches  and  small  canals  in 
Louisiana,  and  states  that  ladder  dredges  of  the  Menge  type  have 
been  used  on  work  of  this  kind.  The  manufacturers  of  this  dredge 
state  that  in  open  swampy  prairie  land  a  ladder  dredge  can  do 
twice  as  much  work  as  where  the  soil  contains  much  clay,  as 
the  clay  sticks  to  the  bucket  and  will  not  dump.  Where  stumps 


950  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

or  cypress  roots  exist  in  considerable  numbers  trouble  is  ex- 
perienced. 

A  dredge  used  near  New  Orleans,  with  a  hull  22  by  GO  ft.  and 
the  ladder  swinging  to  either  side,  cut  a  canal  35  ft.  wide.  The 
distance  from  center  line  of  the  boat  to  end  of  the  discharge 
apron  was  40  ft.,  and  the  velocity  of  discharge  was  usually  great 
enough  to  cast  the  material  about  10  ft.  further.  The  ladder  had 
32  buckets  of  about  6  cu.  ft.  capacity  each.  The  boiler  was  50 
hp.  and  the  engine  had  two  Ilxl6-in.  cylinders.  The  cost  of 
the  dredge  was  about  $10,000. 

The  average  monthly  output  of  the  machine  was  24,000  cu.  yd. 
The  coal  consumption  was  1.5  to  2  tons  per  shift  of  10  hr.  The 
cost  of  operating  the  machine  on  a  single  shift  was  about  $650  a 
month,  giving  an  operating  cost  of  about  2.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Cutting  1  to  1  Slopes  With  a  Dipper  Dredge.  Engineering 
News,  Oct.  19,  1916,  gives  an  account  of  drainage  work  on  the 
Little  River  Drainage  District  in  Missouri.  The  ditch  system 
involves  625  miles  of  dredged  channels  containing  34,250,000  cu. 
yd.  of  excavation.  The  ditches  range  in  size  from  4  ft.  bottom 
width  and  8  ft.  depth,  to  123  ft.  bottom  width  and  12  ft.  depth. 

All  work  is  done  by  floating  dipper  dredges,  with  bank  spuds 
for  the  smaller,  and  bank  or  bottom  spuds  for  the  larger  ma- 
chines. The  laterals  are  cut  mainly  by  dredges  with  1-yd.  buckets. 
For  the  main  ditches  a  1-yd.  dredge  makes  two  pilot  cuts  6  ft. 
deep,  one  on  each  side.  These  are  about  22  ft.  wide  on  top  and 
12  ft.  on  the  bottom,  with  the  1  to  1  slope  on  the  outer  side.  A 
larger  dredge  first  extends  each  pilot  cut  to  the  full  depth,  and 
then  takes  out  the  center.  In  this  way  five  cuts  are  made  for 
the  complete  section.  On  the  ditch  with  123  ft.  bottom  width  a 
dredge  with  a  4-yd.  dipper  has  made  a  record  of  83,278  cu.  yd. 
in  26  working  days. 

The  contract  states  that  the  completion  of  the  work  within  the 
time  is  of  special  importance.  With  this  in  view  it  is  specified 
that  any  contractor,  before  beginning  the  erection  of  a  dredge, 
must  obtain  the  engineer's  approval  of  its  size  and  capacity. 
This  is  required  in  order  to  prevent  the  use  of  dredges  of  insuffi- 
cient capacity  to  make  the  desired  progress. 

The  specifications  provide  that  the  work  is  to  be  staked  out  in 
advance  by  the  engineer,  to  show  the  exact  location  and  width  of 
right  of  way,  the  ditch,  the  berm,  and  the  levees.  The  depth 
of  cut  for  a  ditch  and  the  height  of  fill  for  a  levee  are  to  be 
marked  on  the  stakes. 

The  cutting  of  small  ditches  to  greater  widths  than  those  speci- 
fied (in  order  to  admit  floating  dredges)  may  be  done  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  The  specifications  provide  that  when  the  prism 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  057 

is  not  of  sufficient  width  to  accommodate  the  dredge  installed,  the 
necessary  width  shall  be  obtained  when  possible  by  flattening 
the  side  slopes.  Increasing  the  prism  of  ditches  is  permitted, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  engineer,  but  the  increased  prism 
must  conform  to  the  specified  section  (except  in  area),  and 
payment  is  made  only  for  material  within  this  section. 

In  moving  dredges  from  one  piece  of  work  to  another  it  may 
be  necessary  for  one  contractor  to  pass  over  work  which  has 
been  let  to  another  contractor  but  has  not  been  constructed.  In 
such  cases  the  former  makes  a  cut  sufficient  for  the  passage  of 
his  dredge  and  is  paid  for  this  on  the  basis  of  volume  actually 
removed  at  a  price  ya-ct.  per  cu.  yd.  below  that  of  the  contract 
price  of  the  other  contractor.  The  y2-ct.  deduction  is  paid  as 
compensation  to  the  latter. 

Dredging  Ditches  with  1  to  1  Slopes.  A  specially  interesting 
feature  of  the  work  is  that  by  the  specifications  the  dredges  are 
required  to  finish  the  cuts  with  1  to  1  slopes.  On  ditches  of 
this  kind  the  usual  practice  is  to  excavate  them  to  practically  a 
U-shape,  and  let  the  sides  cave  in.  This  results  in  rough  cuts 
and  obstructed  bottom. 

Some  trouble  was  experienced  at  first  in  getting  the  dredge  men 
to  do  the  work  as  required,  but  after  a  little  explanation  and  re- 
quiring them  to  go  back  and  dress  the  work  not  properly  finished, 
they  soon  came  to  understand  how  to  get  the  desired  results. 
This  is  accomplished  by  taking  a  succession  of  light  cuts  on  each 
side  in  such  a  way  as  to  approximate  the  1  to  1  slope,  and  then 
to  excavate  the  center  or  core. 

The  diagram  issued  for  instruction  as  to  this  slope  cutting  is 
shown  in  Fig.  21.  The  prism  is  cut  by  digging  the  corners  first 
and  working  to  the  center.  It  is  especially  insisted  that  light  cuts 
must  be  taken  in  digging  the  corners,  as  indicated  on  the  cross- 
section.  The  roll  from  the  berm  is  cleaned  on  completion  of  the 
fifth  round. 

Cross-Sectioning  and  Progress  Records.  The  cross-sectioning  of 
the  ditches  is  done  by  sounding,  taking  measure'ments  at  the  top, 
middle  and  bottom  of  each  slope,  and  at  5-ft.  intervals  on  the 
bottom  for  large  ditches  and  3  ft.  for  the  small  laterals.  In- 
stead of  entering  the  figures,  in  a  book  to  be  plotted  later,  the 
diagrams  are  plotted  directly  upon  sheets  of  thin  section  paper, 
17  x  10-in.,  clamped  to  a  stiff  board,  the  vertical  and  horizontal 
scales  being  1  in  to  10  ft.  This  eliminates  much  of  the  office 
work,  and  blueprints  from  the  diagrams  are  very  useful  and 
effective  in  showing  the  contractors  just  what  results  they  are 
getting  and  how  these  may  be  improved. 

Typical   diagrams  from  these   plotted   cross-section   sheets   are 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Length  of  Move 


of  Ditch  6' bevond  Slope  Stakes 


Plan 

Fig.  21.     Diagram  Showing  How  to  Dredge  Ditches  With  1  to  1 

Slopes. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


959 


shown  in  Fig.  22,  for  both  the  large  and  small  canals.  These 
indicate  the  character  of  the  actual  excavation  and  the  closeness 
with  which  the  channels  can  be  excavated  to  the  theoretical  sec- 
tion. In  the  smaller  ditches  the  bottom  is  invariably  concave 
instead  of  flat,  but  soon  fills  up  practically  to  the  grade'  line. 

Dredging  Canals  on  a  Drainage  Project  in  Louisiana.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Oct.  25,  1911,  gives  the  following: 
The  project  here  described  is  one  of  a  great  number  now  under 


Designed  Sections 


/Ictual  Sections 


Sections  of  the   Smaller    Ditches 
^  !  /. 


60'    5(T40r    30'    10'     JO'     tf      10'     10'    30'    40'     50'     60' 

Sections  of  Ditch  No.l  :  1tO-r't.  Base 

Fig.    22.     Typical    Ditch    Cross-Sections    Obtained    With    Dipper 

Dredges. 


way  in  the  section  near  New  Orleans.  The  two  classes  of  land 
which  are  being  reclaimed  are  the  cut-over  timber  lands  and  the 
untimbered  swamp  lands.  The  timber  lands  cost  considerably 
more  to  put  into  condition  than  do  the  swamp  lands,  because  the 
heavy  roots  make  the  use  of  dredges  impracticable. 

The  method  of  drainage  is  as  follows:  The  2,850-acre  tract  is 
enclosed  with  a  canal  known  as  a  dredge  boat  canal,  the  earth 
being  thrown  on  the  outer  bank  to  form  a  levee  which  is  smoothed 
down  to  make  a  road  or  driveway.  When  this  canal  and  levee 


960  HANDBOOK  OF  EAR1H  EXCAVATION 

are  completed  two  other  large  canals  are  dug  at  right  angles  to 
each  other  crossing  the  tract  in  each  direction.  See  Fig.  23. 
These  are  for  use  for  storage,  to  provide  a  large  surface  for 
evaporation,  and  essentially  for  the  small  lateral  ditches  to  drain 
into.  These  lateral  ditches  are  usually  placed  about  200  ft. 
apart.  They  are  3y2  ft.  deep,  4  ft.  wide  on  top  and  18  in.  wide 
at  the  bottom.  They  are  being  dug  by  means  of  Hill  ditching 
machines.  The  water  is  disposed  of  by  a  pumping  plant  designed 
to  care  for  the  maximum  amount  of  rainfall,  and  stationed  at  the 
most  convenient  point  for  discharging  water  over  the  levee.  The 
land  in  this  district  is  composed  of  the  material  known  as 
"  sharkey  clay,"  which  is  the  sediment  carried  by  the  Mississippi 
River  from  the  soils  of  the  states  through  which  it  flows.  This 
has  been  deposited  here  and  gradually  covered  with  a  top  soil 
composed  of  decayed  vegetable  matter.  The  soil  is  very  rich 
and  is  not  difficult  to  handle.  The  cost  of  reclaiming  these  tracts 
as  based  on  the  contract  price  of  a  number  of  3,000-acre  units  is 
estimated  by  the  engineers  to  be  about  as  follows:  For  building 
levee  and  outside  canal  all  round  the  tract,  $8  per  acre;  for 
reservoir  canals  of.  sufficient  capacity  to  care  for  runoff  from 
maximum  rainfall,  $7  per  acre;  for  lateral  ditches,  $2  per  acre; 
for  pumping  plant,  $2.75  per  acre;  for  engineering  and  superin- 
tendence, $2.25  per  acre;  for  incidental  expenses,  $2  per  acre, 
making  a  total  of  $24  per  acre. 

The  main  drainage  canal  has  a  section  40  ft.  wide  on  top  and 
is  8  ft.  deep.  The  main  laterals  are  18  ft.  wide  and  7}£  ft.  deep 
and  the  ditches  are  4  ft.  wide  and  3%  ft.  deep.  All  are  made 
with  banks  at  a  natural  slope.  The  general  elevation  of  the 
ground  is  about  5  ft.  above  sea  level.  A  pumping  plant  is  under 
construction  near  the  southeast  corner  of  the  tract. 

The  excavation  of  the  main  canals  was  begun  in  the  latter  part 
of  1909  and  was  prosecuted  almost  continuously  until  the  com- 
pletion in  August,  1911.  This  work  was  carried  on  by  means  of 
two  Marion  dipper  dredges,  one  with  a  %-cu.  yd.  and  the  other 
with  a  lVj>-cu.  yd.  bucket.  The  large  dredge  was  on  the  ground 
when  the  work  was  begun  and  the  small  one  was  built  afterward 
at  a  cost  of  about  $8,500.  Two  oil  barges  of  about  400  bbls.  ca- 
pacity each  were  built  to  carry  fuel  oil  for  the  dredges  from  New 
Orleans.  All  supplies  had  to  be  brought  in  on  barges.  One 
25-hp.  gasoline  tug  was  used  for  all  towing. 

The  cost  figures  were  taken  from  the  company's  books,  with  the 
exception  of  the  charge  for  plant.  This  is  an  arbitrary  figure 
based  on  an  estimate  of  25%  depreciation  of  the  plant  for  the 
two  years'  work.  The  small  dredge  was  new  and  was  built  on  the 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


961 


siic.  -"l%e  other  dredge  was  used  on  previous  work  in  the  vicinity. 
Tin-  ])la*t  is  taken  as  worth  $20,500  at  the  beginning  of  work. 
The  M>or  charge  is  taken  from  the  payroll  account  and  includes 


Black  Prince  Boyou 


Fig.  23.     Plan  of  Drainage  Canals  and  Laterals  for  Reclaiming 
Louisiana  Swamp  Land. 

all  labor  charged  to  the  contract,  such  as  dredgemen,  camp  labor, 
clearing,  towing,  superintendence,  etc.  The  supplies  include  all 
supplies  except  camp  supplies.  The  repair  account  includes  all 
repair  parts  and  freight  on  same,  but  does  not  include  the  labor 


962  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVA11ON 

for  making  repairs.  The  general  expense  account  incudes  all 
expense  not  included  in  other  accounts,  such  as  taxes  4H8<]plant, 
traveling  expenses,  railway  fares  of  men,  office  expenses,  efce».  No 
interest  is  included.  The  fuel  account  includes  only  the  oil  used 
for  the  operation  of  the  dredges.  The  rates  of  wages  paid  were 
for  common  labor  $2  per  day,  engineman  $125  per  month,  crane- 
man  $65,  fireman  $50. 

The  rates  of  the  monthly  men  include  board  in  addition.  The 
costs  follow: 

Plant    (arbitrary)     0.8 

General    0.6 

Repairs     0.2 

Supplies     1.4 

Fuel     0.9 

Labor 2.2 

Camp     0.8 

Total  ct.  per  cu.  yd 6.9 

These  costs  are  for  the  excavation  of  the  main  canals  only,  total- 
ing 675,000  cu.  yd.  The  work  of  excavating  the  small  ditches  and 
the  construction  of  the  pumping  plant  are  at  present  under  way. 

Ditch  Excavation  by  Natural  Erosion.  It  is  a  waste  of  effort 
to  cut  some  ditches  to  finished  lines  and  to  slope  their  sides. 
This  is  particularly  so  of  ditches  cut  for  stream  diversions  in 
connection  with  the  building  of  railroads,  especially  in  unde- 
veloped sections  of  the  country.  Many  engineers  lay  out  a  ditch 
of  relatively  the  same  si/e  as  the  oM  channel  of  the  stream, 
sloping  and  dressing  up  the  sides  of  the  ditch  and  giving  it  a 
fair  gradient.  This  is  usually  a  waste  of  money.  If  a  stream 
has  a  channel  varying  from  6  to  8  ft.  wide  a  ditch  can  be  dug 
about  3  ft.  wide,  say  wide  enough  to  admit  of  excavating  it  with 
a  drag  scraper,  and  its  sides  left  vertical.  The  grade  given  to  it 
need  be  very  slight.  Then  if  the  old  channel  is  well  drained,  the 
water  will  be  diverted  into  the  new  ditch,  and  the  first  heavy  rain 
will  excavate  the  ditch  to  its  proper  size  and  grade  and  the 
action  of  the  water  and  frost  will  slope  its  banks. 

In  diverting  a  stream  in  Arizona  that  had  a,  bed  varying  from 
25  to  30  ft.  in  width,  a  ditch  was  laid  off  just  wide  enough  to 
take  a  Fresno  scraper,  namely,  from  4  to  5  ft.  wide.  The  exca- 
vation was  done  with  these  scrapers  at  a  low  cost,  the  banks  being 
left  vertical.  The  grade  was  such  that  the  water  dammed  up 
quite  a  little  before  it  ran  through  the  new  ditch,  but  the  first 
rains  washed  out  a  new  channel  about  as  wide  and  deep  as  the 
old  one.  However,  this  plan  can  not  always  be  followed  when 
the  country  is  well  settled  and  the  land  is  valuable,  for  then  it 
may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  stream  under  control. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  963 

Bitch  and  Canal  Excavation  by  Sluicing.  Canals  and  ditches 
may  be  excavated  very  cheaply  by  first  digging  a  narrow,  shallow 
passage-way  for  the  stream,  and  allowing  the  water  to  bring  the 
ditch  to  its  full  width  and  depth  by  erosion  of  the  banks  and 
bottom.  Very  large  waterways  may  be  excavated  in  this  man- 
ner. The  chief  disadvantage  of  this  method  lies  in  the  difficulty 
of  controlling  the  course  of  the  stream.  Water  naturally  washes 
away  the  softest  materials,  and  the  course  of  a  ditch  dug  by  this 
method  will  probably  be  very  crooked.  The  direction  may  be 
controlled  in  some  measure  by  plowing  and  loosening  the  earth 
as  the  water  attacks  it,  as  was  done  in  the  cases  hereafter  de- 
scribed. rl  his  method  is  then  very  low  in  construction  cost  but 
wasteful  of  land,  and  should  therefore  be  pursued  only  where 
the  value  of  land  is  low. 

Prof.  B.  M.  Hall,  in  the  Engineering  Annual,  University  of 
Georgia,  Vol.  I,  1893,  gives  some  data  on  sluicing  methods  used 
in  swamp  reclamation  in  Charlton  county,  Georgia.  This  swamp 
was  a  shallow,  fresh-water  lake,  covering  400,000  acres,  and  filled 
with  black  muck.  To  drain  it  a  narrow,  shallow  canal  was  cut 
through  a  ridge  intervening  between  it  and  the  river,  at  an 
elevation  20  to  25  ft.  above  the  proposed  bottom  of  the  per- 
manent canal.  This  shallow  canal  was  constructed  by  teams 
and  scrapers.  It  was  17  ft.  deep  at  the  summit  of  the  cut.  To 
widen  and  deepen  it  a  stream  of  water  was  pumped  from  the 
swamp,  and  a  "porcupine"  harrow  (a  round  log  filled  with 
harrow  teeth)  was  dragged  up  and  down  the  canal  a  distance  of 
1,000  ft.  at  a  time  by  steam  power.  The  pumping  plant  con- 
sisted of  two  80-hp.  boilers  and  two  14-in.  centrifugal  pumps, 
lifting  30,000  gal.  per  min.  The  cost  of  excavation  was  only  2.5 
ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  method  used  for  draining  the  Okefinokee  Swamp  was  also 
successfully  pursued  in  excavating  a  canal  near  Laramie,  Wyo. 
The  methods  and  cost  of  the  work  are  given  by  Lyman  E.  Bishop 
in  Engineering  News,  Sept.  9,  1911,  as  follows: 

The  work  was  the  construction  of  part  <Jf  an  8-mile  canal 
joining  the  Big  Laramie  River  to  Lake  Hattie,  a  part  of  the 
Laramie  Water  Co.'s  irrigation  project.  The  first  7  miles  of  the 
canal  were  built  with  dragline  excavators  during  1910.  The 
grade  of  the  canal  was  0.02%,  the  bottom  width  was  40  ft.,  and 
the  depth  of  water,  8  ft.  Between  the  end  of  the  excavated  por- 
tion of  the  canal  and  Lake  Hattie,  a  distance  of  6,000  ft.,  there 
was  a  drop  of  70  ft.  The  plan  of  excavating  this  section  by 
sluicing  was  feasible,  there  being  a  grade  of  1.15%  and  1,000  cu. 
ft.  of  water  per  sec.  available.  Practically  all  of  the  material 
was  disintegrated  feldspathic  red  granite,  the  coarsest  particles 


964  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  which  were  of  fine  uncemented  gravel,  the  largest  sizes  passing 
through  a  1-in.  ring.  Some  large  boulders  were  present.  After 
the  channel  had  been  washed  out  to  a  depth  of  25  ft.  a  shale 
stratum  was  uncovered.  This  rock  and  the  large  boulders  that 
were  washed  from  the  fine  material  and  practically  covered  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch,  prevented  further  erosion.  It  should  be 
noted  that  there  was  a  large  unavailable  capacity  in  Lake  Hattie 
below  the  outlet  culverts,  and  this  space  could  contain  the  ma- 
terial sluiced  from  the  canal.  The  section  shown  in  Fig.  24  was 
excavated  by  teams  under  a  contract.  This  small  ditch  con- 
tained 7,100  cu.  yd.  It  was  completed  in  17  days.  The  cost 
was  20  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

To  assist  the  water  in  its  erosive  action  in  cutting  away  the 
upper  bank  the  following  added  provisions  were  taken :  A  steel 
blade  18  in.  long,  6  in.  wide  and  sharpened  on  one  edge,  was 
securely  attached  horizontally  to  the  beam  end  of  a  No.  5  railroad 
plow.  With  the  plow  in  the  lower  corner  of  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  this  blade  extended  about  9  in.  into  the  side  of  the  ditch, 


Section  of  Canal. 


as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  at  A.  A  light  furrow  was  plowed 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  finished  ditch  at  the  point 
£,  and  at  the  same  time  a  9-in.  cut  was  made  in  the  side,  as 
shown  at  A.  It  is  believed  that  the  sloping  bottom  of  the  ditch 
and  the  cut  in  the  upper  side  were  very  valuable  factors  in  the 
final  success  of  the  sluicing  method.  At  the  time  the  first  water 
was  turned  in  the  ditch  its  tendency  was  to  hug  the  upper  bank 
and  undermine  it,  the  upper  bank  caving  off  from  above,  while 
very  little  erosion  took  place  on  the  \pwer  side.  Practically  all 
the  erosion  has  been  on  the  bottom  and  upper  side. 

About  200  second-ft.  of  water  were  turned  into  the  ditch  the 
first  day,  and  approximately  100  second-ft.  additional  each  suc- 
ceeding day.  At  the  end  of  9  days  the  channel  at  the  lake  end 
was  40  ft.  wide  by  25  ft.  deep,  and  at  the  upper  end  it  was 
30  ft.  wide  by  8  ft.  deep.  Some  sluicing  took  place  in  the  pre- 
viously finished  section  of  the  canal,  the  washing  extending  back 
a  distance  of  800  ft.,  with  a  maximum  depth  of  8  ft.  at  the  sluice 
ditch  end.  The  total  yardage  washed  out  in  9  days  was  85,000 
cu.  yd.  Assuming  that  an  average  of  600  second-ft.  ran  through 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  065 

the  sluice  ditch  during  that  period,  then  200  cu.  yd.  of  water 
were  required  to  excavate  1  cu.  yd.  of  earth. 

The  cost  of  the  sluicing  was  practically  nothing.  If  we  di- 
vide the  contract  cost  of  the  work  done  with  teams  $1,420  by  the 
total  yardage  moved  (92,100  cu.  yd.)  we  have  a  cost  of  the 
sluiced  canal  of  approximately  1.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Railroad  Ditches.  Ditches  in  long  and  deep  railroad  cuts  are 
not  only  expensive  to  make,  but  also  to  maintain.  The  long 
haul  of  the  material  makes  the  building  expensive,  especially 
with  team,  when  the  ditches  are  excavated  before  the  track  is  laid. 
The  work  is  generally  done  with  teams  and  scrapers.  After  the 
track  is  laid  it  is  very  difficult  to  use  scrapers  in  cleaning  the 
ditches.  For  this  reason  there  have  been  various  devices  invented 
for  cleaning  and  maintaining  ditches  through  railroad  cuts.  One 
is  a  scraper  used  with  a  locomotive  or  car,  the  plan  being  either 
to  drag  the  material  into  piles,  to  be  afterwards  loaded  on  to 
cars,  or  else  drag  it  to  the  end  of  the  cuts_  Another  device  is 
a  wing  scraper  fixed  to  a  car,  operated  like  a  road  machine.  Al- 
though these  cheapen  and  hasten  the  work,  yet,  as  they  do  not 
load  the  material,  they  have  not  been  an  unqualified  success. 

Railway  Ditchers.  A  number  of  engineers  of  maintenance  have 
invented  scraper  or  dipper  machines  that  they  have  had  built 
in  the  shops  of  the  railroad  company  for  this  class  of  ditch 
work,  and  very  efficient  work  has  been  done  by  such  devices. 
To-day  there  are  several  such  machines  made  by  the  manufac- 
turers of  excavating  apparatus. 

The  Browning  Engineering  Company  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  makes 
a  light  locomotive  crane  mounted  on  a  low  set  of  wheels  for 
this  purpose,  and  the  Marion  Steam  Shovel  Co.,  of  Marion,  Ohio, 
mount  one  of  their  light  shovels  in  the  same  manner. 

A  train  of  flat  cars  is  used  for  the  work.  Two  sections  of  light 
rails,  from  20  to  35  ft.  long  are  laid  down  on  the  cars  and  the 
locomotive  crane  equipped  with  a  dipper,  or  a  small  steam 
shovel  is  placed  on  this  track.  The  dipper  is  used  to  excavate 
the  material  from  the  ditch,  loading  it  directly  on  the  flat  cars. 
As  the  cars  are  loaded  the  machine  travels  along  on  the  track 
on  top  of  the  cars.  The  section  of  track  is  picked  up  by  the 
machine  and  carried  from  the  rear  to  the  front.  The  machine 
works  on  both  sides  of  the  track  on  a  single  track  road.  Where 
there  is  more  than  one  track,  the  train*  first  works  on  one  side 
of  the  cut  and  then  goes  to  the  other. 

Either  light  or  heavy  work  can  be  done  in  this  manner  eco- 
nomically, and  a  long  stretch  of  ditch  can  be  made  or  cleaned 
out  in  a  day.  In  heavy  work  the  excavator  is  moved  as  the  cars 
are  loaded,  while  in  light  work  the  whole  train  is  moved  by  the 


066     HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

locomotive.  In  this  manner  a  full  load  can  always  be  placed  on 
the  cars.  After  the  train  is  loaded  it  is  taken  to  some  embank- 
ment and  the  material  used  to  widen  or  place  a  shoulder  on 
the  fill,  or  else  it  is  dumped  through  some  trestle  that  is  being 
filled.  This  is  also  one  of  the  economic  features  of  cleaning 
railroad  ditches  out  by  this  method. 

Another  consideration  is  that  a  larger  ditch  is  dug  by  these 
machines,  so  it  is  not  necessary  to  clean  the  ditch  frequently. 
Then,  too,  since  the  material  is  carried  out  of  the  cut  it  does 
not  wash  back  during  rainstorms  as  is  the  case  when  the  ditches 
are  cleaned  out  by  hand  and  the  earth  is  thrown  on  the  side 
of  the  ditch.  These  revolving  shovel  ditchers  can  also  be  used 
to  pick  up  slides  that  result  from  heavy  rains  and  the  action  of 
the  frost. 

The  American  railway  ditcher  (Fig.  25)  is  a  small  revolving 
shovel  primarily  designed  for  digging  railroad  ditches.  It  may 
also  be  equipped  as  a  locomotive  crane  with  orange-peel  or  clam- 
shell bucket,  with  pile  driving  leads,  with  a  car  unloading  device, 
or  it  may  be  fitted  with  a  derrick  boom  for  loading  logs  or  for 
laying  track.  It  has  four  center-flanged  wheels  for  use  on  port- 
able track  sections  of  two  widths,  thus  eliminating  the  necessity 
of  having  bolted  rails  for  it  to  travel  upon.  It  is  also  equipped 
with  four  standard  gage  wheels.  The  track  furnished  with  the 
machine  is  made  up  of  two  portable  track  sections,  enabling  the 
machine  to  travel  over  flat  cars  of  unequal  height.  The  engine 
has  three  drums:  One  for  the  hoisting  line,  one  for  the  pull-in- 
line, and  one  for  the  line  that  controls  the  height  and  radius  of 
the  boom.  The  depth  of  cut  is  regulated  by  raising  or  lowering 
this  boom.  An  unique  device  furnished  with  this  machine  is  the 
plunger  at  the  end  of  the  boom.  This  plunger  enters  the  bucket 
when  the  latter  is  about  to  dump,  and  acts  as  a  ram,  forcing  out 
sticky  material.  The  machine  has  a  full  circle  swing.  When 
mounted  on  a  car  it  is  within  the  clearance  limits  of  railroad 
structures. 

The  pre-war  prices  of  the  machine  (including  services  of 
erector)  were  as  follows: 

Complete    ditcher    $5,950 

Extra  for  clam  shell  bucket  attachment   100 

Extra  for  scraper  bucket  attachment   (29.5-ft.  radius).. 

Extra  for  car  unloading  attachment   (pusher  scoop)...  385 

Extra  for  30-ft.  pile  driver  leads  and  1,500-lb.  hammer  425 

Extra  for  40-ft.  leads    100 

Extra  for  2,000-lb.  hammer  

Cost  of  Operation  of  American  Ditcher.  The  cost  of  hand 
ditching  on  the  C.  R.  I.  &  P.  Ry.  in  Nebraska  was  as  follows : 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


967 


968  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

67  laborers    @    $1.35    $90  45 

1  foreman     "        2  75 

1  timekeeper 2^50 


Total  for  144  cu.  yd.  of  ditch   $95.70 

Cost  per  cu.  yd '      0.665 

The  cost  of  ditching  with  the  machine  was  as  follows: 

1  engineman   $  4  dO 

1  fireman    2.00 

2  section  men   @    $1.50   3.00 

1   ton  of  coal    2.00 

Oil,    waste,    repairs    : 0^50 

Depreciation    and    interest    at    18%    on    $6,000    over    150 

days  per   year 3.00 


Total  for  264  cu.  yd $14.50 

Cost  per  cu.   yd 0.06 

This  does  not  include  train  service. 

The  cost  of  operating  a  ditcher  on  the  Illinois  Central  System 
during  December,  1906,  is  given  below.  The  machine  handled  wet 
clay,  sand  and  gumbo  at  the  rate  of  15  cars  of  21  yards  each 
(loose?)  in  4  hr.  15  min. 

Ditcher  crew  Train  crew 

1  engineman    $  5.00  $  4.00 

1    fireman    2.50  2.00 

1  conductor    4.00 

1  flag  man    3.00 

2  laborers 2.60 

Coal  and   oil   .,  2.75  12.0 


Total  for  315  cu.  yd $12.85  $25.00 

Cost  per   cu.  yd 0.04  012 

The  average  quantity  handled  by  this  machine  under  average 
conditions  is  from  4  to  5  cars  of  12  to  15  cu.  yd.  each  per  hr. 

A  railroad  running  into  Chicago  made  the  following  record  in 
1914;  51  dump  cars,  holding  765  cu.  yd.  of  very  hard  blue  clay 
were  loaded  in  7  hr.,  at  an  average  cost,  including  train  crew, 
ditcher  crew,  coal,  oil,  etc.,  of  4.9  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  In  31  davs 
18,000  cu.  yd.  were  loaded  at  an  average  cost,  including  a  9-mile 
haul  to  dump,  of  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  25  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  was  the  price 
for  steam  shovel  work  on  the  same  job. 

Ditching  on  the  Southern  Railway.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, May  20,  1918,  states  that  the  greater  part  of  the  right 
of  way  ditching  on  the  Southern  Ry.  was  done  by  American  rail- 
way ditchers.  On  a  recent  job  one  of  these  ditchers,  working 
in  rocky  soil  where  the  digging  was  very  hard,  took  out  of  the 
ditches  and  dumped  an  average  of  623  cu.  yd.  per  day  for  a  period 
of  25  days.  On  the  first  day  work  was  commenced  at  6  a.  m.  and 
stopped  at  4:30  p.  m.  Train  service  held  up  the  digging  for  2 
hr.  and  another  hr.  was  consumed  taking  on  coal  and  water, 


DITCHES  AND- CANALS  060 

leaving  7}£  hr.  of  actual  working  time.  In  this  time  704  cu.  yd. 
of  material  were  taken  out  of  the  ditches,  deposited  on  a  fill 
and  leveled  oil'  with  the  spreader.  On  this  day  1  ton  of  coal, 
1,200  gal.  of  water,  1  qt.  of  oil  and  1  Ib.  of  waste  were  used  in 
the  operation  f>f  the  ditcher. 

The  following  table  shows  the  work  accomplished  in  one  month: 

Hours    on    line    308V> 

Operation   delays,    hours    83 

Time    worked,    hours    159% 

Cars    loaded    970 

Total  cu.   yd.  loaded 15,520 

The  cost  of  the  ditching  crew  per  day  was: 

Operator    3.34 

Fin  man     2.16 

Two  laborers  at  $1.55  3.10 


Total    $S.H 

This  makes  $224  for  the  26  week  days  worked,  or  1.5  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.  for  loading  only. 

On  this  particular  work  the  American  railroad  ditcher  was 
used  between  two  dump  cars,  which  were  dumped  by  hand,  there 
being  a  laborer  on  each  car  for  this  purpose.  These  two  men  also 
handled  the  spreader  car.  On  other  ditching  work  on  the  South- 
ern two  and  sometimes  three  ditcher  dump  car  work  trains  are 
used. 

Ditching  with  an  Electrically  Operated  Ditcher.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Jan.  15,  1010,  abstracts  the  following  by  Charles 
W.  Ford,  from  the  Electric  Railway  Journal. 

On  the  Kansas  City,  Clay  County  and  St.  Joseph  Railroad,  a 
78-mile  electric  line,  an  American  railroad  ditcher  was  placed 
in  operation  in  1015.  The  ditcher  has  a  20-hp.  motor  and  oper- 
ates on  1,200  to  1,500  volts.  It  was  the  first  electrically  oper- 
ated machine  of  this  type  to  be  built.  The  ditcher  is  mounted  on 
a  specially  constructed  flat  car  50  ft.  long  and  with  a  capacity 
of  100,000  Ib.  The  ditcher  travels  back  and  forth  on  the  car  on 
two  sections  of  100-lb.  A.  S.  C.  E.  rails,  this  being  necessary  in 
order  to  permit  the  flexibility  of  forward  or  backward  motion  when 
loading  the  shovel  or,  if  the  material  is  to  be  hauled,  when  un- 
loading into  dump  cars  placed  in  front  of  the  ditcher.  A  great 
amount  of  the  material  that  is  necessary  to  handle  out  of  the 
ditches  is  a  grade  of  clay  which  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  dig 
when  dry,  and  is  about  the  stickiest  substance  extant  when  wet. 
Rock  and  shale  are  common  in  the  cuts  along  the  line  and  a  few 
years  ago  slides  were  not  uncommon  in  wet  weather.  In  most 
instances  the  material  taken  from  the  ditches  and  the  cuts  is  de« 


070  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION? 

posited  on  fills,  but  in  shallow  cuts  the  material  taken  from  the 
ditches  is  in  maiiy  cases  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  sides  of 
the  cut,  thus  providing  an  embankment  which  takes  the  place  of 
surface  ditches.  This  operation,  which  is  much  more  rapid  than 
is  the  use  of  dump  cars,  eliminates  the  haul  entirely.  The  dump 
cars  are  of  the  side-dump  type,  holding  20  cu.  yd.  and  are  operated 
by  air,  the  entire  train  being  hauled  by  an  electric  locomotive. 

During  1918  it  was  necessary  to  use  the  ditcher  for  a  period  of 
only  two  months,  and  for  the  60  days  from  May  1  to  July  1, 
1918,  the  following  figures  covering  an  average  day's  work  have 
been  compiled: 

Work:     Right-of-way  ditching,  cut  widening  and  bank  filling. 

Material:  Clay,  fairly  dry  and  tough,  with  some  stone  and 
shale 

Length  of  day:     Fourteen  hours. 

Time  actually  working:  Seven  and  one  half  hours.  (This  in- 
cludes tht,  time  consumed  in  ditching,  dumping,  trav- 
eling to  and  from  the  siding,  clearing  for  trains.) 

Crew  used:  Operator  and  two  laborers:  Train  crew:  Mo- 
torman  and  conductor. 

Daily  Cost: 

Payroll     $23.52 

Power     5.00 

Oil,  waste  and  repairs  ;...  2.50 

Incidentals     1.26 


Total $32.28 

Average  daily  yardage,  cu.  yd 225  6 

Cost  per  yard,  ct 14.3 

Fig.  26  shows  the  unit  cost  for  different  lengths  of  haul. 

A  Ditching  Car  with  Plows  and  Scrapers.  Engineering  News, 
May  7,  1896,  describes  a  car  equipped  with  plows,  mold  boards, 
scrapers,  and  excavator  or  ditching  scoops,  as  used  in  1895  on 
the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  Ry.  This  machine  consists  of  a  flat 
car,  on  which  is  mounted  a  compressed-air  operated  crane,  from 
which  are  hung  the  cutting  and  loading  devices.  The  method  of 
working  consists  in  cutting  one  or  two  furrows,  20  in.  deep  by  36 
in.  wide,  with  the  plow,  then  using  the  scraper  to  bring  the  earth 
from  the  ditch  up  toward  the  track,  or  to  throw  it  up  and  axvay 
from  the  track  as  desired,  and  finally  to  trim  off  the  excavation 
with  the  mold  board.  The  ditching  scoop  is  used  in  deep  cutting. 
It  is  filled  in  the  manner  of  a  drag  scraper,  hoisted  up,  and 
dumped  when  the  car  has  been  run  to  the  dumping  place. 

The  force  required  consists  of  1  conductor,  2  brakemen,  1  air- 
man, and  2  laborers,  costing  $18.30  per  day.  A  locomotive  is 
required  for  pushing  the  car,  bringing  the  total  cost  up  to  about 
$30  per  day.  Under  favorable  conditions  1.5  to  2  miles  of  ditch 
and  embankment  were  dressed  in  a  day. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


971 


The  Bowman  Ditcher.  Engineering  News,  Jan.  20,  1910,  givea 
the  following : 

This  machine  (Fig.  27)  is  designed N  for  constructing  or  clean- 
ing railroad  ditches.  It  consists  of  a  car  carrying  four  pneu- 
matic cranes  (two  on  each  side)  for  handling  plows,  scoops, 
slopers,  and  spreaders,  air  cylinders,  air  reservoirs,  and  three 
Westinghouse  compressors.  Steam  for  the  compressors  is  sup- 
plied by  the  attendant  locomotive.  In  operation,  the  ground  is 


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Fig.  26.     Cost  Diagram  for  Electric  Ditcher. 

first  broken  up  with  a  special  heavy  plow,  drawn  at  the  end  of 
an  arm,  by  the  car.  The  scoops  are  then  put  in  position  and 
pulled  through  the  loose  material.  These  scoops  each  hold  4 
cu.  yd.  Fig.  27  shows  the  machine  with  both  scoops  loaded,  one 
having  been  hoisted  to  the  carrying  position.  The  filled  scoops 
are  lifted  to  this  position  by  the  cranes,  and  the  locomotive 
tows  the  ditcher  to  the  dumping  place.  When  necessary  the 
dumped  material  is  leveled  off  with  the  spreader.  The  ditcher 
is  then  returned  to  the  cut  and  makes  the  final  slope  of  the  bank 
with  the  sloper.  The  process  is  repeated  if  necessary.  On  one 


972 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


section  of  the  Southern  Pacific  R.  R.,  where  an  average  travel  of 
1,200  ft.  only  was  required  from  cut  to  dump,  in  hard  sun-baked 
soil,  a  total  of  600  cu.  yd.  was  removed  in  6  hr.  This  was  done 
in  30  loads. 

Highway  Ditches.  Not  only  should  wagon  roads  always  have 
ditches  on  each  side  of  them,  when  the  road  goes  through  a  cut, 
but  these  ditches,  to  serve  their  purpose,  should  be  kept  clean. 
To  do  this  work  by  hand  is  quite  expensive,  so  whenever  possible 
other  methods  are  used. 


Fig.  27.     The  Bowman  Ditcher. 


The  large  four-wheeled  road  machines  are  useful  for  this  pur- 
pose and  well  adapted  to  the  work.  They  are  used  not  only  to 
shape  up  the  road,  but  also  to  cut  out  the  V-shaped  ditches  and 
to  maintain  them. 

Besides  these  four-wheeled  road  machines  there  are  on  the 
market  a  number  of  two-wheeled  road  machines  or  graders  as 
they  are  frequently  called. 

There  are  also  other  small  graders  meant  to  be  drawn  by  two 
horses,  but  instead  of  being  mounted  on  wheels  they  are  dragged 
on  the  ground.  Some  10  or  12  firms  make  graders  of  the  above 
kind  and  they  can  all  be  used  in  ditch  work.  When  the  material 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


073 


is  soft  and  wet  road  drags  can  also  be  used  to  clean  out  ditches 
along  wagon  roads,  and  the  ditch  can  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
crown  of  the  road. 

See  Chapter  IX. 

Gopher  Ditches.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  13,  1!)1G, 
gives  the  following: 

Many  miles  of  "gopher  ditch"  (Fig.  28)  have  been  con 
structed  for  sub-drainage  in  Southern  California.  It  has  the  ad 
vantage  over  open  ditches  that  no  land  is  taken  from  cultiva- 
tion and  no  barrier  is  formed  to  free  travel  for  agricultural  oper- 
ations. It  calls  for  less  investment  than  tile  drains.  Its  di^nd- 


Fig.   28.     A  Gopher  Ditch  for  Land  Drainage. 

vantage  is  the  possibility  of  complete  closure  by  caving.  A  short 
life  would  also  seem  to  be  natural,  but  it  is  stated  that  it  has 
been  found  that  gopher  ditches  will  give  service  from  5  to  14 
years,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  ground. 

The  construction  of  gopher1  ditches  requires  special  machinery. 
At  the  Santa  Ana  Sugar  Co.  farms  the  outfit  comprised  A  special 
gopher  ditch  plow  and  three  Holt  caterpillar  tractors  for  hauling 
the  plow.  The  plow  is  the  special  tool.  It  consists  of  a  strong 
carriage,  which  rides  on  the  surface  and  carries,  projecting  down- 
ward, the  plow  proper,  which  can  be  raised  and  lowered  by  suit- 
able mechanism.  Attached  to  its  heavy  framework  is  a  single 
knife-blade  beam,  thin  enough  to  avoid  any  great  disturbance  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  yet  wide  enough  to  give  it  strength  for 
withstanding  the  terrific  strains  to  which  it  is  subjected.  The 
construction  of  this  part,  of  the  tool  is  very  similar  to  that  of  a 


974  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

subsoiler.     At  the  point,  however,  there  is   attached   a  torpedo- 
shaped  affair,  made  of  steel;   this  is  the  gopher. 

In  operation,  the  gopher  is  run  down  4  ft.  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  is  then  pulled  straight  forward.  The  plow  used 
by  the  Santa  Ana  Co.  had  a  gopher  8  in.  across,  so  that  it  made  a 
drain  ditch  8  in.  in  diameter.  The  point  of  the  gopher  is  so 
shaped  that,  as  it  is  forced  through  the  ground,  it  spreads  the 
earth  evenly  to  all  sides  of  it,  packing  it  tight  and  making  a 
solid,  smooth-faced  closed  ditch. 

Maintenance  of  Ditches  and  Canals.  The  proper  maintenance 
of  drainage  canals  and  irrigation  ditches  is  second  in  importance 
only  to  their  construction.  Banks  are  washed  by  rain  or  under- 
cut by  the  current.  Too  steep  slopes  cause  slides,  and  burrowing 
animals  aid  in  the  destruction,  especially  of  the  banks  of  ele- 
vated irrigation  ditches.  Channels  become  clogged  with  weeds 
and  debris  so  that  the  velocity  of  the  stream  is  decreased  and 
material  washed  from  the  banks  in  one  place  is  deposited  as  silt 
in  another.  Thus  in  time  uncared  for  channels  become  entirely 
clogged.  While  this  matter  is  of  chief  interest  to  irrigation  and 
drainage  engineers  it  should  not  be  overlooked  during  construc- 
tion. 

Design  and  Construction  of  Ditches  to  Reduce  Maintenance. 
E.  H.  Cowan,  in  a  paper  before  the  111.  Soc.  Engineers  and  Sur- 
veyors, 1910,  said: 

In  establishing  the  grade  line  of  a  ditch  the  ideal  to  be  aimed 
at  is  a  uniform  rate  of  fall  from  source  to  outlet.  The  gradient 
should  be  flat  enough  to  prevent  erosion,  yet  steep  enough  so  that 
at  times  of  maximum  flow  loose  material  which  has  settled  into 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch  will  be  washed  away.  This  ideal  gradient 
can  very  seldom  be  used,  on  account  of  other  rigid  determining 
conditions,  but  the  nearer  it  can  be  approached  the  better. 

Humps  in  the  grade  line  can  not  be  considered  objectionable 
from  a  maintenance  standpoint,  but  sags  are  very  objectionable 
and  should  be  avoided  wherever  possible.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to 
break  up  the  grade  line  into  short  sections  for  the  purpose  of  sav- 
ing a  small  percentage  of  yardage,  except  in  the  somewhat  rare 
case  of  the  ditch  being  through  soil  which  will  not  erode  under 
the  most  extreme  conditions,  because  if  a  stream  of  water  con- 
taining suspended  matter  passes  down  a  ditch  over  a  sag  to  a 
flatter  slope,  the  coarser  particles  will  be  deposited,  and  the  men 
will  give  trouble  at  that  point.  For  the  same  reason  curves 
should  be  as  flat  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  velocity  of  the  water 
may  not  be  checked  and  deposits  occur. 

In  designing  ditches,  maintenance  requirements  should  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind.  Narrow  bridge  openings  cause  more  < 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  fl?5 

Ies8  filling  due  to  eddies  which  are  formed.  Concrete  bridges 
should  not  be  used  where  the  channel  is  to  be  kept  clear  of  silt 
with  a  dredge,  unless  they  are  high  enough  for  the  dredge  to  pass 
under.  Outlets  for  tile  drains  and  smaller  ditches  should  enter 
the  main  ditch  at  an  acute  angle  to  prevent  erosion  at  these  points. 

If  ditches  are  gone  over  every  year,  hand  and  team  work  will 
be  likely  to  be  principally  relied  on.  The  former  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, even  in  places  where  the  cost  would  be  considerably  greater, 
for  the  reason  that  the  dragging  of  scrapers  up  the  banks  harrows 
them  up  and  leaves  much  loose  material  on  the  slopes  which 
will  be  washed  back  in  by  the  next  rain.  The  writer  once  under- 
took to  clean  out  a  narrow,  deep  canal  leading  to  a  water  works 
intake.  Each  year  or  two  during  the  previous  10  years  this  canal 
had  been  cleaned  out  by  teams  and  scrapers,  but  it  would  soon  fill 
in  again.  The  method  the  writer  used  involved  the  lifting  of  the 
scrapers  out  with  a  derrick,  thus  not  disturbing  the  slopes,  and 
the  result  was  that  the  canal  stood  at  least  6  years  without  any 
further  repairs.' 

E.  E.  Watts,  in  a  paper  read  in  1902  before  the  Indiana  Engi- 
neering Society,  estimated  that  the  expense  of  maintaining  a  10- 
mile  ditch  running  25,000  cu,  yd.  per  mi.le,  in  operation  5  years, 
need  not  exceed  $10  per  mile  per  year.  This  is  a  very  small 
amount  compared  with  the  benefit  to  be  obtained  from  keeping  the 
ditch  always  in  good  condition. 

Grades  Required  for  Self-Cleaning  Ditches.  G.  P.  Smith,  in  a 
paper  before  the  Iowa  Engineering  Society,  Jan.  1912,  said: 

The  proper  construction  and  the  proper  maintenance  after  con- 
struction of  open-drainage  ditches  is  a  subject  for  the  serious 
consideration  of  drainage  engineers.  If  sufficient  velocity  or  vol- 
ume of  flow  can  not  be  procured  to  give  the  water  a  silt-carrying 
capacity,  we  know  that  the  si  t  will  inevitably  lodge  in  the  chan- 
nel and  eventually  fill  it.  'When  we  have  not  the  available  fall 
and  know  that  the  water  will  deposit  siltage,  our  greatest  efforts 
must  be  to  see  that  the  drain  is  so  constructed  and  so  protected 
as  to  prevent  earth  from  caving  or  being  washed 'into  the  channel. 

Levels  were  taken  in  Webster  County,  Iowa,  in  1909  over  some 
60  miles  of  ditch  that  had  been  constructed  in  1905  and  1906. 
These  ditches  had  bottom  widths  varying  from  4  to  20  ft.,  grades 
from  1.5  to  10  ft.  to  the  mile,  and  were  all  supposed  to  have  been 
constructed  with  8-ft.  berms  and  1  to  1  side  slopes.  They  gen- 
erally had  a  minimum  cut  of  approximately  7  ft. 

The  levels  on  the  mains,  where  the  area  drained  was  some 
16,000  to  18,000  acres  or  over,  showed  that  the  ditch  was  self- 
cleaning  with  a  fall  of  2  ft.  to  the  mile.  On  one  main  outlet  drain 
with  a  tributary  watershed  of  some  28,000  acres,  the  drain  had 


976  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

been  deepened  a  few  inches  by  the  erosion.  The  fall  was  2  ft 
to  the  mile.  We  found  that  drains  with  tributary  sheds  of  about 
2,000  acres  were  not  self-cleaning  at  less  than  about  5  ft.  to  the 
mile.  With  flatter  grades  and  the  same  size  drainage  area  the 
siltage  rapidly  increased,  till  at  grades  of  2  ft.  to  the  mile  we 
found  an  average  of  2  ft.  of  siltage,  and  with  l.o  ft.  to  the  mile 
as  much  as  3  ft.  of  filling  in  the  drains,  thus  nearly  destroying 
their  usefulness.  A  4-ft.  grade  required  some  4,000  acres  before 
it  became  self-cleaning.  A  3-ft.  grade  did  not  seem  to  be  self- 
maintaining  with  a  shed  area  of  less  than  6,000  to  7,000  acres. 

Necessity  for  Adequate  Depth  in  Drainage  Ditches.  Richard 
L.  Longshore,  in  Engineering  Record,  Feb.  21,  1918,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Adams  County,  Indiana,  with  a  total  area  of  337  square  miles, 
is  distinctly  a  farm  county.  More  than  96%  of  its  entire  area  is 
in  farms  and  more  than  75%  is  under  cultivation.  Of  this  cul- 
tivated area  fully  80%  is  dependent  on  artificial  drainage.  The 
clay  and  heavy  black  loam  soils  of  the  county  reach  the  highest 
productiveness  only  when  thoroughly  drained  by  means  of  drain 
tile. 

The  accepted  standard  for  farm  drainage  systems  is  a  line 
of  4-in.  tile  every  66  ft.  These  tile  are  laid  in  24-  to  30-in. 
trenches  drained  into  8-in.  tile  at  a  30-in.  depth.  These  8-in.  tile 
follow  the  natural  depressions  and  water  courses  of  the  land, 
running  either  into  a  county  or  community  drain.  These  outlet 
drains  are  being  tiled  up  to  and  including  30-in.  pipes.  The  aver- 
age depth  of  such  drains  ranges  from  4  to  16  ft.  For  drains  above 
this  size  open  ditches  are  used.  These  ditches  flow  into  creeks 
or  natural  streams.  Since  the  slope  of  most  of  these  streams  is 
between  1  and  2  ft.  per  thousand,  it  is  nearly  always  necessary 
to  open  and  improve  the  channel  throughout  the  entire  length. 
The  farmer  at  the  source  of  a  drainage  system  is  thus  often  in- 
terested in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  10  to  20  miles 
of  drain. 

The  first  open  ditches  were  constructed  from  3  to  6  ft.  in 
depth  and  of  sufficient  size  to  carry  surface  water  only.  With 
the  extensive  subdrainage  of  the  land  it  has  become  necessary  to 
reconstruct  these  main  outlet  drains  with  sufficient  depth  and  ca- 
pacity to  take  care  of  the  new  subdrainage.  During  the  last  three 
years  county  drains  have  been  built  under  the  direct  supervision 
of  this  office  as  follows:  36  miles  of  outlet  open  drain,  compris- 
ing three  main  lines,  14,  12  and  3  miles  in  length  and  two 
branches  of  3  and  4  miles  in  length.  The  bottom  widths  of  the 
channels  range  from  6  to  16  ft.  and  the  depths  from  8  to  14  ft. 
In  designing  these  drains  depth  was  considered  first  of  all.  Eight 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  97T 

feet  was  adopted  as  the  minimum  depth  and  a  channel  was  then 
designed  sufficient  to  carry  50%  more  than  the  maximum  runoff 
as  computed  from  available  data. 

Two  reasons  may  be  stated  for  maintaining  this  minimum  depth 
of  8  ft. 

(1)  The  average  depth  of  lateral  tile  outlet  drains  at  the  junc- 
tion with  the  open  ditch  is  6   ft.     Freezing  is  very  destructive 
to  a  tile  system  with  stagnant  water  in  the  pipes,  especially  at 
the  outlet,  where  the  drain  is   open  to  the  air.     Therefore  the 
open  drain  must  be  at  least  2  ft.  deeper  so  that  the  entire  tile 
system  may  drain  off  and  be  completely  dry  before  hard  freezing. 
When  the  breakup  comes  in  the  spring  it  is  important  that  the 
open  drain  be  deep  enough  to  carry  all  surface  water  so  that  the 
water  level  is  below  the  tile  before  the  subdrains  begin  to  flow. 
The  subdrains  must  carry  off  practically  all  stored  rainfall  from 
December  to  April,  besides  the  heavy  spring  rains,  inside  a  few 
days.     A  difference  of  two  weeks  in  the  effective  operation  of  the 
subdrains  in  spring  makes  a  vast  difference  in  the  farming  oper- 
ations of  the  whole  season. 

(2)  The  land  along  the  line  of  the  open  drains  is  often  the 
most  productive  on  the  farm  and  an  overflow  even  for  a  short 
time  during  the  summer  season  would  be  very  destructive.     The 
average  rainfall  in  this  district  is  32  in.  per  year  with  a  maxi- 
mum recorded  monthly  fall  of  8.35  in.,  yet  during  the  two  years 
the  new  drains  have  been  in  operation  the  water  level  has  never 
yet  reached  the  top  of  the  channel,  except  for  short  periods  at 
the   outlet,   and  this   was   caused  by   backwater   from  the   river. 
Even  in  these  places  the  deep  channel  caused  the  water  to  recede 
in  one-fourth  the  time  required  before  the  improvement. 

The  excavation  for  the  12-  to  16-ft.  bottoms  was  made  with  a 
floating  dredge  having  a  H/^-yd.  dipper  and  the  smaller  bottoms 
were  excavated  by  means  of  ditching  machines,  or  as  they  are  lo- 
cally called,  "  dry-land  dredges,"  with  %-yd.  dippers.  The  con- 
tract prices  ranged  from  6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  wet  dredge  work  to 
10,  14  and  15  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  dry-land  work.  'The  assessment 
sheets  including  all  supervision  ranged  from  $1.25  per  acre  for 
wet  dredge  work  to  $3.00  per  acre  for  dry  dredge  work.  Notwith- 
standing the  difference  in  price  the  dry  dredge  work  is  the  more 
satisfactory  and  wherever  a  machine  of  this  type  is  practicable, 
the  taxpayers  insist  on  its  use. 

Combating  Weeds  Along  Irrigation  Canals.  W.  M.  Wayman, 
in  Engineering  News,  July  4,  1912,  discusses  methods  of  combat- 
ing weeds  and  burrowing  animals  along  irrigation  canals.  He 
advocates  the  use  of  Ziemsen's  weed  cutting  saw  for  destroying 
moss  or  water  weeds.  This  saw  is  made  of  about  the  thickness  of 


078      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  ordinary  hand  saw,  is  about  %  in.  wide  and  has  hook  teeth 
on  each  side.  The  saw  is  twisted  so  that  it  is  turned  clear  around 
about  once  every  foot.  There  are  torpedo-shaped  weights  on  this 
about  every  4  ft.  which  hold  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  canal.  This 
saw  is  operated  by  a  man  on  each  bank  and  two  ordinary  men 
can  cut  from  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half  of  moss  in  a  day.  It 
is  usually  necessary  to  place  a  screen  across  the  canal  in  some 
convenient  place  below  and  have  two  men  there  to  pull  out  all  the 
moss  which  has  been  loosened  up  and  floats  down  to  the  screen. 
This  saw  is  handled  by  Asonert  Bros.,  West  Bend,  Wis.,  and  a 
10-yd.  saw  complete  costs  $20.  The  saw  alone  is  $1.50  per  yard. 

Dragging  a  heavy  chain  along  the  bottom  with  a  horse  on  each 
bank  will  accomplish  the  same  result. 

Luxurious  crops  of  land  weeds  grow  along  the  banks  of  canals 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  impossible  to  work  on  them  without 
first  clearing  this  growth  away.  As  they  dry  up  in  the  fall 
and  the  frost  strikes  them  they  loosen  up  at  the  ground  and  the 
wind  blows  them  into  the  canal.  Frequently  ditch  banks  are 
lined  with  weeds  of  this  character.  One  windy  night  will  put  so 
many  in  a  canal  that  it  will  become  blocked  and  often  cause  seri- 
ous breaks.  They  will  lodge  at  every  structure  and  are  an  item 
that  requires  very  careful  watchfulness  and  sometimes  great  ex- 
pense to  avoid  serious  disaster.  In  some  localities  the  ditch  banks 
have  been  cleaned,  loosened  up  and  sowed  to  rye.  This  rye  will 
reseed  itself  and  in  some  places  has  protected  the  ditch  consider- 
ably from  drifting  sands  and  weeds  and  wherever  rye  thrives  it 
will  choke  the  weeds  out:  aside  from  this  advantage  the  rye  pre- 
sents a  much  more  pleasing  appearance  than  weeds. 

Pasturing  sheep  is  another  method  of  keeping  down  weeds  that 
has  been  employed  with  some  success.  "tin. 

It  would  seem  advisable  to  include  the  seeding  down  of  canal 
banks  in  the  original  construction  contract.  This  can  be  done 
cheapest  while  the  dirt  is  still  soft  and  clean.  Suitable  grass  seed 
could  be  planted  with  the  rye  to  make  pasture  for  sheep,  or  to 
make  a  permanent  sod  for  bank  protection.  In  dry  regions  where 
canals  are  endangered  by  blowing  sand,  such  grass  could  be  kept 
alive  by  irrigation,  watering  it  by  means  of  a  small  floating 
pumping  plant  and  hose. 

Cleaning  Drainage  Ditches  with  a  Water  Jet.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Oct.  28,  1914,  gives  the  following  methods  em- 
ployed in  clea-ning  drainage  ditches,,  as  described  by  Seth  Dean, 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Drainage  Association: 

In  the  spring  of  1910  a  bed  of  silt  ranging  from  6  in.  to  3  ft.  in 
thickness  and  three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  length  was  cleaned  from 
a  channel  originally  cut  16  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom.  At  the  time 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  979 

in  question  the  stream  of  water  flowing  over  the  silt  was  about 
10  ft.  wide  and  1  ft.  deep,  the  rate  of  fall  being  about  2  ft. 
per  mile.  There  was  considerable  sand  and  some  drift  in  the  silt 
but  no  growth  of  weeds  or  brush.  The  plant  used  consisted  of  a 
scow,  7x18  ft.  in  size  and  16  in.  deep,  made  of  1-in.  plank.  In 
the  bottom  of  the  scow  a  platform  of  2-in.  plank  was  laid  to  sup- 
port the  machinery,  which  consisted  -of  a  4-hp.  gasoline  engine 
belted  to  a  Myers  pump  with  3-in.  suction  and  2i^-in.  discharge. 
The  pump  was  equipped  with  10  ft.  of  3-in.  suction  hose  with 
strainer  on  the  inlet  end,  and  for  discharge  had  about  15  ft. 
of  2^-in.  fire  hose  with  1-in.  nozzle.  The  scow  when  loaded  re- 
quired about  6  in.  depth  of  water  to  float.  Commencing  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  silt  bed  the  boat  was  poled  forward  or  held  in 
place,  as  required,  and  a  jet  of  water  turned  through  the  nozzle 
into  the  silt  that  readily  broke  and  stirred  it  up,  permitting  the 
water  to  float  it  away.  The  work  was  done  in  March  and  April, 
when  the  flowing  water  was  clear  and  capable  of  carrying  silt  in 
suspension ;  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  silt  bed  to  the  out- 
let of  the  ditch  was  about  10.000  ft.,  and  the  current  sufficiently 
strong  so  that  little  settling  of  silt  occurred.  Three  highway  and 
one  railroad  bridge  spanned  the  ditch  in  the  distance  cleaned,  but 
the  boat  readily  passed  under  them.  Two  men  operated  the  ma- 
chine and  the  total  amount  of  silt  removed  was  2,346  cu.  yd.  in 
33  working  days.  The  cost  of  the  equipment  was  as  follows,  viz. : 

Scow    ., $  45.00 

Engine  and  pump   200.00 

15-ft.  condemned  hose  and  nozzle   

Belting   and   fixings 8.60 

Freight  hauling  and  setting  up  32.00 

Two  men  33  days  at  $4   132.00 

Gasoline  and  oil   26.40 

Repairs  on  machinery    

Total    , $448.05 

After  the  work  was  completed  the  plant  was  dismantled  and  the 
engine  and  pump  shipped  to  other  work  which  was  charged  with 
their  cost,  thus  making  the  net  cost  of  the  plant  $248.05  and  the 
cost  of  cleaning  10.53  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

On  one  occasion  a  bed  of  silt  interspersed  with  logs,  brush, 
cornstalks,  etc.,  was  removed,  using  drags  made  from  the  beams 
and  shovels  of  wornout  corn  cultivators  by  bolting  the  parts 
together  in  such  manner  that  they  presented  the  appearance  of 
two  anchors  placed  at  right  angles.  The  point  of  the  beam 
was  fitted  with  a  swivel  so  the  implement  could  revoke.  F>y  at- 
taching ropes  to  the  drag,  placing  a  team  on  each  bank  and 
dragging  the  plow  in  the  channelrthe  mass  was  broken  up.  After 
pulling  out  the  logs  and  wire  (dynamite  being  used  some- 


980       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

times  to  dislodge  them)  the  water  floated  out  the  silt.  A  close 
measurement  of  the  silt  and  drift  removed  from  the  channel  was 
not  made,  as  the  work  was  done  under  the  day  labor,  system,  but 
approximately  2,800  cu.  yd.  were  taken  out,  the  cost  being  the  fol- 
lowing items: 

Four  team  drivers,  at  $3.50  each  for  24  days $336.00 

Two  drags  with  ropes  and  fixtures   10:00 

Dynamite     5.00 

Foreman,  24  days  at  $2.50   60.00 


Total  at  15  ct.  per  cu.  yd $411.00 

In  the  fall  of  1912,  Seaton's  ditch,  near  Missouri  Valley,  was 
cleaned  and  deepened.  This  is  a  drainage  ditch  7,600  ft.  long 
with  6  ft.  bottom  width,  and  side  slopes  1  to  1.  During  the 
rainy  season  and  for  a  time  afterward  the  ditch  carries  water  but 
is  usually  dry  during  the  fall  months.  The  work  of  cleaning 
was  done  by  contract  at  19  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  contractor  bid 
to  do  the  work  with  teams,  but  the  ground  proved  too  soft  for  this 
method,  and  a  small  drag  line  dredge  was  purchased  and  the 
work  successfully  carried  out  with  this,  which  proved  to  be  an 
excellent  machine  for  the  work.  The  machine  was  made  of  light 
timber  construction.  The  framework,  16  ft.  wide,  was  mounted 
on  rollers  and  designed  to  work  astride  the  ditch  in  clean-out 
work.  The  power  was  generated  by  an  8-hp.  gasoline,  which  also 
served  to  move  the  machine  forward  or  transport  it  from  one 
job  to  another  along  the  country  roads  if  the  distance  is  not 
great.  It  used  a  one-third  yard  scoop.  Two  men  operated  it,  us- 
ing about  10  gal.  of  gasoline  per  day.  About  250  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
in  ten  hours  was  the  capacity  of  the  machine  on  the  job  in  ques- 
tion. The  machine  is  of  wood  construction  and  is  not  very  dur- 
able, but  as  most  of  it  is  of  sizes  kept  in  all  lumber  yards,  de- 
fective parts  can  be  easily  replaced.  I 

Navigable  Canals.  These  are  usually  dug  through  fairly  level 
ground.  Their  even  depth,  the  continuous  use  of  the  same  cross- 
section  for  great  distances,  and  the  large  amount  of  excavation, 
lead  to  the  use  of  highly  specialized  excavating  machinery. 

The  Panama  Canal.  This  was  dug  under  such  special  circum- 
stances and  conditions  as  to  make  it  unwise  to  include  data  on 
its  construction  in  this  chapter.  Approximately  a  quarter  of  a 
billion  cubic  yards  of  earth  and  rock  were  excavated.  Reports 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  containing  considerable  cost 
data,  are  available  to  any  one  who  wants  to  study  the  subject. 
A  further  reason  for  excluding  data  on  the  Panama  Canal  from 
this  chapter  is  that  it  crosses  such  rough  country  that  the  use  of 
special  canal  excavating  equipment  was  impossible. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


981 


The  Chicago  Drainage  Canal.  This  was  dug  during  1894  and 
1895,  largely  with  steam  shovels. 

Fig.  29  shows  the  arrangement  x  of  the  steam  shovels  and  in- 
clines as  operated  by  one  of  the  Chicago  Canal  contractors.  The 
traveling  incline  is  provided  with  a  tipple  very  similar  to  those 
used  in  coal  mining.  The  shovel  first  takes  out  a  cut  8  ft.  deep 
the  full  length  of  the  excavation,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29  marked  1st 
cut.  The  next  cut  is  carried  to  a  depth  of  15  ft.  and  the  third 
cut  to  a  depth  of  20  ft.  below  the  original  ground  level.  After 
the  third  cut  is  made,  the  excavation  is  carried  no  deeper  until 


*  A-B-E.  ,-*~ 

^— -i- ..  _.v****  i^ 


Fig.   29.     Arrangement  of   Steam   Shovels   and   Inclines. 


by  successive  slices  the  full  width  of  the  channel  has  been  ex- 
cavated. The  top  lift  of  20  ft.  being  removed,  work  is  begun  at 
the  edge  of  the  slopes  of  the  bottom  lift  exactly  as  before.  In 
the  plan,  Fig.  29,  the  incline  or  conveyor  4  shows  ropes  for 
pulling  the  approach  trestle  of  the  incline  forward ;  a  horse  whim 
or  block  and  tackle  to  the  engine  being  used.  The  engine  and 
incline  proper  are  carried  on  a  car,  the  machinery  being  merely 
a  10  x  16-in.  double  cylinder  hoisting  engine  of  75  hp.  Actual 
experience  on  the  Chicago  Canal  has  proved  that  such  an  incline 
can  handle  900  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day,  day  in  and  day  out, 
the  steam  shovel  being  in  fact  the  limiting  factor.  The  trussing 
of  the  incline  proper  and  the  working  of  the  tipple  are  shown  in 
Fig.  30,  in  which  M  is  a  sheave  around  which  the  cable  from  the 


982  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

engine  passes  to  the  sheave  E,  thence  to  the  car;  G  and  H  are 
counterweights  that  pull  the  tipple  back  after  the  load  is  dumped. 
The  engineman  at  no  time  sees  the  car,  but  slows  up  when  he 
hears  the  bell  rung  by  the  car  whose  wheel  flange  strikes  a  bell 
lever  near  the  tipple.  The  front  wheels  of  the  car  strike  a  buffer 
L;  the  car  stops  and  as  the  engine  is  still  pulling  on  the  cable, 
the  tipple  revolves,  dumping  the  load  out  of  the  front  end  of  the 
car.  As  the  tipple  revolves  it  pulls  a  wire  that  operates  an  indi- 
cator in  the  engine  room,  so  that  the  engineer  knows  when  to  re- 


Fig.    30.     Incline   and   Tipple. 


lease  the  cable  and  let  the  tipple  revolve  back.  The  brake  for 
controlling  the  descent  of  the  car  is  operated  by  a  brakeman 
standing  on  the  incline  where  he  can  always  see  the  car.  Since 
there  are  two  cars  and  two  cables  there  are  two  brakemen  on 
each  incline,  each  man  having  a  lever  connected  by  wires  with 
the  brakes  on  the  engine  drum.  One  of  these  inclines  complete 
with  engines  is  said  to  have  cost  $4,000,  and  the  cost  of  operation 
of  a  steam  shovel  and  an  incline  per  10-hr,  shift  was  as  follows: 

4  tons  of  coal    @    $2    $  8.00 

Repairs     8.00 

22  men    @    $1.50  to  $3   44.00 

Total <: $60.00 

Operating  continuously  from  September,  1894,  to  July,  1895, 
on  the  Chicago  Canal  in  hard  clay  the  average  output  per  shift 
on  two  sections  was  670  cu.  yd.,  making  the  cost  about  9  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.,  not  including  interest  and  depreciation  of  plant.  The 
cost  of  coal,  labor  and  repairs  is  about  equally  divided  between 
the  steam  shovel  and  the  incline.  One  contracting  firm,  with 
2}£-yd.  shovels,  made  cuts  20  ft.  wide  x  20  ft.  deep,  and  moved 
each  shovel  forward  about  13  times  in  10  hr..  making  a  6-ft.  move 
each  time.  It  took  2  min.  to  move  the  shovel  forward,  and  the 
incline  with  the  approach  trestle  rigidly  fastened  to  it  was  moved 
at  the  same  time.  Each  car  held  5  cu.  yd.  place  measure,  and 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


083 


was  filled  with  three  shovel  loads.  A  %-in.  wire  cable  was  used  in 
hoisting" and  its  life  was  150,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  excavated, 
the  cars  being  moved  350  ft.  horizontally  and  60  ft.  vertically. 

Another  method  of  attack  using  a  shovel  and  incline  is  shown 
in  Fig.  31.  In  this  case  the  shovel  makes  cuts  across  the  axis 
of  the  canal  instead  of  parallel  with  it.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
in  this  case  a  bridge  was  used  to  dump  through  instead  of  a  tipple, 
but  this  same  method  of  shovel  attack  has  also  been  used  with 


Block 


Fig.   31.     Shovels  Used  with  Incline  and  Dumping  Bridge. 

the  tipple  incline  just  described.  Using  a  1^  cu.  yd.  shovel, 
cuts  15  to  20  ft.  wide  x  16  ft.  deep  were  made,  the  shovel  work 
ing  for  1  hr.  and  then  moving  forward  14  ft.  When  a  cut  has 
been  made  clear  across  the  canal,  the  shovel  is  run  around  the 
curved  track,  as  shown  at  AB,  while  the  working  track  is  shitted 
close  up  to  the  face  of  the  work.  At  the  same  time  the  bridge 
and  incline  are  shifted  by  horses  a  distance  of  20  or  25  ft.,  the 
whole  time  so  occupied  being  about  50  min.  The  cars  used  with 


984 


HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


this  bridge  conveyor  hold  9  cu.  yd.  water  measure,  which  in 
blasted  hardpan  is  taken  to  be  equivalent  to  5l/£  cu.  yd.  place 
measure.  The  car  has  an  A-shaped  bottom  and  swinging  side 
doors  that  are  readily  tripped,  and  its  dead  weight  is  10,000  Ib. 
The  bridge  is  a  single  track  combination  wood  and  iron  Pratt 
truss,  traveling  on  tracks  as  shown.  The  shovel  is  the  limiting 
factor,  but  a  maximum  output  of  210  car  loads  in  10  hr.  has 


DetaiiofT.ppie 

Showing 
Met  hod  of  Framing 


Plan 


Fig.  32.     Details  of  Tipple  Incline. 


been  attained,  although  150  car  loads  was  the  average.  The 
force  engaged  on  the  Chicago  Canal  in  tough  clay  was  1  shovel 
engineman,  1  cranesman,  1  fireman,  5  shovel  tenders,  12  laborers 
breaking  down  face  and  trimming  slopes,  2  men  on  bridge  truss, 
1  engineman  and  1  fireman  on  incline,  a  total  of  24  men  besides  a 
foreman.  Two  centrifugal  pumps,  one  8-in.  and  one  10-in.  lifting 
3,000  gallons  per  min.  50  ft.  high,  were  used  to  keep  the  pit 
drained,  and  in  this  connection  it  should  be  observed  that  pump- 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  985 

ing  cost  1  to  1.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Work  was  suspended  during 
February,  March  and  April,  and  in  the  month  of  Jan;  ary  the 
shovel  output  was  20  to  30%  below  the  average  of  other  months. 

Fig.  32  shows  an  all  steel  incline  and  tipple  used  on  one  sec- 
tion instead  of  the  bridge  conveyor,  but  with  the  same  method 
of  shovel  attack  at  right  angles  to  the  canal  axis,  shown  in  Fig. 
31.  It  will  be  observed  that  there  was  no  approach  trestle  used 
in  connection  with  this  incline,  and  that  the  engine  house  was 
on  a  separate  flat  car.  The  steel  trusses  of  the  incline  weighed 
5,800  lb.,  and  the  total  load  of  boilers,  flat  cars,  etc.,  was  100  tons. 
The  engines  were  11  x  18-in.  double  Mundy,  and  with  the  boiler 
cost  $2,700.  The  shovel  cut  was  20  ft.  wide  x  18  ft.  deep  and  the 
best  month's  record  was  920  cu.  yd.  per  10  hr.  shift,  which  was 
the  best  record  made  on  the  canal  for  a  month. 

The  Bates  Belt  Conveyor,  Chicago  Canal.  On  section  G  of  the 
Chicago  Sanitary  District  Canal,  a  belt  conveyor  designed  by 
Lindon  W.  Bates,  was  installed.  The  original  machine  was  built 
with  two  belts,  one  horizontal  belt  across  the  canal  and  up  the 
slope,  and  a  second  belt  up  and  across  a  movable  bridge.  The 
weight  of  the  load  held  the  belt  down  at  the  bottom  of  the  slope. 
These  belts  were  22  in.  wide,  the  pit  belt  being  450  ft.,  and  the 
spoil  bank  belt  500  ft.  long.  The  belt  traveled  on  rollers  across 
the  valley  and  up  over  a  movable  bridge,  off  which  the  earth  was 
scraped  by  6-ft.  scrapers.  The  slope  of  the  bank  belt  was  2.5  to  1. 
The  material  was  clay,  excavated  by  a  steam  shovel.  As  the  clay 
was  delivered  by  the  shovel  in  large  lumps,  it  was  necessary  to 
break  the  lumps  up  in  a  "  granulator  "  similar  to  that  used  by 
brick  manufacturers.  Rain  and  snow  caused  slipping  and  clog- 
ging of  the  belt,  and  the  pit  had  to  be  kept  dry  as  the  belt  would 
stall  when  loaded  with  mud  or  wet  material. 

The  plant  consisted  of  a  60-hp.  Toledo  steam  shovel,  a  120-hp. 
granulator,  and  a  50-hp.  power  car  driving  the  belt.  The  force 
employed  was  as  follows: 

The  belt  force  consisted  of  2  foremen,  1  engrneman,  1  fireman, 
3  carpenters,  12  pickmen  and  slopers,  1  dumpman,  1  beltman  and  1 
oilman. 

The  granulator  force  consisted  of  1  foreman,  1  engineman,  2 
laborers,  1  leverman  and  1  hopperman. 

The  shovel  force  consisted  of  1  shovel  engineman,  1  trainman. 
1  fireman  and  2  pitmen. 

The  general  force  consisted  of  1  coal  passer,  and  1  coal  cart  and 
driver. 

Mr.  Schnable,  in  the  Journal  Association  of  Engineering  So- 
cieties, June,  1895,  gives  the  output  of  this  machine  as  follows: 

From  May  until  September  was  consumed  in  installing  plant, 


986       HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

excavating  a  pit  and  in  loading  the  belt  by  manual  labor  as  well 
as  in  experimenting.  In  October,  77  cu.  yd.  were  excavated  per 
day.  In  November  920  cu.  yd.,  in  December  313  cu.  yd.,  and  in 
January  319  cu.  yd.  The  cold  and  numerous  breakdowns  re- 
duced the  output  for  December  and  January.  Mr.  Lewis  puts  the 
possible  maximum  output  per  10  hr.  day  of  this  plant  as  1,200  cu. 
yd.  Mr.  Schnable's  paper  gives  the  general  design  of  this  con- 
veyor. This  belt  conveyor  plant  was  "not  very  successful. 

N.  Y.  State  Barge  Canal  Work.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Sept.  28,  1910,  gives  an  outline  of  the  work  and  costs  of  handling 
material  with  five  machines  on  Contract  42  of  the  New  York 
Barge  Canal.  The  work  was  done  in  April,  1909,  on  lock  20  and 
8.96  miles  of  canal. 

The  material  handled  consists  largely  of  black  gumbo  (clay), 
there  being  little  or  no  rock  on  the  entire  contract.  Work  was 
commenced  in  the  summer  of  1909  at  the  western  end  of  the  con- 
tract. At  this  point  three  New  Era  graders,  36  wagons  and  slip 
scrapers,  and  68  head  of  mules  were  employed.  The  erection  of 
the  larger  machines  was  soon  put  under  way  and  by  spring  of 
1910  all  the  machines,  of  which  costs  are  herein  given,  were  work-- 
ing.  These  machines  consist  of  one  Heyworth-Newman  dragline 
excavator,  two  electrically  driven  Lidgerwood  dragline  machines, 
a  Field  tower  operating  a  drag  bucket,  and  a  12-in.  hydraulic 
dredge.  All  machines  were  operated  with  three  shifts  of  8  hr. 
each.  The  Lidgerwood  machines,  however,  were  working  at  a 
disadvantage  as  they  were  moving  to  new  points  during  this 
month,  and  the  amount  of  excavation  shown  for  them  is  merely 
that  skimmed  off  the  surface  while  moving. 

The  following  data  show  the  costs  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard 
for  the  month  of  April,  1910.  These  costs  include  labor,  repairs 
and  distribution  of  field  office  expenses: 

Heyworth-Newman  Excavator,  100-ft.  Boom;  2%  Yd.  Bucket: 

1  operator $       4.00 

1  .ioreiiian     " 2.00 

5  laborers     7-50 

1  foreman,   average  $85  per  mo 2.83 

1  pumpman     1-50 

1  oiler     2.00 

1  team  1  shift  a  day   4.50 

Total  cu.  yd.  for  April  23,192 

Total  cost  for  April    $1,983.84 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd $     0-085 

Hydraulic  Dredge   "  Mohawk,"   12-in.   suction : 

1  captain,    per    month    $    150.00 

3  enginemen,    per   month    

3  levermen,   per  month    

1  mate,    per    month 120.00 

6  deckhands,  per  day   , 2.00 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  98? 

3  firemen,  per  day $       2.00 

8  laborers  or  pipemen,  per  day   1.60 

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated    '. 15,557 

Total    cost     $1,726.30 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $0.111 

Two  Lidscerwood  Excavators,  Electrically  Operated,  with  25- 
hp.  Motor  for  Swinging  and  125-hp.  Motor  for  Hoist; 
2V2-Yd.  Page  Bucket: 

1  operator,    per   day    $       4.00 

1  oiler,    per    day    2.00 

5  laborers,   per  day    1.50 

1  sloper,   per   day 2.25 

1  foreman,  $85  per  mo 2.83 

1  electrician,   $125   per  mo 4.17 

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated  Mach.  No.  1   2,271 

Total   cost    $1,667.80 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $     0.735 

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated  by  Machine  No.  2 2,583 

Total   cost    $    992.30 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $     0.384 

The  two  Lidgerwood  machines  worked  only  part  of  the  time  dur- 
ing this  month,  No.  1  working  13  days  and  No.  2  working  10  days 
during  the  month.  As  mentioned  above  both  were  engaged  in 
moving  to  new  positions  and  were  working  at  a  disadvantage. 
The  yardage  for  these  machines  should  be  about  the  same  as  for  a 
Heyworth-Newman  machine  under  similar  conditions.  The  dif- 
ference in  daily  pay  roll  is,  however,  in  favor  of  the  electrically 
driven  machine. 

The  electric  power  on  these  machines  costs  about  1  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.  City  current  is  used  and  a  transformer  is  placed  at  con- 
venient points  along  the  line,  as  the  machine  moves  ahead. 

The  repairs  on  the  Heyworth  machine  have  averaged,  approx- 
imately, $400  per  month.  The  highest  amount  charged  to  repairs 
for  any  one  month  is  $667. 

The  Field  Tower  Scrjzper  is  a  new  machine  for  this  class  of 
work  and  is  one  of  the  evolutions  of  the  work  on  the  Barge  Canal. 
It  consists  of  a  movable  tower,  located  on  one  side  of  the  canal 
with  a  cable  running  from  it  to  an  anchorage  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  canal.  The  drag  bucket  is  supported  by  and  slides  up  and 
down  this  cable.  It  is  pulled  back  and  forth  by.  an  endless  line. 
The  crew  and  costs  are  as  follows  per  day: 

1  operator    $       4.00 

1  fireman,   $75  per  mo •  2.50 

1  foreman  or  superintendent,  $200  per  mo 6.67 

1  pumpman 1-50 

6  laborers    at    

Total  cu.  yd.  excavated   15,065 

Total   cost $1,455.81 

Cost   per   cu.   yd *     0.096 

This  tower  is  85  ft.  high  and  operates  a  l%-cu.-yd.  bucket 
with  a  10  x  12-in.  hoisting  engine  and  40-hp.  boiler.  This  ma- 


988  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

chine  is  becoming  quite   popular  along  the  canal  because  of   its 
adaptability  and  its  moderate  cost. 

Bridge  Conveyor  Excavator.  This  machine,  used  on  contract 
No.  6  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  is  described  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Nov.  23,  1910.  This  excavator  was 
erected  in  1907  by  the  Pittsburg  Steel  Construction  Co.  Com- 
pletely equipped  it  cost  $105,000.  The  conveyor,  Fig.  33,  consists 
of  a  two-truss  "  bridge  "  supported  by  two  steel  towers  and  having 
a  cantilever  arm  extending  beyond  the  towers  over  the  spoil  banks 
on  each  side.  The  bottom  chords  of  the  "  bridge "  carry  the 
truck  on  which  the  bucket  trolley  moves.  The  towers  are  90  ft. 
high  and  each  rests  on  a  "car"  consisting  of  a  framework  of 


Fig.  33.     Bridge  Conveyor  Excavator  on  New  York  State 
Barge  Canal. 

steel  girders  riding  on  32  car  wheels.  The  wheel  base  of  these 
cars  is  36  ft.,  and  the  cars  run  on  structural  gage  tracks,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  canal.  One  tower,  that  adjacent  to  the  shorter 
cantilever  arm,  is  rigidly  attached  to  the  car  frame.  The  oppo- 
site tower  rests  on  its  car  frame  on  two  sets  of  roller  bearings. 
One  set  of  roller  bearings  permits  the  tower  to  move  across  the 
car  in  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the  "  bridge  " ;  the  other  set  permits 
the  tower  to  swing  on  an  arc  lengthwise  of  the  car  or  at  right 
angle  to  the  axis  of  the  bridge.  The  first  set  of  roller  bearings 
permits  a  certain  variation  in  distance  between  the  cars,  and  the 
second  set  permits  one  end  of  the  bridge  to  be  "  swung  "  ahead 
of  the  other  when  occasion  demands.  The  total  amount  of  this 
swing  is  an  arc  of  17°. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  989 

The  cantilever  arms  differ  in  length,  that  adjacent  to  the  fixed 
tower  being  96  ft.  span  and  the  opposite  one  being  128  ft.  span. 
The  reason  for  this  design  was  that  the  original  plans  called  for 
the  earth  to  be  wasted  on  one  bank  and  the  rock  on  the  opposite 
bank.  The  ratio  between  the  lengths  of  the  cantilevers  is  the  ra- 
tio between  the  widths  of  spoil  banks  as  figured  on  the  engineers' 
estimates  of  the  amounts  of  earth  and  of  rock  excavation.  The 
longer  arm  was  to  provide  for  the  larger  rock  spoil  bank.  It 
may  be  noted  here  that  this  original  plan  for  the  separation  of 
the  earth  and  the  rock  spoil  has  not  proved  to  be  completely 
practicable  and  has  been  only  partially  accomplished. 

The  operating  mechanism  consists  first  of  the  mechanism  for 
operating  and  controlling  the  excavating  bucket,  and  second  of  the 
mechanism  for  moving  the  conveyor  along  the  work.  All  this 
mechanism  is  operated  by  electric  power.  A  service  transmission 
line  along  the  canal  brings  current  at  4,100  volts  a.  c.  from  the 
plant  of  the  Rochester  Railway  &  Light  Co.,  to  a  transformer  car 
att'ached  to  one  of  the  towers  and  traveling  with  the  conveyor. 
At  this  point  the  4,100-volt  alternating  current  is  transformed  to 
2GO-volt  direct  current  and  led  to  the  various  operating  motors. 

One  set  of  feeders  passes  up  the  tower  to  a  set  of  contact  rails 
suspended  from  the  lower  chords  of  the  bridge.  From  these  rails 
it  is  taken  by  contact  shoes  on  the  trolley  and  conveyed  to  a 
switchboard  and  controllers  in  the  trolley  cab.  Another  set  of 
feeders  runs  to  four  30-hp.  motors  which  move  the  conveyor  along 
the  work.  These  motors  are  geared  to  drums  carrying  cables  the 
ends  of  which  are  led  ahead  to  deadmen  on  opposite  banks  of  the 
canal.  To  control  the  travel  of  the  conveyor  there  is  an  electric 
brake  on  each  car;  these  brakes  are  applied  automatically  when 
the  current  is  shut  off  from  the  motors. 

The  trolley  is  propelled  back  and  forth  along  the  "  bridge  "  by 
two  60-hp.  motors,  and  a  round  trip  from  the  middle  of  the  bridge 
to  either  end  and  return  requires  about  1^  minutes  including  the 
time  for  dumping  the  bucket.  An  air  brake  is  arranged  to  stop 
the  trolley  at  any  desired  point  and  there  is  also  an  electric 
emergency  brake  to  prevent  over-running  in  case  of  failure  of  the 
air  brake.  Air  for  this  brake  and  also  for  the  brakes  on  the 
hoist,  which  are  mentioned  later,  is  supplied  by  a  small  electrically 
driven  compressor  located  on  the  trolley. 

The  bucket  is  of  the  clam-shell  type  and  is  operated  by  two 
pairs  of  cables,  one  for  opening  and  one  for  closing  the  jaws. 
Each  pair  of  cables  is  wound  on  a  separate  drum  and  each  drum 
is  operated  by  two  80-hp.  motors.  To  lower  the  bucket  the  clos- 
ing cables  are  run  slack  and  the  opening  cables  sustain  the 
bucket  until  it  touches  the  ground  when  the  opening  cables  are 


990  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

also  slacked  off  to  permit  the  jaws  to  bury  themselves  in  the  spoil. 
As  soon  as  the  bucket  is  buried,  the  closing  cables  are  hauled  in 
to  close  the  jaws  and  then  both  pairs  of  cables,  opening  and 
closing,  are  operated  to  hoist  the  bucket  and  its  load.  The  com- 
bined power  of  all  four  motors,  or  320-hp.,  is  thus  available  for 
hoisting.  The  controllers  for  the  bucket  operating  drums  are 
inter-connected  with  air  brakes  so  that  as  soon  as  power  is  thrown 
off  the  drums  are  locked  fast  and  the  bucket  can  be  lowered  only 
at  will. 

The  bucket  weighs  9  tons  and  has  a  nominal  capacity  of  8  cu. 
yd.  The  actual  load  grasped,  however,  averages  more  nearly  3 
cu.  yd.  A  single  operator  in  the  trolley  cab  controls  all  move- 
ments except  that  of  pulling  the  conveyor  ahead  which  is  directed 
from  a  cab  in  one  of  the  towers  by  the  oiler. 

The  conveyor  requires  nominally  three  men,  an  operator,  an 
oiler  and  an  electrician.  The  full  crew  working  is  larger,  and 
the  total  wage  charge  per  8-hr,  day  includes  the  following  items: 

1  operator     $6.00 

1  electrician     4.00 

1  oiler     3.25 

2  to  5  laborers  at  $1.50  and  $1.60  $3.00  to  8.00 

1  team     4.00 

1  watchman     2.00 

Bookkeeper,   part  time   at   $125  per  mo. 

Timekeeper,  part  time  at  80  per  mo. 

Superintendent,   part  time  at   250  per  mo. 

The  records  of  operation  of  the  conveyor,  which  have  been 
secured,  cover  the  work  of  the  calendar  years  1908  and  1909. 
During  this  period  the  machine  was  laid  up  an  aggregate  of  about 
two  months  because  of  repairs  due  to  a  fire  and  to  the  breaking 
of  the  bucket. 

.  The  cost  of  removing  earth  and  rock  were  not  kept  separate. 
In  24  months  510,406  cu.  yd.  of  rock  and  39,721  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
were  removed  at  the  following  cost  per  cu.  yd. 

Repairs $0.0400 

Electric    power    0.0484 

Drilling    0.0212 

Blasting     0.0715 

Removal  of  spoil   0.3091 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.4902 

This  cost  does  not  include  interest  or  depreciation. 

It  will  be  noted  that  practically  all  the  excavation  was  rock. 
Since  1  cu.  yd.  of  solid  rock  makes  about  1.7  cu.  yd.  of  broken 
rock,  if  we  divide  the  40  ct.  cost  of  "  removal  of  spoil  "  and  "  re- 
pairs "  and  power  by  1.7  we  get  about  24  ct.  as  the  cost  of  load- 
ing and  conveying  a  cubic  yard  of  loose  material,  which  would 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  991 

be  about  the  cost  of  handling  earth  with  this  bridge,  conveyor, 
exclusive  of  interest  and  depreciation. 

During  the  24  months  the  conveyor  handled  510,000  cu.  yd. 
of  solid  rock  (equivalent  to  about  860,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth)  and 
about  40,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth.  Hence  it  would  have  handled  900,- 
000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  in  24  months,  or  37,500  cu.  yd.  per  month. 

Costs  on  the  N.  Y.  Barge  Canal.  In  a  paper  presented  before 
the  Philadelphia  Engineers'  Club  and  published  in  the  July  Pro- 
ceedings, 1911,  Wm.  B.  Landreth,  former  Special  Deputy  State 
Engineer  in  direct  charge  of  the  Barge  Canal  construction,  pre- 
sented data  showing  the  contract  prices  of  barge  canal  construc- 
tion covering  several  years.  These  prices  are  for  the  larger 
items  of  contract  work  and  show  large  variations  in  prices  bid 
for  various  classes  of  work.  The  first  contracts  were  let  in  1905, 
and  bids  have  been  received  several  times  every  year  since  that 
date.  This  period  covers  at  least  one  rather  severe  financial  de- 
pression and  two  periods  of  increased  cost  of  work. 

But  one  unit  price  is  paid  for  excavation  as  there  is  no  classi- 
fication of  the  material  excavated. 

The  actual  cost  to  the  contractors  as  shown  in  the  cost  data 
records,  including  depreciation,  interest  and  overhead  charges, 
has  been  as  follows  per  cu.  yd. : 

EARTH  EXCAVATION 

By  hydraulic  dredge    from  $0.05  to  $0.16 

By   dipper   dredge    from    0.13  to  0.30 

By    ladder    dredge    from  0.15  to  0.25 

By    clamshell    dredge    from  0.09  to  0.15 

By  revolving  excavator  and  scraper  bucket. from  0.05  to  0.28 

By   towers  and  scraper  buckets    from  0.11  to  0.30 

By  steam  shovel   from  0.10  to  0.40 

By    graders    from  0.14  to  0.30 

By  hand  and  team    from  0.14  to  0.60 

ROCK  EXCAVATION 

Dry  rock  by  steam  shovel    from  $0.30  to  $0.75 

Dry  rock  by  hand  and  derrick    $2.00  (average) 

Wet  rock    from  $1.00  to  $2.25 

Channeling  has  cost  from  22  ct.  to  38  ct.  per  sq.  ft.,  depending 
on  the  character  of  the  rock,  the  rock  channeled  having  varied 
from  soft,  badly  broken  shale  and  slate  to  hard  limestone. 

Scraper  Boat  for  Sloping  Canal  Banks.  A  machine  for  sloping 
the  banks  of  the  New  York  State  barge  canal  to  anv  required 
grade  was  devised  by  A.  S.  Robinson  and  described  in  Engineering 
Record,  May  23,  1914.  It  consisted  of  two  scows  joined  together 
but  separated  so  as  to  leave  a  well  between  them  (Fig.  34).  In 
this  well  was  the  base  of  two  triangular  cantilever  trusses.  These 
trusses  supported  a  track  on  which  a  1-yd.  drag-line  bucket  oper- 


992 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


993 


atcd.  This  bucket  had  a  lateral  movement  of  30  ft.  for  one  set- 
ting of  the  boat.  The  cutting  edge  of  the  bucket  scraped  the  soil 
downward  into  the  water  where  a  curvature  of  the  track  caused 
the  bucket  to  tip  and  dump  its  load.  The  bottom  of  the  canal  was 
previously  excavated  by  suction  dredges  to  a  depth  sufficient  to 
receive  this  material.  Ihe  back  of  the  bucket  had  two  flap  valves 


Fig.  35.     Details  of  Bank  Sloping  Dredge. 


opening  inward  for  the  purpose  of  permitting  water  to  enter  and 
wash  out  the  bucket  on  its  return  trip. 

Another  boat  for  shaping  canal  banks  is  described  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Nov.  9,  1910.  It  consists  of  a  derrick  set 
on  one  of  two  barges  which  are  each  17^  x  75  ft.  and  fastened 
parallel  to  each  other  with  a  10  ft.  space  between.  (See  Fig.  35.) 
The  engine  for  operating  the  derrick  and  bucket  is  set  on  the 
second  barge  opposite  to  the  location  of  the  derrick.  The  der- 

' 


994 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


rick  is  equipped  with  Terry  &  Tench  fittings.  The  dimensions  are 
indicated  on  the  drawing,  which  shows  the  method  of  operating 
the  bucket.  The  bucket  (Fig.  36)  digs  with  an  upward  motion, 
being  pulled  by  the  line  attached  to  the  cutting  end.  Two  lines 
are  fastened  to  the  rear  of  the  bucket,  one  of  which  -runs  over 
a  sheave  in  the  end  of  the  boom  and  is  used  to  dump  the  bucket. 
The  other  runs  directly  from  the  back  of  the  bucket  through  a 
sheave  at  the  base  of  the  mast  and  is  used  to  haul  the  bucket  back. 
The  lines  are  operated  by  an  10  x  12-in.,  double  drum,  Lidger- 
wood  engine.  Two  other  engines,  each  6x10  in.,  located  near  the 
bow,  are  used  respectively  to  operate  the  lines  connected  to  dead- 
men  up  and  down  stream,  and  to  op.erate  the  spuds.  One  operator, 
a  fireman  and  five  men  constitute  the  usual  crew  on  this  machine. 


•j          •            £ 

,' 

'5!"^vvvv»-;-i-.-v-.-»-f.J 

''       x' 

PI    r 

* 

Aws 

i    T           ! 

/ 

r    I 

'     i             '« 

£3        •£:-: 

V' 

Fig.  36.     Bucket  for  Bank  Sloping  Dredge. 


The  work  done  varies  according  to  the  amount  of  material  to  be 
trimmed  off.  The  machine  has  trimmed  from  50  to  400  lin.  ft.  of 
bank  per  day  of  8  hr. 

Templets  are  set  at  various  intervals  (  about  25  ft.  )  along  the 
banks,  indicating  the  correct  slope  and  the  grade  to  which  the 
operator  works.  The  slope  is  produced  by  holding  the  boom  at 
a  certain  angle  with  the  horizontal,  which  once  having  been  found 
by  the  "  cut  and  try  "  method,  generally  need  not  be  changed  while 
digging  the  one  class  of  material.  This  "  sloper  "  was  designed 
by  George  E.  Field. 

There  were  20,000  ft.  B.M.  in  the  derrick,  trusses  and  housing, 
exclusive  of  the  lumber  in  the  scows. 

Cost  of  Steam  Shovel  Work,  North  Shore  Channel,  Chicago. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  4,  1909,  gives  the  following 
posts  of  work  on  Section  1  of  the  North  Shore  Channel  of  the 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  1)05 

Sanitary  District,  Chicago.  This  section  comprises  the  pumping 
station  and  lock,  the  crib  work  piers  protecting  the  intake,  the 
lock  and  3,350  ft.  of  channel.  The  work  was  done  by  the  Sani- 
tary District  on  force  account. 

The  top  10  ft.  of  channel  excavation  consisted  of  a  clay  which 
could  readily  be  dumped  from  dump  cars,  but  below  this  the  clay 
was  heavy  and  tenacious  and  came  in  large  lumps.  It  was  exca- 
vated by  a  70-ton  Vulcan  steam  shovel  with  a  3-cu.  yd.  dipper. 
The  steam  shovel  loaded  into  Western  3-cu.  yd.  dump  cars  which 
were  handled  by  Davenport  locomotives  out  of  the  cut  and  onto 
the  crib  piers  behind  which  the  spoil  was  dumped.  These  cars 
were  dumped  in  the  usual  way  until  the  sticky  clay  was  met, 
then  they  would  not  dump  properly.  A  derrick  was  then  ar- 
ranged to  do  the  dumping.  A  sling  was  devised  which  would 
hook  into  and  lift  the  car  body  from  the  trucks  and  by  winding 
up  on  the  engine  would  tilt  the  body  and  empty  it. 

The  cost  of  .excavation,  as  kept  by  the  engineers,  was  as  fol- 
lows for  1908,  when  194,280  cu.  yd.  were  excavated:  An  8-hr. 
day  was  worked  and  the  wages  paid  were  as  follows: 

Men  on  dump  per  day  ...................................    $1.50 

Men  around  shovel  per  day   .............................      1.75 

Steam  shovel  enginemen  per  month  ..................  125  to  150 

Steam  shovel  cranemen  per  month   ......................         90 

The  value  of  the  excavating  plant  was  $16,035,  and  the  as- 
sumed depreciation  chargeable  to  Section  1  was  $16,035  X  50% 
=  $8,017. 

The  cost  of  excavation  (194,280  cu.  yd.)  in  1908  was  as  fol- 
lows per  cu.  yd.  : 

Materials  :  Total  Per  Cu.  Yd. 

Operation     ...........................     $8,639  $0.044 

Repairs    and    plant    .................        7,156  0.036 

Total   materials    .................     $15,795  $0.081 

Labor: 

Operation     ...........................     $32,241  $0.166 

Repairs    and   plant    .................        3,295 

Total    labor    .....................    $35,536  $0.182 

Grand    totals     ...................    $51,331  $0.264 

The  items  making  up  these  totals  were  as  follows: 

Materials  :  Operation  Rep.  &  Pint.  Total 

Shovel     ...........     $1,208  $1,502  $2,710 


..  , 

Dump     ...........         259  0  259 


996 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Materials: 
Cars  , 
Coal 


Operation 
.    $   216 


Insurance 
General    . . 


0 

0 

136 


Totals     $8,638 

Labor : 

Shovel    $8,728 

Dinkeys     5,876 

Track 5,951 

Dump     9,146 

Cars     34 

Coal     585 

Office     0 

Insurance      606 

General     1,315 


Rep.  &  Pint. 
$1,863 
0 

360 
0 


$7,156 


i    820 

359 

0 

0 

1,975 

0 

8 

0 

103 


Totals     ........  $32,241 


$3,295 


Total 

$  2,079 

6,066 

360 

0 

197 

$15,795 


$  9,548 
6,265 
5,951 
9,146 


585 


1,418 


$35,536 


The  costs  of  operation   in  excavation  were  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: 

Steam  Shovel:  Total 

Labor    $8,880 

Coal      3,326 

Supplies 1,208 

General     539 

Totals     $13,953 

Per   cu.   yd 0.072 

'''I: 

Transportation : 

Labor     $6,023 

Coal     3,326 

Supplies     1,003 

General     182 

Totals     $10,534 

Per   cu.    yd , ...  0.054 

Track : 

Labor     $6,102 

General   and   supplies    190 

Totals $6,292 

Per  cu.  yd 0.032 

Dump: 

Labor $9,298 

Supplies . . 

General     '. '. 539 

Totals    $10,094 

Per  cu.  yd 0.051 

Grand  totals    $40,873 

Per  cu.  yd 0.209 

The  costs  of  repair  and  plant  charges  were  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  997 

Steam  Shovel:  Total 

Labor „....  $   280 

Materials     ' 1,502 

General     177 


Totals     $2,499 

Per  cu.  yd 0.006 

Transportation : 

Labor     $2,364 

Material 3,011 

General     177 


Totals      ..........................................  .•    $5,552 

Per  cu.  yd  .......................................      0.014 


Track  : 


Materials     ............................................    $2,222 

General     ..............................................         177 


Totals    $2,399 

Grand    totals     $10,450 

Per  cu.  yd 0.027 

In  figuring  the  net  costs  of  repairs  and  plant  charges  the  total 
estimated  amount  of  excavation  on  the  section,  or  390,000  cu. 
yd.,  has  been  used  as  the  divisor.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
repair  and  plant  charges  itemized  were  all  that  were  necessary  to 
put  the  plant  in  shape  to  complete  the  work.  Summarizing  we 
have: 

Operation     $0.2095 

Repair  and  plant  charges    0.0266 

Depreciation    on   plant ,....      0.0205 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.2566 

Cost  with  Dragline  Excavators  on  North  Shore  Channel,  Chi- 
cago. Sections  4  and  5  of  the  North  Shore  Channel,  Chicago, 
were  dug  under  contract.  The  top-soil  on  both  these  sections  was 
excavated  with  teams  and  drag  scrapers.  In  this  way  47,000  cu. 
yd.  were  removed  from  section  4,  and  21,000  cu.  yd.  from  section 
5.  The  balance  of  the  cut  was  made  with  Heyworth-Newman 
dragline  excavators,  one  machine  working  on  each  section.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  Apr.  27,  1910,  gives  the  following  data 
on  their  operation.  On  section  4,  from  Sept.,  1908,  to  Dec.,  1909, 
inclusive,  490,062  cu.  yd.  were  removed,  or  an  average  of  31,191 
cu.  yd.  per  month.  On  section  5  201,712  cu.  yd.  were  moved  from 
May  to  Dec.,  1908,  inclusive,  an  average  of  25,214  cu.  yd.  per 
month.  hutf  ;i 

An  estimate  of  the  cost  of  labor  for  one  machine  is  as  follows: 
No  consideration  is  taken  of  interest  on  contractors'  bond,  in- 
surance, or  of  general  office  expense.  The  work  is  divided  into 
three  shifts  of  8  hr.  each  for  the  operators,  and  two  shifts  of  12 


098  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

hr.  each  for  the  balance  of  the  crew.  The  work  is  carried  on  6 
days  a  week  or  25  days  a  month.  The  figures  were  obtained  by 
the  editor  while  going  over  the  work  and  are  given  according  to 
the  information  furnished  him.  He  believes,  however,  that  the 
crew  given  for  each  machine  is  too  large.  It  would  be  more 
nearly  correct  to  eliminate  the  items  of  mechanic,  blacksmith's 
helper  and  oiler;  and  to  divide  the  blacksmith's  time  between 
three  machines.  The  monthly  payroll  was: 

12  laborers  at  20  ct.   per  hr $    720.00 

3  operators    at   $150    450.00 

2  firemen  at  $90   180.00 

1  man  and  team    125.00 

1  supt.  to  2  machines  at  $200  per  month  100.00 

1  civil  engineer  and  timekeeper,  $125  —  2  machines.  67.50 

1  mechanic,    3    machines   at   $150    50.00 

1  blacksmith     90.00 

1  blacksmith's    helper    50.00 

1  oiler     60.00 

Total  per  month    $1,892.50 

Using  31,191  cu.  yd.  excavated  for  Section  4  and  25,214  cu.  yd. 
excavated  for  Section  5,  the  costs  per  cubic  yard  are  estimated  as 
follows: 

Section  4 

Labor $0.061 

3  tons  coal  per  24-hr,  day   0.010 

Repairs  and  miscellaneous  supplies    0.048 

15%  annual  interest  on  $15,000  plant   0.006 

50%  annual  depreciation  on  $15,000  plant   0.020 

Total  per  cu.   yd $0.145 

Section  5 

Labor    $0.076 

3  tons  coal  per  day 0.012 

Repairs  and  miscellaneous  supplies    '..  0.059 

15%  annual  interest  on  $15,000  plant    0.007 

50%  annual  depreciation  on  $15,000  plant 0.030 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.184 

The  labor  item  includes  all  work  done,  such  as  repairs,  mov- 
ing machine,  and  actual  excavation. 

The  "  repair  and  miscellaneous  supplies "  item  is  large.  It 
contains  new  cable,  oil,  renewals  and  2  miles  of  2-in.  pipe  to  sup- 
ply water  to  the  boilers.  The  strains  and  work  demanded  of 
large  dragline  machines  are  heavier  than  steam  shovels.  The 
average  repair  and  maintenance  bill  has  been  $1,500  per  month 
for  two  excavators. 

The  annual  interest  and  depreciation  charges  are  estimated  high 
in  order  to  make  allowance  for  periods  of  idleness  when  no  con- 
tract is  underway. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS 


999 


Tower  Dragline  Excavator  on  North  Shore  Canal,  Chicago. 
A  machine  invented  by  J.  T.  Fanning,  which  is  said  to  have 
worked  very  close  to  required  lines,  cutting  less  than  li/£  cu.  yd. 
of  excess  material  per  lin.  ft.  of  canal,  is  described  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Jan.  18,  1911. 

Fig.  37  shows  the  principles  upon  which  the  machine  operates. 
There  are  two  towers  and  two  buckets.  In  each  tower  is  located 
a  double  drum  engine  which  operates  one  of  the  buckets.  The 
booms,  which  extend  on  an  incline  to  the  rear  of  the  tower  and 
over  the  spoil  bank,  are  also  offset  horizontally  from  the  center 
lines  of  the  towers.  This  can  better  be  understood  by  reference 


Fig.  37.     Method  of  Operation  of  Double  Bucket  Tower  Excavator. 

to  the  plan.  The  boom  on  one  tower  is  offset  to  one  side  of  the 
center  line  which  runs  between  the  two  towers,  and  the  boom  on 
the  other  tower  is  offset  to  the  opposite  side  of  this  center  line. 
In  this  way  a  straight  line  from  the  apex  of  one  tower  to  the 
end  of  the  boom  of  the  opposite  tower,  shows  a  clear  working  line 
for  the  bucket.  A  similar  condition  is  presented  for  another 
bucket  to  work  in  the  opposite  direction. 

Each  bucket  is  operated  by  two  lines.  The  drag  or  digging  line 
is  run  from  the  small  drum  of  the  double  drum  engine  to  the 
bucket  which  digs  downwardly  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  canal. 
The  bucket  is  dragged  down  the  slope,  with  its  other  line  slack, 
and  takes  its  load.  The  other  line  of  load  line  runs  from  the 
large  drum  on  the  engine  up  over  a  pulley  near  the  apex  of  the 
tower,  then  put  over  another  stationary  pulley  which  is  sus- 
pended from  a  cable  placed  between  the  two  towers,  down  through 


1000  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

\ 

a  sheave  attached  to  the  bale  of  the  bucket,  and  out  to  the  end 
of  the  boom  on  the  opposite  tower.  By  winding  in  on  this  line 
and  holding  the  dragline,  the  bucket  is  raised  until,  by  slacking 
the  dragline,  it  can  be  run  down  by  gravity  to  the  dump  pile  at 
the  end  of  the  boom.  Ihe  location  of  the  bucket  in  digging  was 
controlled  partly  by  the  location  of  the  fixed  pulleys  suspended 
above  the  canal  section.  The  positions  of  these  were  changed 
from  time  to  time  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  work. 

The  bucket  is  of  %-yd.  capacity,  and  is  arranged  so  that  a 
tripping  device,  near  the  end  of  the  boom  causes  the  bottom  of 
the  bucket  to  swing  loose  and  drop  the  load  on  the  spoil  bank. 

In  operation  the  skill  with  which  the  bucket  is  handled  de- 
pends upon  the  experience  of  the  engineer.  The  work  is  always 
in  plain  view  of  the  operator,  and  by  proper  manipulation  of 
the  lines  the  slopes  may  be  carved  down  at  any  angle  desired. 
The  constant  rubbing  of  the  buckets  down  the  slope  carries  all 
loose  material  down  the  bank,  and  produces  a  compact  and  plane 
surface. 

The  bucket  travels  very  easily  and  rapidly  out  to  the  end  of 
the  boom,  the  speed  being  controlled  by  the  angle  of  the  line 
on  which  it  runs  and  by  the  dragline.  Some  speed  is  necessary 
to  enable  the  bucket  to  throw  out  its  load.  The  speed  is  desir- 
able because  the  clay  sticks  to  the  bucket. 

The  principal  disadvantage  comes  in  the  wear  of  the  dragline 
which  bears  a  considerable  strain  when  used  to  stop  the  bucket. 

The  material  excavated  is  clay.  The  section  of  the  canal  mea- 
sures 26  ft.  wide  at  the  base  with  slopes  of  1  on  2.  The  aver- 
age depth  of  the  canal  on  the  sections  which  this  machine  was 
used,  is  about  27}£  ft.  The  country  through  which  the  canal 
runs  is  a  practically  level  plain. 

The  machine  was  used  on  two  sections  of  the  North  Shore 
Drainage  canal,  covering  a  period  of  two  years.  It  was  operated 
10  hr.  per  day  with  an  engineer  and  fireman  in  each  tower, 
and  a  track  gang  consisting  of  about  5  men.  An  average  of  12 
men,  including  the  superintendent,  watchmen  and  all  labor,  was 
employed.  The  maximum  yardage  excavated,  during  one  month, 
was  in  June,  1910,  when  19,000  cu.  yd.  were  excavated.  The  min- 
imum yardage  for  a  complete  month  was  excavated  in  December, 
1908,  when  4,750  yd.  were  taken  out.  The  average  amount  of 
excavation  per  working  day  was  between  500  and  600  cu.  yd. 
It  was  possible  for  each  bucket  to  make  two  trips  per  minute, 
but  the  output  per  day  shows  that  each  bucket  averaged  less  than 
one  trip  per  minute. 

The  new  machine,  for  which  plans  are  being  niade,  will  be 
built  stronger  throughout,  and  a  larger  bucket  will  be  used. 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  1001 

Costs  of  Excavation  on  Colbert  Shoals  Canal,  Ala.  Charles  E. 
Bright,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  18,  1911,  gives  the 
following: 

Colbert  Shoals  Canal,  which  was  designed  to  overcome  the 
obstructions  to  navigation  at  Colbert  and  Bee  Tree  Shoals,  is 
located  along  the  south,  or  left  bank,  of  the  Tennessee  River;  the 
lower  end  of  the  canal  being  about  one-half  mile  above  Riverton, 
Ala.  It  is  a  lateral  canal  8  miles  long,  with  a  lock  of  26-ft. 
lift,  80-ft.  width,  and  350-ft.  length,  located  at  the  lower  end. 
Beginning  at  the  upper  end  of  this  lock  and  extending  upstream 
for  a  distance  of  5.3  miles,  the  canal  was  excavated  through  the 
bottom  lands,  the  cutting  ranging  in  depth  from  17  ft.  at  the 
lower  end  to  20  ft.  at  the  upper. 

The  cross  section  of  the  canal  is  112  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom 
or  at  grade,  with  side  slopes  of  1  on  2.  Berms  15  ft.  wride  be- 
tween slop  stakes  and  the  toe  of  spoil  banks  were  left  on  both 
sides  of  the  canal,  the  berm  on  the  river  side  being  brought  to  a 
height  of  not  less  than  0.5  ft.  above  low  water  in  the  canal. 

Excavation  wyas  done  on  different  sections  of  the  canal  with 
wheel-scrapers,  elevating  graders  pulled  w7ith  traction  engines, 
dragline  excavators  and  steam  shovels. 

The  elevating  graders  were  not  generally  successful.  Grass  and 
cornstalks  clogged  the  elevator  on  one  part  of  the  work  so  that  it 
was  necessary  to  strip  the  surface  with  wheel  scrapers. 

All  of  the  graders  used  were  what  is  termed  "  Standard  West- 
ern Elevating  Graders,"  with  21-ft.  elevator,  using  an  extra  heavy 
or  giant  railroad  plow  for  loosening  the  material  and  throwing 
it  on  the  elevator.  This  plow  was  attached  to  one  side  of  the 
frame  of  grader.  The  only  portion  of  the  canal  completely  ex- 
cavated to  grade  by  these  machines  was  from  Stations  10-20  to 
145-103,  which  proved  unprofitable  on  account  of  the  material 
usually  becoming  too  hard  near  the  bottom  to  be  loosened  by  the 
plow.  The  height  to  which  the  material  had  to  be  lifted  in  get- 
ting it  to  spoil  banks  was  too  great.  These  machines,  in  con- 
nection with  wheel  scrapers,  were  most  successfully  used  in  mak- 
ing a  cut  from  8  to  12  ft.  in  depth,  and  110  to  120  ft.  in  width, 
off  the  top.  This  left  a  strip  about  30  ft.  wide  inside  the  slope 
stakes  on  each  side  for  the  drag  bucket  excavators  to  work  from 
in  taking  out  the  remainder  of  the  section.  This  arrangement 
gave  the  elevating  graders  the  soft  material  to  which  they  were 
best  adapted,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  least  lift  in  conveying 
the  material  to  spoil  banks. 

The  steam  shovel  outfit  consisted  of  a  65-ton  Marion  shovel, 
one  25-ton  and  one  20-ton  dinkey  locomotive,  and  eight  "  Oliver  " 
12-yd.,  side  dump  cars,  all  standard  gage;  with  about  1%  miles 


1002  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  track,  a  tank,  and  pipe  line  and  pump  for  supplying  water  to 
shovel  and   locomotives. 

The  dragline  excavators  were  Armstrong  machines  equipped 
with  an  81 -ft.  boom  and  a  2-cu.  yd.  Page  scraper-bucket.  The 
machine  was  moved  on  skids  with  wooden  rollers. 

Quantities  Handled  and  Cost  by  Various  Methods 

Per.  Cu.  Yd. 

Wheelscrapers,  207,408  cu.  yd $0.20 

Graders,    917,138   cu.   yd 017 

Dragline,   889,267  cu.  yd 0.11 

Steam  shovel,   187,559  cu.  yd 0  28 

The  wheel-scrapers,  elevating  graders  and  steam  shovel  having 
removed  the  cream  of  the  excavation  in  most  instances,  the  drag- 
bucket  excavators  were  left  the  hard  material  which  was  mostly 
found  near  the  bottom,  besides  being  required  to  lift  the  material 
to  a  greater  height.  An  advantage  of  the  drag-bucket  excavators 
over  the  wheel-scrapers,  elevating  graders  and  steam  shovel,  was 
their  ability  to  work  successfully  in  pits  containing  from  2  to  3 
ft.  of  water,  and  the  fact  that  ordinary  rains  did  not  interfere 
with  their  output.  It  was  also  the  only  machine  on  which  two 
and  three  shifts  per  day  were  worked  profitably. 

The  daily  expenses  by  each  method  were  as  follows: 

Drag-Bucket  Excavators : 

3  enginemen   at  $260  per  month    $8.66 

3  firemen   at  $2    6.00 

3  laborers  at  $1.50   4.50 

1  master  mechanic  at  $125  per  month 4.16 

1  pump  man    1.50 

1  blacksmith     3.00 

1  foreman  at  $75  per  month   2.50 

1  coal  wagon  driver   2.00 

Total   per   day   $32.32 

Cost  for  each  of  3  machines    - 10.77 

Elevating  Graders : 

2  enginemen  at  $80   ($160)    $  5.33 

2  firemen    at   $1.75    3.50 

16  teams    (four-horse)    at  $2.50    40.00 

water  wagon,    with   driver    2.00 

pump  man    1.50 

blacksmith     3.00 

helper    1.50 

foreman  at  $75  per  month   2.50 

Total  per   day    $59.33 

Cost  for  each  of  two  graders    29.66 

Wheel  Scrapers: 

15  wheel  scrapers   at  $2   $30.00 

3  snap  teams   at  $2.25    6.75 

5  laborers  at  $1.75    8.75 

1  blacksmith     3.00 

1  helper    1-50 

1  foreman  at  $75  per  month   2.50 

Total  per  day   $52.50 

Cost  for  each  scraper   3.50 


DITCHES  AND  CANALS  1003 

Steam  Shovel: 

1  foreman  at  $125  per  month $  4.16 

1  shovel  engineman  at  $125  per  month  4.16 

1  craneman  at  $90  per  month   3.00 

1  shovel    fireman     2.00 

1  blacksmith     3.00 

1  helper    1.50 

1  pump  man    1.50 

1  coal    wagon    2.00 

2  dinkey  engineers  at  $2.00 4.00 

2  firemen    at  $1.50    3.00 

2  brakemen  at  $1.50   * 3.00 

16  laborers  on  dump  at  $1.50   24.00 

3  laborers   at  shovel    4.50 


Total  per  day   $59.82 

Bibliography.  "  Hand  Book  of  Construction  Plant,"  R.  T. 
Dana ;  "  Excavating  Machinery,"  A.  B.  McDaniel ;  "  Practical 
Farm  Drainage,"  C.  G.  Elliot ;  "  Irrigation  Engineering,"  Her- 
bert M.  Wilson ;  "  Irrigation  Engineers'  Hand  Book,"  Herbert  M. 
Wilson. 

Reports  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Panama  Canal. 

"  The  Soulanges  Canal  Works,  Canada,"  C.  R.  Coultee,  En- 
gineering News,  April  18,  1901 ;  "  Chicago  Drainage  Canal,"  series 
of  articles  in  Engineering  Record,  April  4,  1896,  to  April  17,  1897; 
"  Excavating  Methods  and  Equipment  on  Cape  Cod  Canal,"  En- 
gineering News,  Feb.  19,  1914;  "  Bucket  Ladder  Excavators  on  the 
Spanish  Canal,  Alfons  XIII,  from  Seville  to  the  Atlantic,"  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Sept.  3,  1913. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING 

To  California  gold  miners  and  mining  engineers  the  world  is 
indebted  for  the  development  of  the  cheapest  means  known  for 
moving  earth.  Engineers  in  general  are  apparently  strangers  to 
the  great  economy  of  the  hydraulic  method  of  excavation,  or  if 
not  ignorant  of  its  economic  merits  as  applied  in  California,  they 
hesitate  to  use  the  method  elsewhere.  However,  there  is  nothing 
mysterious  or  difficult  about  the  hydraulic  method  of  ^arth  exca- 
vation, nor  does  it  always  require  so  great  an  expenditure  for 
plant  as  to  put  it  beyond  the  reach  of  those  contemplating  exca- 
vations of  any  considerable  size.  It  is  generally  assumed  that 
there  must  be  a  gravity  supply  of  water,  but  even  this  condition 
is  no  essential  to  economic  excavation  and  transportation  of 
earth,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 

There  are  three  methods  employed  in  sluicing :  ( 1 )  the  ground- 
sluice;  (2)  the  "boom,"  and  (3)  the  hydraulic  giant. 

In  the  ground-sluice  method,  which  is  best  adapted  to  shallow 
banks,  the  earth  is  shoveled  or  dumped  into  a  stream  of  water 
running  in  a  sluice.  In  this  method  the  water  is  used  to  convey 
the  material  and  not  to  loosen  it. 

A  "  boom  "  consists  of  a  temporary  dam  behind  which  the  water 
supply  is  allowed  to  accumulate  until  a  sufficient  amount  is 
stored.  The  water  is  then  allowed  to  escape  with  a  rush,  the 
stream  being  directed  against  the  foot  of  the  bank  to  be  re- 
moved. This  method  has  been  used  in  Colorado. 

Hydaulic  Giants.  A  giant  or  monitor  is  a  metal  tube  and 
nozzle  tip  so  fixed  to  a  pipe  by  flexible  joints  as  to  be  easily 
moved  horizontally  or  vertically.  The  tapering  nozzle  varies  in 
diameter  from  1  to  10  in.,  at  the  tip,  and  is  fitted  with  a  deflector 
attached  at  its  extremity  for  the  purpose  of  directing  the  stream 
to  the  desired  point  of  attack.  See  Fig.  1. 

Bed  Rock  Sluices.  In  opening  up  a  gold-bearing  gravel  bank 
for  hydraulic  sluicing  bed  rock  sluices  are  frequently  constructed. 
These  are  channels  cut  in  the  underlying  bed  rock  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  the  material  to  the  outlet  pipe  or  sluice  or  to 
the  dump. 

The  grade  of  the  bed  rock  sluice  is  determined  by  the  contour 
of  the  ground,  the  quantity  of  water  available,  and  the  character 
of  the  material.  Sand  requires  a  heavy  grade  which  may  be  par- 
tially compensated  by  making  the  sluice  wide  and  shallow. 
Heavy  boulders  require  a  deep  narrow  sluice.  The  usual  grade 
is  6  in.  per  "box"  of  12  ft.  in  length,  or  4.2%,  but  will  vary 
from  1  in.  to  12  in.  per  "  box."  The  grade  should  increase  slightly 
towards  the  dump.  Curves  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  It  is 

1004 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1005 


sometimes  necessary  to  set  the  sluices  in  tunnels  but  open  cut 
sluices  are  preferable. 

The  size  of  the  sluice  is  also  regulated  by  the  quantity  of 
water  used,  according  to  H.  A.  Brigham,  Journal  of  the  Asso- 
ciated Engineering  Societies,  vol.  41,  1908.  For  washing  fine  ma- 
terial the  size  of  sluice  required  is  about  as  follows: 


Quantity  of  water 

Miner's  in. 

(1.5  cu.  ft.  per  sec.) 

200  to     600 

400  to  1,200 

1,000  to  2,500 

2,000  to  4,000 

3,000  to  5,000 

4,000  to  7,000 


Width  of  sluice 
ft. 
3 
4 
5 


10 


Fig.    1.     "Bouery's"   Hydraulic   Giant. 


The  most  economic  method  of  constructing  bod  rock  sluices 
is  to  blast  the  material,  wash  out  the  debris  with  the  hydraulic 
giant,  and  line  the  sluice  if  necessary  with  timber. 

The  Carrying  Capacity  of  Water.  To  the  engineer,  the  most 
important  data  relating  to  hydraulic  excavation  are  results  of 
actual  practice  showing  the  number  of  cubic  yards  of  material 
excavated  by  a  cubic  foot  of  water.  The  most  complete  informa- 
tion on  this  subject  is  given  in  a  paper  on  "  Hydraulic  Mining 
in  California,"  read  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Bowie,  Jr.,  in  1877,  before  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers.  From  this  paper,  which 
goes  into  great  detail,  I  have  condensed  and  tabulated  the  ac- 
companying Table  II,  which  is  based  upon  actual  measurements 
and  is  reliable. 

The  total  yardage  was  2,275,967  cu.  yd.  gravel  moved  per 
\533,728  miner's  inches  (2,159  cu.  ft.  each),  or  1.48  cu.  yd. 
moved  per  miner's  inch,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  1,440  cu.  ft. 


1006  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  water  per  cu.  yd.  of  gravel;  12,027  oz.  of  gold  worth  $231,893 
were  recovered,  the  average  yield  per  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  being  10.2 
ct.;  554  Ib.  of  quick-silver  were  lost.  The  average  cost  per  cu. 
yd.  of  gravel  moved  was: 

Water $0.008 

Materials     010 

Labor     0.036 

Office  and  general  expenses 006 


Total  per   cu.   yd $0.060 

Two  shifts  were  worked  and  1,520  (24-hr.)  days  were  required 
to  move  the  two  and  a-quarter  million  cubic  yards,  or  about  1,500 
cu.  yd.  per  24-hr,  day  per  plant. 

TABLE     I  — COST    OF    HYDRAULIC     EXCAVATION:     NORTH 
BLOOMFIELD  —  CLAIM  NO.  8 

Year     1874-5  1875-6 

Cu.  yd.  gravel   1,858,000  2,919,700 

Height  of  bank,   ft 180  260 

Grade  of  sluices,  in.  in  16  ft 6%  6^ 

Labor  per  cu.  yd $0.0122  $0.0140 

Powder   per   cu.   yd 0032  .0053 

Materials  per  cu.  yd .0030  .0031 

General  expenses  per  cu.  yd .0022  .0025 

Water  per  cu.  yd .0077  .0074 


Total  per  cu.  yd $0.0203  $0.0323 

Cu.  yd.  of  gravel  per  miner's  inch 4.80  4.17 

Cu.  ft.  water  per  cu.  yd.  gravel   450  520 


The  foregoing  indicates  about  the  maximum  cost  of  hydraulic 
excavation  on  a  large  scale,  for  the  banks  were  not  very  high, 
the  head  of  water  was  low,  and  the  flumes  were  laid  on  a  very 
gentle  grade  —  all  of  which  factors  increase  the  consumption  of 
water,  as  is  well  shown  by  comparison  with  Table  II. 

Contrast  Table  II  with  the  following  data,  Table  III,  on  the 
North  Bloomfield  Mine  which  is  rearranged  from  a  table  given 
by  Mr.  Bowie.  Here  the  grade  of  the  sluices  is  9%  instead  of  2%. 

TABLE    III  — DATA    ON    NORTH    BLOOMFIELD    MINE 

1874  1875  1876  1877 

Height   of   bank,    ft 100  100  200  265 

Grade  of  sluices,  in.  in  12  ft.          6%  e1^  6%  6% 

Cu.   yd  of  gravel    3,250,000  1,858,000  2,919,700  2,993,930 

Cu.  yd.  per  miner's  inch   ..               4.6  4.8  4.17  386 

Cu.  ft.  water  per  cu.  yd...              436  459  540  567 

Sluices  on  the  North  Bloomfield  Mine  were  6  ft.  wide  by  32 
in.  deep,  while  those  used  for  the  La  Grange  Mines  were  4  ft. 
wide  by  30  in.  deep. 

We   see   from    Tables   I   to    III    that   the   cubic   feet   of   water 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1007 


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1008  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

required  to  move  each  cubic  yard  of  gravel  may  be  from  450  to* 
2,000;  and  that  the  cost  of  labor  alone  may  be  1.25  to  4.25  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  It  appears  that  ordinarily  about  1,000  cu.  ft.  of 
water  are  required  to  loosen  and  move  each  cubic  yard  of  gravel 
where  banks  are,  say,  30  ft.  high,  with  about  85-ft.  head  of  water. 

As  illustrating  the  expense  to  which  certain  companies  have 
gone,  the  55  miles  of  main  ditch  of  the  North  Bloomfield  Co.  may 
be  mentioned.  This  ditch  was  5  ft.  wide  at  bottom,  3,5  ft.  deep, 
and  side  slopes  were  1.5  to  1.  Ihe  grade  was  12  to  16  ft.  per 
mile,  and  the  delivery  3,200  miner's  inches,  or  about  6,900,000  cu. 
ft.  per  24  hr.  Ditches  with  grades  of  20  ft.  per  mile  and  de- 
livering 80  cu.  ft.  per  second  have  been  built,  and  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  gagings  show  about  25%  less  discharge  than  open-channel 
formulas  would  indicate.  Where  ravines  are  crossed,  timber 
flumes  4  ft.  wide  by  3  ft.  deep  laid  on  grades  of  30  to  35  ft. 
per  mile  are  used. 

The  sluices  into  which  the  loose  gravel  and  water  are  run  are 
made  of  1.5-in.  plank,  tongued  and  grooved  about  3  ft.  wide  x  3  ft. 
deep ;  cross-sills,  4x6  in.,  support  the  sluice  every  4  ft.,  being 
mounted  on  4  x  6-in.  posts.  The  sluices  ordinarily  have  a  4% 
grade,  and  one  of  the  size  just  given  will  carry  3,200  miner's 
inches  on  a  4%  grade;  6  to  8%  grades  are  used  where  pipe-clay 
is  to  be  moved.  The  water  must  run  at  least  to  10  or  12  in. 
deep  in  the  sluice,  so  as  to  cover  boulders  of  that  size  and  facilitate 
their  moving  along.  A  sudden  break  or  drop-off  in  the  sluice 
line  can  be  used  to  effect  the  disintegration  of  cemented  gravels. 

-Banks  of  cemented  gravel,  often  weighing  3,600  Ib.  per  cu.  yd., 
or  133  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.  in  place,  are  broken  up  by  using  black 
powder.  If  the  bank  is  50  to  125  ft.  high  a  tunnel  is  run  in 
about  two-thirds  the  height  of  the  bank,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
tunnel  lateral  drifts  are  run  parallel  to  the  face,  forming  a  T. 
One-half  to  %  keg  (25-lb.)  of  powder  per  1,000  cu.  ft.  of  gravel, 
measured  in  front  and  above  the  lateral  drift,  is  the  charge 
placed  in  the  lateral  drifts,  tamped  and  fired.  As  illustrating 
the  accuracy  of  sampling  the  yield  of  gravel  determined  by  test 
pits  and  drifts,  one  example  will  suffice.  Excavations  from 
which  21,600  tons  of  gravel  were  taken  actually  yielded  $2.75 
per  ton  in  gold,  while  the  estimated  yield  by  sampling  was  $2.00. 

For  data  on  bank  blasting  see  Chapter  V. 

Many  data  on  the  "  duty  "  of  water  are  given  by  A.  J.  Bowie 
in  "  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Mining."  Amounts  vary- 
ing from  1  to  7.5  cu.  yd.  are  given  as  transported  by  a  miner's 
inch  in  24  hr.  This  is  roughly  from  1  to  10%  as  many  cu.  ft.  of 
material  moved  as  there  are  cu.  ft.  of  water  used  to  move  it. 
On  Yuba  River,  Calif.,  some  19,100,000  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  were 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1009 

moved  with  3.5  miner's  inches  per  cu.  yd.     On  American  River, 
Calif.,  8,015,000  cu.  yd.  required  4.5  miner's  inch  per  cu.  yd. 

Volume  of  Water*  for  Hydraulicking.  Table  V  was  compiled 
by  engineers  of  the  Union  Iron  Works  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
published  in  their  catalog  No.  5,  on  hydraulic  excavating  ma- 
chinery, and  given  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  12,  1912. 

TABLE    V  — WATER    REQUIRED    FOR    EFFECTIVE    HYDRAULICK- 
ING,    CU.   FT.   PER   MIN. 

Htead  2-in.  2%-in.  3-in.  4-in.  5-in. 

ft.  nozzle  nozzle  nozzle  nozzle  nozzle 

100  120  188  278  488  750 

150  150  233  338  600  938 

200  158  270  390  690  1,073 

250  195  300  435  773  1,200 

300  210  330  480  848  1,320 

350  225                  360  508  915  1,425 

400  240  383  548  975  1,500 

The  catalog  gives  a  table  for  nozzles  up  to  10  in.  and  heads  up 
to  700  ft.  The  volume  of  water  increases  as  the  square  of  the 
diameter  of  the  nozzle. 

The  Miner's  Inch.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  May  26, 
1904,  gives  the  following: 

In  the  California  Journal  of  Technology,  A.  P.  Stover  gives  the 
number  of  miner's  inches  assumed  in  different  states  to  equal  a 
flow7  of  1  cu.  ft.  por  second. 

By  custom       By  statute 

California     50.0  40.0 

Colorado     38.4  38.4 

Montana     40.0  40.0 

Idaho     50.0 

Arizona     40.0 

Nevada    50.0 

Utah     50.0 

In  Nevada  the  miner's  inch  in  one  part  of  the  state  may  be 
measured  under  4-in.  pressure,  while  in  another  part  under  6  or 
12-in.  pressure.  Along  the  Humboldt  River  water,  in  some  cases, 
is  measured  under  pressures  of  2,  3.5,  or  even  4  ft.  The  great 
difficulty  is  to  obtain  a  constant  head;  this  may  be  done  with 
flows  of  small  volume  by  use  of  a  proper  measuring  box,  but  it  is 
impossible  with  flows  of  several  hundred  feet  per  second. 

Ditches  and  Flumes.  Where  lumber  is  cheap  and  where  the 
required  life  of  the  water  supply  line  is  not  much  more  than  10 
yr.,  the  cost  of  a  flume  is  frequently  less  than  that  of  a  ditch. 
A  larger  amount  of  water  per  unit  of  section  area  is  carried  by 
flumes  than  by  ditches.  Waste  gates  should  be  placed  every  y± 
to  i£  mile. 

Giants  have  been  designed  to  accelerate  the  movement  of  ma- 


1010  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

terial  through  Humes,  ditched  and  ground  sluices.  See  Fig.  2, 
which  shows  a  "  booster  giant "  made  by  the  Joshua  Hendy 
Iron  Works,  San  Francisco. 

A  Giant  and  Hydraulic  Elevator  Plant.  Engineering  News, 
Jan.  16,  181)6,  gives  the  following: 

In  an  exhaustive  paper  on  "  The  Present  Condition  of  Gold 
Mining  in  the  Southern  Appalachian  States,"  by  Messrs.  H.  B.  C. 
Nitze  and  H.  A.  J.  Wilkens,  presented  at  the  Atlanta  meeting  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  the  authors  de- 
scribe a  novel  method  which  is  about  to  be  used  in  reworking  the 


Fig.  2.     A  Booster  Giant. 


old  placer-deposits  on  the  Mills  property,  Burke  Co.,  N.  C.     The 
work  is  described  as  follows. 

The  deposits  are  situated  near  the  headwaters  of  Silver  Creek. 
They  are  about  a  mile  in  length  and  are  located  mainly  upon  the 
west  bank  upon  which  the  gravel  often  extends  out  a  distance  of 
500  to  600  yd.  The  main  difficulty  encountered  is  the  want  of 
fall  in  the  bed,  a  feature  common  to  many  Southern  placers. 
It  amounts  in  this  case  to  less  than  1  ft.  in  100.  To  overcome 
this  obstacle  for  hydraulicking  with  continuous  sluice,  the  use 
of  the  hydraulic  gravel-elevator  was  decided  upon,  and  some  ex- 
periments were  made  with  it  a  few  years  ago.  In  the  main,  they 
were  satisfactory,  but  were  soon  abandoned,  the  plant  being  unfit 
for  continuous  use,  and  monazite  not  being  at  that  time  a  valu- 
able product. 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1011 


1012 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Fig.  3  gives  a  rough  sketch  of  the  plant  and  method  to  be  car- 
ried out  by  the  present  company.  Twelve  miles  of  ditch  and 
flume  line  ( 1 )  carry  the  water  from  a  reservoir,  through  the 
Dan  Sisk  gap  in  the  South  mountains,  to  a  penstock  (4),  sit- 
uated 200  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  creek  bed.  The  ditch  is  cut 
about  8  in.  deep  by  20  in.  wide,  at  a  cost  of  about  25  ct.  per  rod, 
and  is  given  a  grade  of  from  li/£  to  3  in.  wide  by  12  in.  deep. 

The  water,  before  reaching  the  penstock,  flows  through  a  sand- 
pit (2,  Fig.  3),  to  catch  sand,  etc.,  washed  into  the  ditch  line 
from  the  side.  It  then  enters  the  penstock  after  passing  through 


4.     H>draulic  Gravel  Elevator. 


a  screen  (3)  for  removing  leaves,  sticks,  etc.  The  pipe  (5)  run- 
ning from  the  penstock  is  10-in.  spiral  riveted  sheet-steel  (No.  16 
Birmingham  gage),  coated  with  coal  tar  and  connected  with 
flanges.  Smaller  curves  are  made  by  placing  cast-iron  beveled 
wings  between  the  gaskets  of  the  flanges,  larger  ones  by  suitable 
elbows.  Near  the  gravel  pit  the  10-in.  pipe  branches  out  through 
a  Y  (0)  into  two  7-in.  pipes,  supplied  each  with  a  gate-valve,  one 
leading  to  the  giant  (10)  and  the  other  to  the  hydraulic  elevator 
(7),  These  are  both  of  California  type  and  manufacture. 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1013 

An  illustration  of  the  elevator  is  given  in  Fig.  4.  The  prin- 
ciple of  this  device  is  too  well-known  to  require  a  description.  It 
is  intended  to  keep  the  elevator  stationary  as  long  as  possible,  as 
its  installation  consumes  considerable  time.  A  pit  must  be  sunk 
in  the  bed-rock,  and  as  the  elevator  must  also  drain  the  workings 
(a  drain  on  the  top  pf  the  bed-rock  to  the  initial  point  of  work- 
ing was  considered  too  expensive ) ,  the  water  would  gain  too  much 
headway  while  the  elevator  is  moved.  The  work  in  the  main  pit 
will  be  carried  diagonally  up  the  banks  of  the  stream,  so  as  to  gain 
as  much  grade  as  possible.  As  soon  as  there  is  room,  a  sluice  box 
(!))  will  be  placed  between  the  working-bank  and  the  elevator 
pit. 

The  upper  part  of  this  sluice  will  be  filled  with  3-in.  by  4-in. 
blocks  and  the  remainder  by  1-in.  by  3-in.  cross-riffles,  placed  11 
in.  apart  and  held  down  by  a  sand-board,  which  is  halved  down 
on  them.  Both  will  help  to  protect  the  sluice  box  against  wear. 
All  pebbles,  etc.,  more  than  }£  in.  in  diameter  will  be  forked  out 
of  the  sluice  and  left  in  the  pit  (11).  After  being  raised  by  the 
elevator,  the  material  will  pass  through  another  sluice  (8),  the 
tailings  from  which  will  be  worked  for  monazite.  It  is  expected 
that  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  gold  will  be  saved  in  the  first 
sluice.  T;*;  ; 

An  Incline  and  Giant.  In  Siskiyou  County,  Cal.,  according  to 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  Nov.  16,  1912,  an  incline  and 
a  giant  are  use,d  instead  of  a  hydraulic  elevator.  The  incline  is 
an  inclined  trough,  usually  8  ft.  wide  and  80  to  100  ft.  long. 
The  sides  range  from  12  ft.  wide  at  bottom  to  0  ft.  at  top.  The 
bottom  is  composed  of  two  sets  of  1^-in.  plank.  A  bridge,  usu- 
ally 10  ft.  long,  of  well  supported  boards,  extends  from  the  gravel 
to  the  incline.  This  bridge  and  the  first  20  ft.  of  the  incline  are 
lined  with  %  in.  steel  plates.  In  operation  two  or  more  giants 
are  employed :  the  first  cuts  down  the  deposit  and  the  second, 
located  about  80  ft.  from  the  bridge,  washes  the  material  up 
and  over  the  sloping  bridge  by  the  driving  power  of  the  water. 
As  much  as  1,200  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  per  day  have  been  handled 
by  two  No.  3  giants  using  1,200  miner's  inches  of  water  under 
450-ft.  head.  Boulders  as  large  as  5  ft.  in  diameter  are  driven 
over  the  incline.  In  some  of  the  placers  this  method  is  used  in 
pits  20  to  25  ft.  deep. 

The  machine  is  unhandy  to  move.  Four  men  with  a  capstan, 
block  and  tackle  and  a  mule  will  change  the  location  of  a  ma- 
chine in  8  or  0  days. 

The  cost  of   operation   is   stated  to  be   0   or   7   ct.    per  cu.   yd. 

Hydraulic  Elevator  Work  in  Alaska.  Ihe  following  is  given 
by  C.  W.  Purington  in  Mining  and  Scientific  Press,  Apr.  26,  1913. 


1014  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Unfrozen  gravel  is  handled  on  claims  of  the  Pioneer  Mining  Co. 
on  Anvil  Creek,  Nome,  Alaska,  with  a  hydraulic  giant,  assisted 
by  a  bedrock  sluice,  a  hydraulic  elevator  and  a  nozzle  for  wash- 
ing away  the  tailings.  The  gravel  is  coarse  and  sub-angular, 
with  many  medium  sized  boulders.  Eighteen  men  and  1  team  are 
employed  on  each  10-hr,  shift.  About  one-half  the  men  are  em- 
ployed cleaning  bed  rock,  and  the  team  of  horses  is  used  for  re- 
moving stones  larger  than  8-in.  in  diameter,  that  will  not  go 
through  the  elevator  throat. 

The  duty  of  the  miner's  inch  —  considering  all  operations  — 
is  2.63  cu.  yd.,  or  30.4  cu.  yd.  of  water  are  required  to  move  1 
cu.  yd.  of  gravel.  The  total  amount  of  water  used  during  an 
operation  of  29  days  in  September  and  October,  1911,  was  15,733 
miner's  inches  which  moved  41,415  cu.  yd.  Of  this  water  only 
20.4%  was  used  for  the  piping  giant,  while  4.2%  was  used  for 
the  bedrock  sluice,  8.3%  for  the  tailings  giant,  and  67.1%  for 
the  hydraulic  elevator.  If  all  the  water  available  was  used  for 
piping  giants,  then  the  duty  of  the  miner's  inch  would  have  been 
about  12.38  cu.  yd.  for  an  average  daily  yardage  of  6,716  cu.  yd. 

The  elevator  was  of  the  Campbell  type,  having  a  10.5-in.  throat 
and  upcast  pipe  15  in.  in  diameter.  The  bed  rock  sluice  was  of 
steel,  and  the  face  was  carried  as  much  as  150  to  250  ft.  from  the 
throat  of  the  elevator.  This  machine  raised  the  gravel  26.5  ft. 

Transporting  Sand  Through  a  Pipe  with  the  Aid  of  an  Ejector. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  7,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

For  transporting  sand  from  a  scow  to  a  tank,  a  distance  of 
630  ft.,  an  ejector  was  used.  A  line  of  4-in.  cast  iron  pipe  ran 
from  the  ejector  to  the  tank.  The  total  lift  from  the  scow  to  the 
tank  was  30  ft.  The  sand  was  shoveled  into  a  hopper  attached 
to  the  ejector.  The  diameter  of  the  nozzle  of  ejector  was  1^  in., 
and  the  diameter  of  the  water  jet  was  1  in.  The  water  pressure 
at  the  jet  was  110  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  There  were  80  cu.  yd.  of  sand 
transported  per  10-hr,  day  by  this  method.  Incidentally  the 
sand  was  well  washed,  for  the  overflow  water  from  the  tank  car- 
ried off  the  silt. 

Removing  Muck  from  a  Bridge  Caisson  by  a  Hydraulic  Ele- 
vator. Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  12,  1911,  gives  the 
following  relative  to  work  on  the  sub-structure  of  a  bridge  at 
Vancouver. 

The  hydraulic  elevator  is  operated  on  the  same  principle  as  a 
steam  syphon  or  ejector,  water  being  used  at  about  100  Ib.  pres- 
sure to  lift  the  material  out  of  the  pit.  The  elevator  (Fig. 
5)  consists  of  a  V-tube  through  which  the  water  is  forced.  The 
"  down  "  pipe  is  4  in.  in  diameter  and  the  "  up "  pipe  5  in. 
Near  the  lower  end  of  the  up  pipe  is  a  Y-branch  leading  to  the 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1015 


material  to  be  excavated.     The  material  is  agitated  by  means  of 
a  jet  pipe  which  also  is  shown  in  the  drawing. 

The  former  method  used  for  taking  out  the  soft  muck  first  en- 
countered in  the  caisson  was  to  blow  it  out  through  a  pipe  by 
means  of  the  air  pressure  in  the  caisson.  This  could  only  be 
done  intermittently  because  of  blowing  off  all  the  air.  By  tha 
hydraulic  elevator  the  operation  is  continuous  and  the  air  pres- 
sure within  the  caisson  may  be  maintained.  No  trouble  has  been 
experienced  by  the  air  escaping,  as  one  might  suppose.  When  the 
elevator  is  not  actually  excavating,  a  board  is  placed  under  the 


Wire  Wound 
'fire  Host 


Hydraulic  Jet  used 
as  an  Agitator 


3  Lines  of  Double 
,  Jacket  Fire  Hose 
^J'ClftexMe  Joint 


'Hydraulic  Jef. 
IngContq. 

£Jevotion  of  Elevator 

Fig.   5.     Hydraulic  Elevator  and  Jet  Used   for   Excavating   and 
Discharging   Material    from    Caissons   of   Vancouver    Bridge. 

suction  and  the  water  from  the  pump  is  simply  allowed  to  flow 
through  the  pipes.  The  pump  used  is  a  duplex  pump  furnishing 
water  at  100  Ib.  pressure  at  the  pump. 

By  a  comparison  of  the  two  methods  in  caissons  of  equal  size 
—  16  ft.  square  —  it  was  found  that  with  the  use  of  air  pressure 
123  cu.  yd.  were  blown  out  in  42  hr.,  whereas  115  cu.  yd.  were 
taken  out  in  19}£  hr.  with  the  hydraulic  elevator.  This  is  2.93 
and  5.90  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  respectively,  or  an  increase  of  100%  by 
the  use  of  the  hydraulic  elevator. 

Pressure   Boxes.     A  pressure  box   is   located  at  the  intake  of 


1010 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  pipe  line  leading  to  the  giants.  It  should  be  spacious  and  the 
water  should  stand  4  ft.  or  more  deep  over  the  entrance  to  the 
pipe  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  air.  Provision  must  be  made  for 
the  overflow  when  the  gates  in  the  pipe  line  are  closed. 

Pipe  Lines  for  Hydraulic  Mining.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Dec.  11,  1907,  gives  the  following: 

In  hydraulic  mining  in  Alaska  the  water  is  distributed  from 
the  pressure  box  to  the  monitors  and  elevators  by  means  of 
wrought-iron  or  more  generally,  steel-riveted  pipe,  usually  made 
up  in  sections  17  to  19  ft.  long.  Sheet  steel  is  used,  from  8  to 
16  U.  S.  standard  gage,  bent,  each  plate,  30  or  36  in.  long,  being 
riveted  in  double  rows  lengthwise  and  single  on  the  ends.  The 
sizes  used  vary  from  8  to  36  in. 


Fig.  6.     Reinforcing  a  Slip  Joint. 

The  pipe  is  shipped  by  the  manufacturers,  either  made  up  and 
riveted  ready  to  be  laid  with  slip  joints,  or  the  material  is 
supplied  in  short  plate  sections,  bent,  punched  and  furnished 
with  necessary  rivets,  ready  to  be  cold  riveted  on  the  ground. 

Sections  of  pipe  are  put  together  by  slipping  or  by  flange  or 
lead  joints.  If  it  is  advisable  to  reinforce  a  slip  joint,  the  device 
shown  in  Fig.  6  which  can  be  macle  quickly  in  a  blacksmith  shop, 
is  often  used.  The  sleeve,  lugs  and  keys  should  be  made  of  soft 
steel. 

In  laying  pipe  from  the  pressure  box  to  the  placer  claim,  the 
line  should  be  started  at  the  lower  end,  and  the  joints  slipped  in 
down  the  slope.  In  cold  climates  the  best  practice  is  to  lay  the 
pipe  line  in  a  slight  lateral  curve,  so  that  subsequent  contrac- 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLIICLNGJ 


1017 


tions  of  the  units  may  be  remedied  by  pushing  the  pipe  into  a 
more  nearly  straight  line.  The  pipe  should  be  laid  as  nearly 
straight  as  conditions  will  allow,  and  elbows  and  bends  of  small 
radius  should  be  avoided. 

Various  methods  of  "  setting "  the  pipe   are  used.     In  Oregon 
the  device  shown  in  Fig.  7  is  used  in  setting  and  unsetting  pipe. 


Fig.  7.     Oregon  Method  of  Jointing  Pipe. 

The  wrench  is  made  with  reversible  parts,  so  that  the  position 
of  the  leverage  can  be  changed  for  the  different  operations.  An- 
other device  sometimes  used  in  British  Columbia  is  shown  in  Fig. 
8.  It  consists  of  a  square  block  of  timber  3  ft.  x  3  ft.  x9  in., 


Fig.  8.     British  Columbia  Method  of  Jointing  Pipe. 

faced  with  ifo-in.  steel  plate,  to  which  is  bolted  a  disk-like  wooden 
plug  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  inside.  Two  men  batter  the  timber 
with  mallets. 

Lead  joints  are  seldom  necessary  in  Alaskan  operations,  the 
almost  universal  practice  being  to  use  slip  joints. 

On  steep  declivities  pipe  joints  are  braced  and  strengthened 
by  means  of  lugs  and  wiring  as  shown  in  Fig.  9. 

Ditch  Construction  in  Alaska.  Chester  W.  Purrington,  in  a 
U.  S,  Geological  Survey  Bulletin,  abstracted  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Jan,  1,  1918,  says  that  ditches  on  the  Seward  Penin- 
sula are  made  wjtti  breaking  plows,  scrapers  and  road  graders, 


1018 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


all  being  drawn  by  horses.  Four  or  eight  horses  are  used  on  a 
grader,  two  to  four  on  a  scraper.  Special  methods  are  necessary 
when  the  ditch  passes  through  sections  underlain  by  ground  ice,  or 
runs  over  sections  of  rock  that  are  broken  and  fractured.  It  has 
been  found  bad  practice  to  cut  through  the  stringy  moss  which 
overlies  the  masses  of  ground  ice,  generally  referred  to  as  "  gla- 
cier." In  fact  it  is  disastrous  to  the  permanency  of  that  section 
of  the  ditch,  and  is  the  beginning  of  never-ending  repairs,  since 
the  ice  continues  to  thaw,  causing  constant  leakage.  The  best 
practice  is  to  build  sod  walls  on  the  lower  side,  leaving  the  moss 


Fig.  9.     Bracing  Pipe  on  Slopes. 

undisturbed.  All  rock  work  must  be  done  by  hand,  and  where  the 
ditch  passes  through  fractured  material  all  cracks  must  be  filled 
with  moss.  Too  much  care  can  not  be  observed  in  the  latter  de- 
tail, and,  especially  during  the  first  weeks  of  use,  men  must  be 
kept  constantly  traversing  and  repairing  those  sections  where 
leaks  are  apt  to  occur.  The  stirring  up  of  the  water  by  men 
walking  along  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  a  good  practice  in  the 
early  stages,  for  silt,  in  addition  to  the  sod,  is  a  most  valuable 
factor  in  filling  the  cracks. 

A  scraper  will  work  to  great  advantage  in  decayed  schist,  which 
needs  no  lining,  as  it  holds  water  better  than  any  other  ground 
encountered  and  cuts  out  less.  Fluming  does  not  pay  when  there 
is  a  possibility  of  ditch  building.  In  fact,  it  has  been  often 
stated  by  men  familiar  with  ditch  construction,  that  where  pos- 
sible, it  is  profitable  both  as  regards  first  cost  and  subsequent 
maintenance  to  build  a  ditch  in  place  of  fluming,  even  if  the  dis- 
tance necessary  to  be  covered  by  the  former  be  ten  times  that  of 
the  latter. 

Many  slopes  apparently  not  permitting  a  ditch  cut,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  broken  rock  and  talus  slides,  on  close  examination 
are  found  to  be  favorable,  for  if  2  or  3  ft.  of  this  loose  material  is 
moved  there  are  excellent  opportunities  for  comparatively  cheap 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1019 

rock  cuts.  When,  however,  it  is  deemed  impracticable  to  con- 
struct a  ditch,  and  where  a  flume  must  be  built  crossing  a  gully, 
a  very  efficient  foundation  can  be  made  by  digging  shallow  holes, 
filling  with  gravel,  and  placing  on  top  a  wide  plank  to  distribute 
the  load.  If  the  trestle  rests  on  such  foundations,  and  the  under- 
lying ice  is  not  disturbed,  much  trouble  from  settling  will  be 
avoided. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  costs  representative  of  ditch- 
ing in  various  materials: 

Per  cu.  yd. 

Soft  muck   and  tundra    $0.75 

Gravelly    dirt    0.65 

Decayed    schist    $0.40  to  0.60 

Rock  work,   fairly  solid    1.75 

Schist    in    place    1.00 

Loose    rock    1.25 

A  ditch  carrying  1,000  miner's  inches  will  cost,  under  fair  con- 
ditions, $2,000  per  mile.  One  with  the  capacity  of  4,000  miner's 
inches  will  cost  between  $4,000  and  $5,000  per  mile.  Though 
much  affected  by  varying  local  conditions  a  conservative  estimate 
for  general  work  is  $1  per  cubic  yard  throughout. 

A  Simple  Timber  Flume.  Two  flumes,  over  800  ft.  long  and 
2y2  x  2  ft.,  and  one  400  ft.  long  and  5x4  ft.,  were  required  to  be 
built  for  the  Santa  Rita  Mining  Co.,  in  Colombia,  South  America, 
and  only  native  carpenters  with  peon  helpers  were  available.  All 
framing  had,  therefore,  to  be  designed  so  that  measuring  and 
thinking  would  be  unnecessary  by  the  carpenters.  The  design  se- 
lected to  meet  the  conditions  and  the  method  of  constructing  the 
flume  are  described  in  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  by  R.  D. 
0.  Johnson  and  abstracted  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Apr.  17,  1912. 

The  boards  were  all  !}£  in.  thick  and  12^  ft.  long,  making  the 
flume  boxes  average  12  ft.  in  length.  Since  it  cost  as  much  to 
edge  and  to  handle  a  6-in.  board  as  it  did  a  12-in.  board,  the  use  of 
narrower  boards  was  not  frequently  allowed. 

All  boards  were  sawed  by  hand,  the  sawyers  working  in  pairs. 
The  sawyers  were  at  first  put  at  day's  pay,  but  it  soon  became 
evident  that  the  lumber  would  cost  $40  per  M.  It  always  pays 
to  put  the  peon  on  contract  where  possible.  As  the  peon  knows 
nothing  of  the  measurement  of  lumber  by  the  board-foot  unit  and 
as  it  appeared  a  hopeless  task  to  explain  it  to  him  another  method 
had  to  be  devised.  The  work  of  the  best  pair  of  sawyers  was 
taken  as  a  guide  and  a  schedule  of  prices  was  worked  out  for 
each  size  of  board  or  timber  needed.  These  prices  were  calcu- 
lated on  a  cost  of  $18  per  M,  the  prices  being  a  small  amount 
higher  for  the  thin  and  narrow  boards  and  a  small  amount  less 


1020 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


for  the  large  boards  and  timbers.  This  scale  of,  prices  was  ac- 
companied by  simple  specifications  as  to  the  kind  of  timber  ac- 
ceptable, full  dimensions,  bark  edges,  worm  holes,  rotten  spots, 
etc. 

Contracts  were  given  to  each  pair  of  sawyers  for  a  limited  num- 
ber of  boards  and  timbers  on  the  basis  of  the  specifications  and 
price  schedule.  Each  sawyer  was  charged  25  ct.  gold  per  day 
for  his  board,  the  cost  to  the  company  being  somewhat  below  this 
figure.  It  was  found  desirable  to  give  small  contracts  rather 
than  large  ones.  Boards  were  inspected  each  day  and  a  record 
of  the  work  of  each  pair  of  sawyers  kept.  Failure  to  keep  to  the 


U -7-- 

Q.Q 


Fig.    10.     Cross    Section    of   Timber    Flume    Built   by    Colombian 
Native  Labor. 


specifications  was  met  with  the  penalty  of  severe  docking.  The 
prices  were  found  in  practice  to  be  about  right  as,  on  the  con- 
tracts, the  better  sawyers  could  make  about  50%  more  than  the 
ruling  day's  pay  for  sawyers,  and  the  poorer  ones  were  either 
eliminated  or  had  to  be  content  with  less  than  the  ruling  rate. 

In  searching  for  bunches  of  good  trees,  so  that  the  cost  in  time 
and  labor  in  handling  the  logs  would  be  less,  the  sawyers  would 
sometimes  go  to  great  distances  from  the  sites  of  the  fiumes, 
making  the  cost  of  collecting  boards  excessive. 

To  obviate  this  difficulty  a  price  of  from  1  to  3  ct.  a  board,  de- 
pending upon  the  size,  was  added  to  the  contract  price  and  the 
sawyers  were  required  to  deliver  their  boards  at  the  flume  site. 
All  boards  were  brought  to  dimensions  and  edged  at  a  price  of  5 
ct.  per  board.  The  boards  were 'not  tongued  and  grooved,  reliance 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1021 

for  the  tightness  of  the  flumes  being  placed  on  careful  edging. 
As  the  boards  were  finished  they  were  marked  and  distributed 
along  the  lines  of  the  flumes.  As  the  woods  were  full  of  small 
and  fairly  straight  trees,  it  was  determined  to  make  the  frames 
out  of  the  round  timber  without  even  going  to  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  taking  off  the  bark.  The  accompanying  cross-section  of 
the  flume  (Fig.  10)  shows  the  frame,  the  parts  of  which  are  of 
much,  more  ample  diameter  than  the  working  stresses  would  ordi- 
narily require,  but  the  timber  was  plentiful  and  the  large  di- 
ameters made  up  for  the  mark  and  the  weakening  due  to  the 
cutting  out  of  crooks  and  bends.  Miter  boxes  were  used  to  cut 
the  sins,  caps,  posts  and  braces  to  reduce  the  cutting  to  mere 
mechanical  operations. 

The  sills,  caps  and  braces  were  of  round  timber  cut  on  con- 
tract, sills  G  ct.,  caps  3  ct.  and  braces  1  ct.  each.  The  cutting 
of  the  posts  required  the  combined  labor  of  three  carpenters  and 
was  not  given  out  on  contract.  The  wedges  were  made  from 
1^-in.  hardwood  boards,  10  in.  wide,  and  sawed  into  12-in.  lengths. 
These  short  sections  were  inserted  in  the  wedge  miter  box, 
wedged  tightly,  and  sawed.  Each  12-in.  section  makes  four 
wedges,  two  rights  and  two  lefts.  For  the  total  number  of  wedges 
the  labor  of  one  carpenter  for  six  days  was  required. 

As  the  sills  were  completed  they  were  laid  out  upon  the  shelf 
excavated  to  receive  the  flume,  lined  up  carefully,  spaced  and 
given  the  proper  inclination  on  the  curves.  When  all  the  boards 
had  been  sized  and  edged  and  all  parts  of  the  frames  formed  up 
and  distributed  along  the  line  of  the  flume,  four  native  car- 
penters and  four  helpers  (peons)  laid  the  flume  at  the  rate  of 
120  ft.  per  day.  The  process  was  as  follows: 

The  ends  of  the  boards  of  a  box  were  carefully  fitted  to  the 
end  of  the  preceding  box  already  laid,  the  lower  side  boards  were 
then  spiked  to  the  outer  bottom  boards;  the  bottom  as  a  whole 
was  then  carefully  adjusted  to  the  centers  of  the  sills,  the  posts 
set  up  and  the  wedges  started.  The  center  bottom  board  was  then 
spiked  to  the  sills,  the  lower  side  boards  spiked  to  the  posts,  the 
caps  placed  and  spiked  and  the  wedges  driven  up  hard.  The 
outer  bottom  boards  were  then  spiked  to  the  sills  and  the  braces 
driven  into  their  recesses  in  the  sills  and  posts  and  spiked.  The 
posts  were  not  spiked  to  the  sills,  so  that  the  wedges  could  be 
driven  up  later  if  it  appeared  desirable  to  do  so.  The  necessary 
sequence  of  the  operations  involved  in  laying  the  flume  was  care- 
fully explained  to  the  carpenters  and,  with  a  little  practice,  they 
acquired  the  "  swing "  and  the  work  thereafter  moved  off  at  a 
satisfactory  rate.  Little  calking  of  the  flume  was  found  neces- 
sary. Although  i/£  x  3-in.  battens  were  provided,  few  were  used. 


1022  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Exclusive  of  the  work  of  excavating  the  shelf  and  on  the  two 
trestles  on  the  line,  the  cost  of  the  smaller  of  the  two  flumes 
was  45  ct.  per  running  foot. 

Movable  Flume  on  Hydraulic  Fill  Dam.  The  following  ap- 
peared in  Engineering  Jtecord,  Jan.  6,  1917: 

During  the  construction  of  a  large  hydraulic  fill  dam  recently 


Fig.   11.     Discharge  Flume  Easily  Moved  on  Inclined  Skids. 


completed  in  the  West,  considerable  time  was  saved  by  the  use 
of  an  inclined  runway  for  the  flume  from  which  material  was  de- 
posited on  the  dam.  Although  the  flume  was  moved  by  hand,  it 
was  only  necessary  to  interrupt  the  flow  for  short  periods  while 
the  delivery  flume  was  skidded  up  the  incline  to  the  desired  new 
position.  See  Fig.  11. 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1023 

Three  borrow  pits  were  used,  from  which,  by  means  of  hydraulic 
giants,  material  was  sluiced  into  three  main  flume  lines.  From 
these  mains  the  material  was  conveyed  through  flumes  along  the 
upstream  and  downstream  sides  of  the  fill.  By  the  use  of  gates 
the  streams  were  discharged  from  the  flumes  at  the  desired  inter- 
vals toward  the  axis  of  the  dam. 

The  flume  box,  12  x  24  in.  in  section,  was  built  up  of  1^4-in. 
boards  and  was  paved  with  6xl2x6-in.  hemlock  blocks  set  on 
end.  Immedrately  above  the  blocks  1  x  6-in.  projecting  strips  were 
nailed  on  each  side.  This  box  was  supported  on  2  x  6-in.  stringers, 
which  in  turn  were  carried  by  4  x  6-in.  caps  on  the  low  sliding 
bents  spaced  15  ft.  apart  and  inclined  on  a  slope  of  5  to  1.  The 
6  x  6-in.  inclined  caps  were  supported  on  pieces  of  the  same  size 
resting  on  the  material  previously  deposited  and  tied  together 
by  cross-bracing. 

The  flume  proper  was  moved  up  the  incline  by  means  of  a  lever 
and  chain  device  at  each  bent.  The  lever  consisted  of  an  iron  bar 
near  the  lower  end  of  which  was  fastened  a  chain  connecting  with 
the  framing  of  the  flume  box.  At  the  extreme  lower  end  of  the 
bar  a  second  chain  was  attached  which  passed  over  an  iron  claw 
fastened  to  the  upper  end  of  the  inclined  6  x  6-in.  cap.  This 
lever  was  operated  by  one  man  at  each  bent.  With  the  lever  in  an 
upright  position,  pulling  it  down  through  the  quadrant,  which  it 
was  possible  to  describe,  would  move  the  flume  up  the  incline  a 
few  inches.  This  gain  was  then  caught  by  taking  up  slack  in  the 
chain  at  the  claw,  and  the  operation  repeated. 

Short  lengths  of  lateral  flumes  were  attached  to  the  openings 
in  the  up  side  of  the  flume  box  to  facilitate  control  of  the 
flow.  Doors  for  closing  the  openings  were  provided,  so  that 
material  could  be  discharged  at  any  desired  point  along  the  crest 
of  the  fill,  a  duplicate  line  of  flume  being  used  along  up  and  down 
stream  faces.  Of  course  each  time  the  flume  was  moved,  it  was 
necessary  to  establish  a  new  connection  at  the  point  where  it 
was  fed  from  the  supply  flume. 

Sluicing  was  carried  on  practically  continuously  night  and 
day,  in  order  to  save  time,  and  the  movable  feature  of  the  flume 
was  considered  to  be  a  factor  in  the  progress  of  the  job. 

Sluicing  Sand  anu  Gravel  in  Steel-Lined  Flumes.  Engineering 
Record,  Dec.  20,  1913,  gives  the  following  account  of  hydraulick- 
ing  at  a  gravel  pit  on  Puget  Sound  near  Tacoma,  Wash.,  where 
the  conditions  of  the  plant  are  such,  that  an  ordinary  1-in.  board 
in  the  flume  bottom  will  wear  through  in  about  two  days,  and  the 
cost  of  maintaining  any  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  flume  block 
paving  has  proved  prohibitive.  The  unusual  severity  of  the  wear 
is  caused  by  the  fact  that  the  flume  grades  have  been  kept  down 


1024  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

to  8  and  10%,  and  about  1.6  cu.  yd.  of  sharp  material  are  car- 
ried for  every  1,800  gal.  of  water  pumped.  The  advantage 
of  this  is  that  a  daily  output  of  1,800  cu.  yd.  is  maintained  with 
a  pumping  equipment  which  is  considered  comparatively  light  for 
the  yardage  handled. 

The  deposit  lies  at  the  water's  edge  in  a  bank  rising  to  an 
elevation  of  240  ft.  above  mean  low  water,  and  all  buildings, 
bunkers  and  loading  dock  are  supported  on  piles  in  deep  water. 
Flumes  from  the  pit  discharge  into  separators  which  feed  a  500- 
cu.  yd.  gravel  bunker  and  a  350-cu.  yd.  sand  bunker.  The  bunkers 
discharge  through  twenty  under-feed  gates  into  4-yd.  bottom- 
dump  cars  which  can  be  hauled  to  the  end  of  the  dock  and 
emptied  into  scows  at  the  rate  of  6  cu.  yd.  per  minute.  Water 
is  supplied  to  the  pit  from  the  Sound  by  two  duplex  compound 
steam  pumps  —  one  with  10x16  and  12  x  18-in.  cylinders,  the 
other  with  8  x  12  and  10  x  16-in.  cylinders.  From  these  pumps  a 
10-in.-  riveted  steel  pipe  line  runs  to  the  pit,  paralleled  by  an 
8-in.  auxiliary  line.  The  average  lift  of  the  water  is  100  ft.,  and 
at  this  head  these  pumps  normally  deliver  1,800  gal.  per  minute. 
This  delivery  for  18  or  20  hr.  per  day  is  sufficient  to  bring  to  the 
bunkers  the  full  capacity  of  1,800  cu.  yd. 

Three  separators  are  in  use,  fed  by  three  130-ft.,  12  x  12-in. 
flumes  which  branch  from  a  main  flume  24  in.  wide  and  12  in. 
deep.  This  main  flume,  which  runs  to  the  face  of  the  pit,  has  a 
length  of  100  ft.  and  is  fed  by  numerous  branch  flumes  of  equal 
depth  and  15  in.  in  width.  From  these  branches  12  x  12-in.  laterals 
are  laid  to  attack  the  bank  at  any  desired  point.  All  these 
flumes  in  the  pit  are  on  an  8%  grade,  the  three  separator  lines 
having  a  10%  grade. 

With  the  low  velocity  of  water  and  the  very  heavy  percentage 
of  suspended  matter  the  wear  on  the  bottom  of  these  flumes  was 
so  great  that  at  first  no  material  could  be  found  which  would 
fulfil  the  requirements  of  hardness  and  cheapness  with  a  low 
coefficient  of  friction.  Finally  the  expedient  of  buying  old  band- 
saws  from  the  lumber  mills  was  adopted,  and  the  use  of  these 
saws  to  take  the  wear  met  with  success,  from  the  start. 

The  flumes  are  built  of  1  x  12-in.  rough  lumber,  chiefly  in  (i-ft. 
sections,  and  this  construction  lends  itself  readily  to  the  use  of 
band-saws,  which  come  in  10,  12  and  14-in.  widths.  In  the 
12  x  12-in.  flumes  a  single  saw  blade  is  laid  in  the  bottom  and  a 
three-cornered  wooden  strip  nailed  over  it  at  the  corners  to  hold 
it  in  place.  In  the  24-in.  flume  circular  saw  blades,  sheared  to 
the  proper  widths,  were  used  in  the  same  way. 

The  band-saws  are  usually  12-gage,  while  the  circular  saws 
come  in  6  or  8-gage  thicknesses.  As  the  material  is  oil-tempered 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1025 

tool  steel,  it  is  too  hard  to  be  recast  successfully,  and  therefore 
has  little  scrape  value.  Discarded  saws  were  bought  at  prices 
ranging  from  0.25  to  0.50  ct.  per  pound  and  are  believed  to  last 
three  or  four  times  as  long  in  the  flume  as  ordinary  structural 
steel.  In  the  flumes  on  10%  grade  it  is  said  that  the  12-gage 
steel  normally  passes  10,000  to  12,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  before 
being  worn  out. 

Cost  of  Flumes.  For  detailed  costs  of  flume  construction,  see 
the  author's  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data." 

Cost  of  Gravel  Mining.  Data  regarding  the  cost  of  hydraulic 
mining  in  California  during  the  season  commencing  Nov.,  1899, 
and  ending  July,  1900,  are  given  by  William  H.  Radford  in 
Transactions,  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  vol.  31, 
1901. 

During  this  season  of  9  months  655,657  miner's  inches  ( 1 
inch  =  1,728  cu.  ft.  in  24  hr.)  were  used  for  the  monitors  and 
for  sweeping  the  bed  rock  at  the  end  of  the  season.  This  water 
cost  delivered  0.69  ct.  per  miner's  inch.  Surveys  showed  the 
amount  of  material  washed  to  be  1,251,399  cu.  yd.,  or  1.9  cu. 
yd.  per  miner's  inch. 

The  banks  varied  in  height  from  50  to  130  ft.,  averaging  63 
ft.  The  material  consisted  of  pay  gravel  lying  on  pay  rock  and 
varying  in  thickness  up  to  8  ft.,  and  barren  top  material  con- 
sisting of  broken  rock,  clay,  soil,  and  gravel.  The  grade  of  the 
sluices  was  7  in.  in  12  ft.  Long  bed-rock  cuts  extended  from 
the  head  of  the  sluices  to  the  banks.  These  bed-rock  cuts,  in 
black  slate,  were  constructed  by  hand  drilling  and  blasting. 

Electric  lights  permitted  night  work. 

The  ditch  was  11  miles  long  and  was  cared  for  by  'two  men 
during  the  rainy  months  and  by  one  man  for  the  remainder  of 
the  season. 

The  cost  of  the  hydraulicking  was: 

Care  of  ditch,  reservoir,  siphon :  Per  cu.  yd. 

Labor,    $2,671;    supplies,    $116    $0.0022 

Washing  (piping),  $2,401  0019 

Drilling  in  bed-rock  cuts: 

Hand,  $1,051;   electric,   $270   0011 

Timbering   bed-rock   cuts,    $157    0001 

Electric  lighting,   $599    0005 

Sluice  building  and  repairing: 

Labor,  $1,046;  supplies,  $35 0009 

Blacksmithing,    $644    0005 

Cleaning-up,    $969    0008 

Moving  pipes  and  giants,  $899 0007 

Breaking  rocks  and  clay,  $6,125   0049 

Clearing  ground  for  piping,  $158 0001 

General  expenses,  watching  sluices,  misc.,  $3,089 0025 


1026  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Sluice  building  and  repairing   (continued)  Per  cu.  yd. 

Supplies   used  in  mine,   $3,015    0024 

Taxes,  office  expenses,  legal  expenses,  surveying,  sala- 
ries,    $4,267 0034 


Total,    $27,512    $0.0220 

This  does  not  include   interest  or  depreciation  on  plant. 

Methods  of  Working  Placer  Gravel.  The  following  is  given 
in  Engineering  News,  Jan.  1,  1903.  The  mining  property  in  ques- 
tion is  in  California  and  considerable  capital  has  been  expended 
there  for  the  bringing  in  of  water  which  is  conducted  to  the 
mine  by  flume  and  ditch  a  total  distance  of  30  miles,  having  a 
capacity  of  3,000  miners'  inches.  The  nature  of  the  ground 
through  which  the  ditch  is  cut,  the  steep  slope  of  the  hillsides 
and  the  severity  of  the  winters  cause  the  expense  of  maintenance 
to  be  rather  high,  aggregating  about  22%  of  the  total  exploita- 
tion expenses.  During  the  earlier  years  of  the  company's  exist- 
ence their  water  right,  even  in  favorable  seasons,  never  yielded 
over  450,000  miners'  in.  More  recently,  however,  by  advantageous 
reconstruction,  this  has  been  increased  until  from  650,000  to 
750,000  miners'  in.  are  obtained,  according  to  the  winter.  This 
big  supply  of  water  —  a  daily  average  of  3,000  miners'  in.  during 
eight  months  —  cannot  be  utilized  constantly  with  profit  in  only 
one  spot.  For  good  work  it  is  necessary  to  have  several  points  of 
attack,  thus  allowing  changes  of  water,  moving  of  machines,  clean 
up  and  other  contingencies  to  be  overcome  without  complete  sus- 
pension of  operations. 

Both  mines  consist  of  gold-bearing  gravels,  with  material  of 
every  stee  from  pebbles  to  boulders  of  2  to  3  cu.  yd.,  requiring 
water,  powder  and  derrick  for  their  removal.  , 

The  bank  is  broken  by  four  giants;  one  on  the  front  with  a 
head  of  400  ft.  and  nozzle  7  to  9  in.,  according  to  circumstances; 
two  on  the  left  side  with  150  to  250-ft.  heads,  and  one  on  the  right 
side  with  500-ft.  head,  to  break  the  cement. 

The  gravels  vary  in  thickness  from  2  ft.  to  250  ft.,  bearing  gold 
throughout. 

Broken  by  the  side  giants,  the  bank  is  prevented  from  sliding 
too  far  by  the  front  giant.  The  bank  slides  ahead  as  much  as 
100  ft.  in  24  hr. 

The  bank  being  for  the  most  part  loose,  this  sliding  is,  of  course, 
caused  by  the  piping.  For  this  reason  the  entrance  of  the  sluice 
is  kept  at  a  safe  distance  —  usually  about  150  ft.  away  —  and 
the  front  giant  always  settled  at  the  head  of  the  sluice. 

The  sluice  is  6  ft.  wide  by  4}£  ft.  deep,  with  the  boxes  12  ft. 
long.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  mining  season  there  were  56 
boxes,  and  at  the  end  of  the  run  118,  of  which  additional  number 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AKD  SLUICING      1027 

14  were  at  the  head  and  48  at  the  lower  end.  The  grade  is  8 
in.  to  the  box  (12  ft.).  The  bottom  is  laid  with  blocks  in  the 
first  ten  boxes  and  boulders  in  the  others.  Two  undercurrents 
collect  the  fine  gold  very  satisfactorily. 

It  is  estimated  that  between  2}£  and  3  cu.  yd.  were  moved  per 
miner's  inch  of  water  used,  at  a  cost  of  2.7  to  3.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
during  the  season  1901-02. 

A  High  Cost  of  Hydraulic  Mining.  In  a  paper  published  in 
Transactions,  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  vol.  33, 
1903,  W.  E.  Thome  gives  the  detailed  cost  of  a  hydraulic  mining 
operation  at  Georgetown,  Calif.  The  cost  of  the  material  moved 
was  18.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  This  high  cost  was  due  mainly  to  the 
short  season,  the  expense  of  buying  water,  the  cost  of  building 
dams  to  impound  debris  from  "  seam-diggings  "  located  upstream, 
the  hardness  of  the  bed  rock  and  resulting  high  cost  of  ground 
sluices,  and  the  generally  unfavorable  situation. 

The  bank  varied  from  7  to  23  ft.  in  depth.  The  bed  sluices  com- 
prised 1,300  ft.  of  8-ft.  wide  sluices  and  200  ft.  of  4-ft.  wide 
sluices,  varying  in  depth  from  4.5  to  25  ft.  The  grade  of  sluices 
was  1  in.  in  12  ft.  at  the  upper  end  to  4  in.  at  the  lower  end. 
Sluices,  including  the  boxes,  cost  from  $4  to  $150  per  lin.  ft.! 

The  water  for  ground  sluices  was  obtained  from  a  creek  and 
amounted  to  3,000  miners'  inches  continuing  for  15  days  of  the 
year.  The  water  for  the  giant  was  purchased  at  a  cost  of  0.5  ct. 
per  hour  per  miners'  inch.  Through  a  3-in.  nozzle  200  miners' 
inches,  under  a  head  of  180  ft.,  were  used.  The  average  of  ma- 
terial moved  was  43.5  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  This  low  duty  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  work  was  being  carried  up-stream. 

The  costs  of  supplies  were  as  follows:  Lumber,  $14  to  $16 
per  M;  powder,  12  to  13  ct.  per  Ib. ;  fuse,-  50  to  55  ct.  per  100; 
caps,  60  to  65  ct.  per  100;  iron,  3.5  ct.  per  Ib.;  nails,  3.5  to  4.5 
ct.  per  Ib.  Miners  received  $2.50  per  day  of  10  hr. 

There  were  7,500  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  moved  at  the  following  cost: 

Water $0.030 

Labor    015 

Debris    dams 030 

Moving   pipe,   etc 005 

"  Crevicing  "    and   cleaning  bedrock    006 

Taxes,  salaries,    etc 007 

Blacksmithing      003 

Lumber    030 

Labor  on  sluices  040 

Powder,    fuse,    etc    017 


Total   per  cu.  yd $0.183 

Methods  and  Cost  in  a  B.  C.  Placer  Mine.  The  following  by 
Chester  F.  Lee  and  T.  M.  Daulton  is  taken  from  the  Transactions 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  1916, 


1028 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Ruby  Creek  is  8  miles  long  and  flows  in  a  southerly  direction 
into  Surprise  Lake,  British  Columbia.  The  gravel  being  mined 
is  about  a  mile  up  stream  from  the  lake  and  is  the  stream  bed 
or  "  creek  gravel."  The  rock  underlying  the  gravels  is  granitic 
and  has  taken  its  present  form  through  glacial  action,  the  al- 
luvial material  having  been  deposited  subsequently,  partly  by 
glacial  and  partly  by  stream  action,  in  successive  flows  and  at 
widely  separated  times  as  shown  by  a  dike  of  basalt  about  13  ft. 
thick  which  overlies  the  bedrock  gravel  on  the  east  side  of  the 
creek. 

The  gulch  has  steep  banks  and  is  about  250  ft.  wide  from  rim 


CROSS  SECTION 


Fig.  12.     Cross-Section  of  Ruby  Creek  Showing  Position  of  Gravels 
Being  Worked  by  Hydraulicking. 


to  rim  at  the  surface  of  the  gravel.     The  depth  of  the  gravel  at 
the  center  is  42  ft. 

Water.  A  log  crib  storage  dam  is  situated  4  miles  up  Ruby 
Creek.  It  is  150  ft.  long,  12  ft.  high  an  1  0  ft.  wide  at  top, 
producing  a  reservoir  %  mile  long  and  }£  mile  wide  with  an 
average  depth  of  8  ft.  From  this  the  water  follows  the  creek 
bed  3}£  miles  to  the  intake,  whence  it  flows  into  the  ditch  which 
is  8  ft.  wide  at  the  top,  4  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom  and  3i£  ft.  deep, 
the  grade  being  8  ft.  to  the  mile.  There  are  400  ft.  of  ditch,  then 
300  ft.  of  flume  across  the  gulch  and  800  ft.  of  ditch  to  the  pres- 
sure box,  which  is  8  by  10  by  10  ft.  From  this  box  issues  the 
pipe  line,  2,265  ft.  long,  beginning  with  26-in.  diameter  10-gage 
pipe,  and  ending  with  16-in.  14-gage  pipe.  The  normal  flow  is 
about  1,150  miners'  inches  (31  cu.  ft.  per  second)  which  is  used 
through  7-in.  nozzles  of  No.  6  Hendy  giants.  Also  1,000  in.  come 
down  the  creek  and  are  used  as  a  bywash  to  assist  in  handling 
the  heavy  material.  The  vertical  head  at  the  pit  is  250  ft. 
Beside  the  main  pipe  line  a  16-in.  line  tapering  to  6  in.  in  a 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING      U029 

rfiJ-r    '-!"i.,irir  >'  ,     \    -)    v<    'T  -\'\\-,  rs'-rf   *r  »*t    l"'»   T    ^i  ••  -'iiil-    T*'  *i_'    •>  ni    ••'  'il 

length  of  432  ft.  is  taken  out  of  the  pressure  box  and  used  on  a 
Cassel  impulse  wheel  of  25-in.  diameter  to  actuate  a  Sullivan 
8  by  8  class  WG-3  belt-driven  compressor  the  air  from  which  is 
used  to  drill  boulders. 

The  sluices  from  the  working  pits  are  42  in.  wide  by  42  in.  high, 
set  on  a  grade  4  in.  to  12  ft.  (2.77%).  The  sluices  are  double, 
as  will  be  explained,  and  their  length  is  4,000  ft. 

Difficulties  Overcome.  The  obstacles  to  be  overcome  in  develop- 
ing and  operating  this  property  and  the  way  they  were  surmounted 
make  this  operation  noteworthy. 

The  conditions  which  presented  difficulties  are  outlined  below: 

1.  The  great  width  of  the  deposit,  250  ft.,  which  with  the  42-ft. 
banks  made  impossible  the  working  as  a  single  pit  from  rim  to 
rim. 

2.  In  May  and  June  the  flood  waters  produce  four  times  as 
much  water  as  can  be  used,  and  the  excess  water,  if  carried  on  top 
of  the  bank,  tends  to  undermine  it  and  cave  it  into  the  pit. 

3.  Only  a  small  grade    (about  3%)    was  available,   which  of- 
fered poor  facilities  for  dumping. 

4.  The  boulders  were  large  in  number  and  size. 
These  problems  were  met  as  follows: 

The  ground  was  divided  by  a  median  line  up  the  creek  into 
two  series  of  pits,  A  on  the  west  side  and  B  on  the  east,  each 
being  about  125  ft.  wide.  See  Fig.  12.  Pit  A  was  advanced 
400  ft.  first  and  then  pit  B.  was  begun,  the  pits  being  worked 
alternately.  After  hydraulicking  some  hours  in  pit  A  until  the 
pit  is  so  full  of  boulders  that  the  stream  is  no  logger  effective, 
the  water  is  turned  off  at  the  valve  above  the  workings  and 
two  men  are  left  there  to  block-hole  and  blast  the  boulders. 
Hydraulicking  is  then  begun  in  pit  B  and  continued  until  the 
boulders  obstruct  the  work,  when  they  are  drilled  and  blasted  in 
turn,  and  so  on. 

The  arrangement  of  sluices  is  such  that  in  flood  season,  the 
excess  water  is  allowed  to  flow  over  the  face  of  pit  A  into  the 
sluice  at  the  bulkhead  and  down  this  to  where  the  double  sluices 
begin  opposite  pit  B  (Fig.  13).  The  gates  at  the  head  of  the 
east  sluice  are  closed  and  the  flood  waters  go  through  the  west 
sluice  to  waste.  During  the  time  of  excess  water,  work  in  pit  A 
is  suspended,  but  pit  B  can  be  worked  without  interruption,  save 
for  the  time  needed  to  drill  and  shoot  the  boulders.  Without 
these  arrangements  work  would  have  to  be  suspended  during  high 
water,  which  would  be  a  serious  drawback  as  the  season  is  only 
about  150  days  in  all.  When  the  water  recedes  to  the  point 
that  it  can  all  be  handled  through  the  giant  and  by  wash,  hydrau- 
lieking  is  resumed  in  the  pits  alternately  as  above  described. 


1030 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Only  the  east  sluice  is  used  for  handling  gravel  and  is  fitted  with 
gold-saving  devices. 

The  arrangement  of  gates,  as  shown  in  Fig.    13,  permits  the 


Fig.    13.     Arrangement   of   Sluices,   Details  of   Two-Way   Gates; 
and   Cross-Section   of   Gold-Saving   Sluice. 

gravel  from  either  pit  to  be  sent  down  the  east  sluice;  the  west 
sluice  is  used  only  for  excess  water.  The  upper  gate,  shown  in 
detail  in  Fig.  13,  rests  loosely  against  the  post  and  is  raised 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1031 

off  the  bottom  of  the  sluice  by  two  men  throwing  their  weight  on 
the  end  of  the  long  lever.  This  relieves  the  water  pressure  and 
enables  the  gate  to  be  thrown  over.  If  it  were  not  for  this  ar- 
rangment  the  pressure  of  the  stream  would  make  it  impossible 
to  move  the  gate. 

The  gold-saving  sluice  boxes,  42  in.  \ride,  were  originally 
paved  with  spruce  blocks  8  by  8  by  10  in.,  spaced  2  in.  apart 
longitudinally,  but  the  excessive  wear  on  them  entailed  frequent 
stoppages  for  renewals  which  was  both  annoying  and  expensive  as 
the  season  is  short  and  it  is  imperative  to  get  the  maximum  use 
of  the  water  during  the  open  period.  The  steepest  grade  obtain- 
able was  3^%,  which  seriously  limited  the  amount  of  gravel 
handled.  In  1914,  therefore,  2,400  lin.  ft.  of  high-carbon  steel 
plates  (0.9%  carbon)  were  bought  from  the  Carbon  Steel  Co. 
of  Pittsburgh  and  substituted  for  wood  blocks  for  this  distance. 
The  grade  of  the  flume  was  changed  to  2.77%  which  gave  20  ft.  ad- 
ditional dump  at  the  lower  end  of  the  sluice. 

The  plates  cost  $45  per  ton  at  the  mills,  $108.80  per  ton  laid 
down  on  Ruby  Creek.  Plates  of  this  sort  were  first  used  by  The 
McKee  Creek  Mining  Co.  in  this  district  in  1909.  The  plates  are 
12  ft.  long,  38  in.  wide,  i/£  in.  thick,  and  are  placed  2  in.  apart 
as  to  their  ends  with  a  drop  of  }£  in.  from  one  plate  to  the  next. 
Fig.  13  shows  how  they  are  supported  and  held  in  position;  6- 
to  8-in.  logs  are  sawed  flat  on  two  sides  to  a  thickness  of  4  in., 
and  made  }£  in,  thicker  on  the  downstream  end  than  on  the  up- 
stream in  each  12  ft.  of  length.  The  plates  are  supported  by  these 
and  held  down  by  the  edges  of  the  3  by  10-in.  lining  boards. 

The  space  between  plates  makes  an  excellent  riffle.  The  use  of 
the  plates  increases  the  capacity  of  the  sluice  about  40%  and 
enables  angular  pieces  of  blasted  boulders  30  in.  in  their  longest 
dimension  to  be  put  through  as  against  20-in.  pieces  with  block 
riffles.  Occasionally  extra  large  boulders  get  into  the  sluice,  and 
5  by  2^-ft.  boulders  have  gone  through  without  trouble.  All 
trouble  from  jammed  sluices  and  overflows  has  thus  been  ob- 
viated. 

After  a  season's  wear  and  carrying  67,940  cu.  yd.  of  gravel, 
the  plates  showed  an  abrasion  of  ^  in-  At  the  end  of  the  1915 
season,  after  transporting  a  total  of  130,380  cu.  yd.,  holes  de- 
veloped at  some  points.  The  surface  skin  of  the  plates  is  harder 
than  the  interior  and  where  the  surface  becomes  slightly  worn 
deterioration  is  more  rapid.  A  steel  equally  hard  throughout  is 
desirable  for  this  use  and  the  question  of  its  production  has  been 
taken  up  with  the  manufacturers. 

In  1915,  6,380  boulders  were  drilled  and  blasted  and  21,955 
"bulldozed"  without  drilling;  in  1914,  23,832  were  blasted, 


1032  HANDBOOK  OF  EAllTH  EXCAVAllOiN 

which,  taking  the  two  years  together,  is  a  boulder  for  each  2.5  yd. 
of  gravel  worked.  The  practice  is  to  "  bulldoze  "  the  flatter  and 
smaller  boulders  without  drilling,  and  block-hole  the  larger  ones 
and  pipe  all  the  pieces  through  the  sluice.  For  drilling,  iwo  Sul- 
livan DA-19  40-lb.  hammer  drills  are  used  with  air  pressure  at  90 
Ib.  at  the  compressor  %  The  air  line  is  2  in.  in  diameter  and  1,000 
ft.  long ;  two  lines  of  50-ft.  hose  y2  in.  in  diameter  connect  directly 
with  the  drills.  •  In  1915,  explosives  cost  26  ct.  per  boulder. 

In  part  of  the  ground  an  additional  obstacle  must  be  overcome. 
On  the  east  side  in  pit  B  a  dark  basaltic  dike  about  13  ft.  thick 
lies  on  top  of  the  21  ft.  of  pay  gravel  and  is  itself  overlaid  by 
6  ft.  of  waste  gravel.  This  basaltic  flow  is  lenticular  and  thins 
out  both  in  the  upstream  direction  and  from  the  center  toward 
the  east  rim.  It  pinches  out  entirely  250  ft.  upstream.  Fortu- 
nately the  basalt  is  friable  and  fairly  soft,  so  .that  by  putting 
gopher  holes  under  it  and  shaking  up  with  powder  it  is  gradually 
broken  through,  and  can  be  washed  away  by  ground  sluicing  and 
hydraulicking. 

In   1915  the  following  results  were  obtained: 

Average  number  of  men  employed  20 

Hours   piping  in   pay   gravel    978 

24  hr.-in.  of  water  on  pay  gravel  46,862 

Total  cubic  yards  of  gravel  handled 62,440 

Cubic  yards  per  24  hr.-inch    1.33 

Cost  per  cubic  yard  of  gravel  handled: 

Labor $0.302 

Explosives     ' 0.119 

Lumber     0.007 

Stable 0.009 

Hardware     0.006 

Licenses  and  rentals   0.011 

Liability   insurance ,...  0.005 

General  expense    0.017 

Total      $0.476 

The  property  belongs  to  the  Placer  Gold  Mines  Co.  of  Seattle; 
G.  W.  Fischer,  President,  T.  M.  Daulton,  General  Manager;  the 
latter  has  planned  the  work  and  conducted  the  operations  since 
the  company  took  over  the  property  from  the  original  locators  in 
1908,  and  is  still  in  charge. 

Range  of  Cost  of  Hydraulic  Mining.  There  is  a  wide  range 
in  the  cost  of  hydraulic  mining.  In  a  recently  issued  bulletin 
of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines  it  is  stated  that  the  cost  may  range 
from  22/2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  in  California  under  exceptionally  favorable 
circumstances  to  12  ct.  or  even  20  ct.  at  Atlin,  B.  C.,  and  to  25 
ct.  or  more  in  Alaska,  according  to  the  conditions  of  operation. 
Where  frozen  gravel  is  encountered  and  where  it  is  necessary  to 
elevate  the  gravel,  costs  frequently  exceed  60  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1033 

Bulletin  gives  data  on  work  of  this  character  from  which  the 
following  has  been  abstracted  by  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Oct.  18,  11)10.  Hie  first  figures  are  for  a  hydraulic  mine  in 
Northern  California. 

The  season  commenced  in  November,  1899,  and  ended  the  last 
of  July,  1900.  During  this  time,  655,657  miners'  inches  (an  inch 
equals  1,728  cu.  ft.  in  24  hr.)  of  water  were  used  for  piping,  and 
for  sweeping  the  bedrock  at  the  end  of  the  season.  From  actual 
surveys,  this  amount  of  water  washed  down  1,251,399  cu.  yd.  of 
material,  consisting  of  pay  gravel  lying  on  the  bedrock,  and  vary- 
ing in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  8  ft.,  and  practically  barren 
top  material,  consisting  of  mountain  slide,  carrying  considerable 
broken  rock,  clay  and  soil.  The  banks  varied  in  height  from 
50  to  130  ft.,  the  average  height  being  63  ft.  The  grade  of  the 
sluices  was  7  in.  in  12  ft.,  the  boxes  being  paved  with  block  rif- 
fles 12  in.  deep.  Long  bedrock  cuts  extended  from  the  heads  of 
the  sluices  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  banks,  and  were  kept  prac- 
tically to  grade  as  the  work  advanced.  At  first,  electric  drills 
were  used  on  this  work,  but  as  it  was  found  that  heavy  blasting 
shattered  the  rock  too  much,  and  caused  slips,  these  drills  were 
abandoned  and  hand  drilling  was  substituted.  The  total  cost 
($27,512  for  1,251,400  cu.  yd.)  was  made  up  as  follows: 

Per  cu.  yd. 
Care  of  ditch,   reservoir  and  siphon :     Labor,   $2,670 ; 

supplies,    $115    $0.00223 

Washing    (piping)    00192 

Drilling    in    bedrock    cuts:     Hand    drilling,     $1,050; 

electric,    $-69     00105 

Timbering  bedrock  cuts   00012 

Electric  lighting    00047 

Sluice   building   and   repairing:     Labor,    $1,045;    sup- 
plies,   $35    00086 

Blacksmithing     00051 

Cleaning   up    00077 

Moving  pipes   and  giants    00071 

Breaking  rocks   and  clay    00490 

Clearing   ground   for   piping   (cutting  brush)    00012 

General  expenses,  watching  sluices  and  odd  jobs   . . .        .00250 

Supplies    used   in   mine    00241 

Taxes,   office  expenses,  surveying,  salaries 00341 

Total  per  cu.   yd $0.02198 

The  best  known  hydraulic  mine  in  California,  and  the  largest 
now  operating  in  the  world,  is  La  Grange  mine  in  Trinity  County. 
The  operating  company  now  has  a  water  system  of  29  miles  of 
main  ditch,  flume,  tunnel,  and  siphon,  7  miles  of  30-in.  water-pipe 
line,  and  14  miles  of  auxiliary  ditch  not  now  in  use.  This  is  sup- 
plied with  all  necessary  reservoirs  and  connections  for  bringing  the 
water  to  the  face  of  the  pit,  and  with  the  dam  at  the  lower  lake 
represents  an  outlay  of  approximately  $700,000.  Twenty-eight 


1034          HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

men,  including  the  boarding-house  force,  are  employed  at  the  mine. 

The  method  of  operating  is  as  follows:  Water  is  brought  from 
the  mine  reservoirs  in  two  30-in.  pipe  lines  and  discharged  against 
the  gravel  bank  through  giants  under  a  head  of  600  ft.  Either 
two  8-in.  or  one  8-in.  and  two  6-in.  nozzles  are  used  at  one  time. 
These  combinations  require  4,000  to  4,200  miners'  inches  of  water, 
and  they  usually  empty  the  mine  reservoirs  in  six  hours.  The 
water  is  then  shut  off  from  the  pipes  and  the  reservoirs  are  al- 
lowed to  fill,  requiring  generally  four  hours  when  the  full  head 
of  water  is  in  the  ditch:  during  this  time  the  pipe  men  drill  and 
blast  the  large  boulders  and  hard  pieces  of  cement  rock  in  the 
pit. 

Boulders  of  1  ton  and  2  tons'  weight  at  times  pass  through 
the  sluice,  though  such  large  boulders  are  generally  blasted  in 
order  to  save  water.  The  cemented  gravel  is  disintegrated  usu- 
ally before  it  leaves  the  pit,  and  little  or  none  is  found  on  the 
dump.  At  the  usual  rate  of  operation,  the  pipes  wash  down  and 
send  to  the  sluice  1,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  per  hour.  The  sluice 
box  is  6  ft.  wide  by  5  ft.  deep  and  is  lined  with  40-lb.  steel  rails 
set  transversely  5  in.  apart  on  the  bottom  and  longitudinally  on 
the  side  and  held  in  place  by  lugs  and  bolts. 

Quicksilver  is  sprinkled  in  the  upper  part  of  the  sluice  every 
few  days.  The  sluice  is  2,400  ft.  long.  The  great  length  of 
sluice  is  necessary  to  carry  the  tailings  to  the  edge  of  the  dump. 
At  1,300  ft.  it  branches  into  two  parts  in  order  to  distribute  the 
de"bris  over  the  width  of  Oregon  Gulch.  Each  year  it  is  necessary 
to  add  about  50  ft.  to  the  lower  end  of  each  branch.  The  amount 
added  to  the  upper  end  varies  with  the  slope  of  the  bedrock 
and  the  movement  of  the  gravel  mass. 

Working  costs  vary  for  different  seasons  from,  2.8  to  3.5  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.,  the  percentage  of  cost  being  distributed  approximately 
as  follows: 

Per  cent. 

Maintaining    ditch    18 

Washing,    gravel  piping    9 

Sluice   maintenance    25 

Breaking    bowlders    '. 9 

Pipe  lines   and   giants    7^ 

Roads  and  buildings   3*£ 

Clean-ups      1 

Administration     8^ 

Taxes 

Teaming    5 

Boarding  house    8 

Various     2% 

The  following  data,  including  average  operating  costs,  relate 
to  hydraulic  mining  at  Atlin,  B.  C.,  for  the  seasons  1910  to 
1913: 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1035 

Pitl         Pit  2 

Possible  running  time,  days  per  season  ....  184  180 

Actual  running  time,   days  per  season   154  141 

Cubic  yards  worked  per  season   283,300  178,580 

Cubic  yards  per  day  per  season   1,540  992 

Cubic  yards  per  day  for  time  running  ....  1,840  1,266 

Miners'  inches  used  per  day   4,500  4,250 

Yards  per  inch  per  day  of  running  time  . . .  0.41  0.30 

Average  depth  of  ground,  ft 60^  16% 

Average  cost  per  cubic  yards,  cents.f 

Pit  1  Pit  2 

Labor     7.34  13:29 

Powder 1.40  1.96 

General   operations 2.18  3.03 

Ditch    maintenance    .22  .35 

General   expense    .44  .70 

Royalties,   rental,   etc 49  .64 

Total,   ct.   per  cu.  yd 12.07  20.01 

t  Boarding  house  included  in  labor.  "  General  operations  " 
includes  supplies,  teamsters,  blacksmiths  and  9ther  operat- 
ing expense  not  directly  chargeable  to  either  pit.  "  General 
expense  "  includes  traveling,  offices,  etc. 

Costs  of  working  gravel  banks  with  water  under  pressure  and 
elevating  the  material  with  hydraulic  elevators  will  vary  greatly 
in  different  localities.  The  following  data  concern  hydraulic  min- 
ing at  the  River  Bend  mine. 

The  River  Bend  mine  is  on  the  Klamath  River,  Siskiyou 
County,  Cal.  The  water  is  obtained  from  two  sources;  one  ditch 
supplies  the  water  for  the  giant,  the  other  for  the  elevators. 
The  supply  system  includes  11  miles  of  ditches  and  1^  miles  of 
flume. 

There  are  two  Joshua  Hendy  giants  with  3^-in.  nozzles,  which 
consume  about  525  cu.  ft.  per  minute  working  at  an  effective  head 
of  90  to  100  ft.  A  Campbell  hydraulic  elevator  having  a  10^-in. 
throat  and  using  approximately  560  cu.  ft.  of  water  per  minute 
under  an  effective  head  of  325  ft.  raises  the  material  40  ft.  ver- 
tically. The  elevator  is  set  in  a  sump  10  ft.  deep  and  at  an  in- 
clination of  70°,  the  height  of  the  gravel  bank  being  30  ft. 

The  following  table  is  made  from  daily  averages  throughout  the 
season  of  1912-13.  The  working  costs  do  not  include  administra- 
tion charges. 

'    ;-n-  offf  !o-i>ml)rf;-r«  -iiljuri {>''/!{  i'>l   I** I    m  fo&taHTtB 

Cubic  yards  of  gravel  washed  per  day  417 

Cubic  feet  of  water  used  per  minute  for  giants   525 

Cubic  feet  of  water  used  per  minute  for  elevator 560 

Cubic  feet  of  gravel  lifted  per  minute 7.81 

Cubic  yards  of  gravel  washed  per  miner's  inch  (giant) 

water 1.19 

Grade  of  sluice,  inches  in  12  feet  7 

Operating   cost   per   cubic   yard,    not  including   admin- 

tration,   cents    8 

At  the  Logan  mine,  near  Waldo,  Ore.,  with  40  cu.  ft.  of  water 
a  second,  15,000  to  30,000  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  are  washed  per  month. 


1036  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Four  giants  are  used,  two  in  the  pit  and  two  on  the  tailings 
dump.  A  20-in.  hydraulic  elevator  with  two  lifts  elevates  the 
material  41)  ft.  The  gravel  is  easily  washed,  there  are  no  large 
boulders,  and  the  operating  expenses  are  said  to  be  only  3%  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  under  exceedingly  favorable  conditions. 

Hydraulic  Elevators.  A  hydraulic  elevator  is  an  "  ejector " 
used  to  raise  water  and  gravel.  An  ample  supply  of  water  and 
proper  means  for  rejecting  large  stones,  lumps  of  clay  and  debris 
are  essential. 

Elevators  are  generally  arranged  in  a  sump  cut  in  the  bed- 
rock, and  the  gravel  from  the  monitors  is  washed  to  this  sump 
through  a  ground  sluice.  The  elevators  pick  up  the  gravel  and 
water  and  raise  it  from  the  sump  to  the  ground  sluice.  Large 
boulders  can  be  left  in  place  and  the  bedrock  around  them 
cleaned  with  a  small  hand  nozzle. 

Hydraulic  elevators  consist  of  a  tube  into  which  a  jet  of  water 
is  introduced  under  pressure.  The  velocity  of  the  moving  jet 
of  water  acts  on  a  larger  body  of  water  and  gravel  introduced 
at  the  suction  end  of  the  tube  and  causes  it  to  be  discharged  at 
the  other  end. 

Grading  River  Banks  with  a  Water  Jet.  The  following  de- 
scription of  grading  a  sandy  river  bank  is  given  by  Taro  Tsuji 
in  Engineering  Xeu's,  Feb.  6,  1892. 

The  bank,  12  to  17  ft.  high  above  low  water,  was  graded  to  a 
slope  of  2  horizontal  to  1  vertical.  The  plant  used  was  a  40-hp. 
boiler  and  a  simple  duplex  plunger  pump,  with  a  stroke  of  10 
in.,  and  a  diameter  of  5^4  in.,  mounted  on  a  barge.  The  water 
was  pumped  from  the  river  and  delivered  through  a  2i£-in.  hose. 
The  jet,  varying  in  amount  from  230  to  260  gal.  per  min.,  under 
a  pressure  of  140  Ib.  per  sq.  in.,  was  played  upon  the  bank.  The 
earth  was  removed  at  the  rate  of  35  to  40  cu.  yd.  per  hr.,  using 
10  Ib.  of  coal  per  cu.  yd. 

This  method  was  economical  but  left  the  bank  in  a  rough  con- 
dition. The  earth  was  dressed  by  pick  and  shovel. 

H.  St.  L.  Coppee,  in  Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  35,  July,  1806,  describes  another  plant  con- 
structed in  1881  for  hydraulic  grading  of  the  river  banks  on  the 
Mississippi.  A  fire  pump  with  161/^x  18-in.  cylinders  and  9-in. 
water  plungers,  having  two  4-in.  discharge  pipes,  and  a  42-in. 
x  24-f t.  boiler,  were  placed  on  a  barge,  16  ft.  wide  by  98  ft. 
long  by  3.5  ft.  deep.  The  total  cost  of  the  plant  was  $3,679. 
This  plant  was  not  used. 

In  sluicing  the  bank  a  trench  was  first  cut  with  a  shovel  to 
the  required  angle  of  slope,  and  in  it  was  placed  a  continuous  line 
of  wooden  boxes  to  form  a  trough  from  the  top  of  the  bank  to  the 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1037 

water  surface.  A  pump  used  for  sinking  piles  with  a  water  jet 
and  mounted  on  a  pile-driver  barge,  was  moored  near  the  trough 
and  supplied  its  upper  end  with  water.  Earth  was  excavated 
and  thrown  into  the  trough  by  shovels,  the  water  carrying  to 
the  river.  This  method  was  abandoned  for  work  on  a  larger  scale, 
the  water  being  used  to  wash  out  the  bank. 

The  grader  used  in  1882  consisted  of  a  barge  110  ft.  long  by  30 
ft.  wide  by  6  ft.  deep.  The  pump  was  a  Blake  compound  con- 
densing, with  double  plungers  each  16  x  24  in.  The  steam  cyl- 
inders were  18  and  30  in.  in  diameter  by  24-in.  stroke.  The 
capacity  was  2,000  gal.  per  min.  with  a  pump  pressure  of  160  Ib. 
and  a  steam  pressure  of  80  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  Steam  was  obtained 
from  three  boilers,  42  in.  by  26  in.  in  size.  The  pumps  discharged 
into  a  14-in.  boom  pipe  having  twelve  4-in.  openings,  from  which 
lengths  of  2^-in.  rubber  hose  lead.  The  nozzles  were  1%  in.  in 
diameter. 

In  operation  the  boat  was  moored  to  the  bank  and  the  hose 
lead  to  within  8  ft.  of  a  guide  face  cut  in  the  bank.  The  nozzles, 
mounted  on  swivels,  were  each  worked  by  three  men.  The  slope 
was  cut  a  little  ahead  at  the  upper  end;  the  reason  being  that 
the  water  after  discharging  against  the  bank,  ran  close  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  face,  helping  to  undercut  it.  A  4-in.  hose  and  a 
1^4-in.  nozzle  gave  the  best  results.  Banks  were  graded  to  a 
slope  of  2}4  to  1.  Sand  and  light  deposits  were  easily  graded,  but 
clay  and  "  buckshot "  resisted  the  jet  for  some  time.  With  3 
nozzles  an  average  of  1,300  cu.  yd.  was  removed  per  day  at  a 
cost  of  about  4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Trimming  was  done  by  hand 
shovels. 

At  Bullerton  in  1883,  grading  cost  3  to  3.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  3  men 
being  employed  to  each  nozzle. 

At  Plum  Point  1,800  to  4,000  cu.  yd.  were  moved  per  day  at  a 
cost  of  3  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

In  sand  at  Lake  Providence  Reach  grading  cost  2%  to  3}£  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  The  engineer  in  charge  estimated  from  daily  ob- 
servations continued  over  a  month  that  to  excavate  1  cu.  yd.  of 
earth  required  a  fraction  less  than  1  cu.  yd.  of  water,  under  a 
pressure  of  140  Ib.,  with  steam  pressure  at  80  Ib.  and  a  vacuum 
of  26.5  in.  With  steam  pressure  at  80  Ib.  it  required  3  Ib.  of 
coal  per  cu.  yd.  of  water  thrown  or  earth  removed.  Shovel  grad- 
ing cost  30  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  At  New  Madrid  in  1893  grading  to  a 
3  to  1  slope  cost  3.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Mr.  Coppee  gives  the  cost  of  a  typical  hydraulic  grading  plant 
with  all  hose  and  fixtures  at  $20,000. 

Of  work  done  in  1889  on  the  Missouri  River  for  the  Chicago 
&  Alton  Ry.,  W.  R.  De  Witt  in  Engineering  News,  June  5,  1902, 


1038  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

states  that  a  grading  force  of  1  engineman,  1  fireman,  1  watch- 
man, 1  nozzleman,  and  2  laborers  graded  100  lin.  ft.  of  bank  or 
800  cu.  yd.  of  earth  in  a  10-hr,  day,  under  average  conditions 
of  soil  and  velocity  of  current.  Labor  cost  $10.25  per  lin.  ft. 
of  revetment  or  1.28  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  fuel  and  engineman's 
supplies  cost  $2.25  per  lin.  ft.  of  revetment  or  0.28  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.,  a  total  of  $12.50  per  lin.  ft.  or  1.56  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

According  to  Engineering  News,  May  9,  1907,  at  about  40  miles 
below  St.  Louis  3,444  cu.  yd.  were  removed  by  hydraulic  jets,  and 
44  cu.  yd.  were  surfaced  by  hand.  The  total  cost  was  2.5  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  '  \ 

D.  J.  Whittemore  gives  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  grading  a 
bluff  on  the  Missouri  River  as  1  ct.  for  powder  plus  1.5  ct.  for 
labor  and  other  supplies.  The  bluff  was  100  to  180  ft.  high  and 
it  was  dangerous  to  employ  the  water  jet  without  having  at  all 
times  complete  control  of  avalanches.  This  was  secured  by  blast- 
ing down  the  bank  after  it  had  been  partially  undercut  by  the 
jet. 

According  to  Engineering  News,  July  29,  1915,  to  clear  the  river 
channel  of  the  Kaw  River,  Kansas,  during  high  water,  about  10,- 
000  to  15,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  near  the  east  span  of  the  Union 
Pacific  Bridge  was  removed  in  a  very  short  time.  This  work  was 
accomplished  by  a  gang  of  eight  men,  drilling  and  shooting  the 
dirt,  using  just  enough  40%  dynamite  to  allow  it  to  be  broken 
up  thoroughly.  As  soon  as  a  shot  had  been  set  off  at  one  end, 
a  fire  hose,  with  a  1^-in.  nozzle,  and  about  80  Ib.  nozzle  pressure, 
was  utilized  to  wash  the  loose  earth  into  the  swift  current  of  the 
river.  Water  was  furnished  by  a  fire  engine  at  the  end  of  about 
1,000  ft.  of  hose.  The  river  current  was  flowing  at  the  rate  of 
about  8  to  10  ft.  per  second,  and  the  large  pieces  of  excavation 
detached  by  the  jet  of  water  were  quickly  washed  down  stream 
by  the  current.  The  entire  amount  was  removed  in  about  two 
days'  time  at  a  very  low  cost. 

Stripping  Gravel  Pits  by  Hydraulic  Methods.  The  following  is 
an  abstract  of  an  article  by  W.  H.  Wilms  in  the  Railway  Age 
Gazette,  June  18,  1915. 

During  the  past  ten  years  there  has  been  a  rapid  increase  in 
the  use  of  the  hydraulic  method  of  earth  removal.  Engineers 
are  just  beginning  to  appreciate  the  possibilities  of  this  method 
of  excavation,  and  the  next  decade  will  undoubtedly  witness  a 
still  greater  development  and  growth  in  hydraulic  excavation. 
The  filling  of  trestles  on  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the  Canadian 
Pacific  at  a  cost  of  from  4  to  13  ct.  per  cubic  yard;  the  re- 
moval of  34,000,000  yd.  of  material  in  the  regrading  of  Seattle, 
Wash.;  the  hydraulic  construction  of  large  embankments  on  the 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1030 

Pacific  coast  extension  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul; 
and  the  more  recent  construction  of  the  Fernando  dam  of  the 
Los  Angeles  aqueduct,  where  about  2,000,000  yd.  of  earth  were 
sluiced  at  a  total  cost  of  7  ct.  per  yard  are  recent  examples. 
The  remarkable  results  obtained  in  these  cases  seem  to  be  little 
realized  or  appreciated  by  many  engineers  unacquainted  with  this 
class  of  work. 

A  comparatively  large  field  for  this  method  of  earth  ex- 
cavation is  in  stripping  the  overburden  of  gravel  ballast  pits 
and  stone  quarries.  Conditions  about  a  gravel  pit  are  quite 
often  favorable  to  the  hydraulic  method  of  stripping.  The  soil 
is  generally  a  loam  or  soft  clay  that  can  be  handled  very  ef- 
fectively with  water.  A  great  many  gravel  deposits  are  either 
very  close  to  a  stream  or  river  or  underlaid  with  water,  an 
ample  supply  of  water  thus  being  assured.  The  sluiced  ma- 
terial can"  also  be  dumped  in  many  cases  into  the  abandoned  or 
worked-out  portions  of  the  pit.  Where  this  is  possible,  ample 
dumping  grounds  and  sufficient  grades  for  the  flumes  are  gen- 
erally assured.  If  the  stripping  is  shallow,  not  exceeding  3  ft.  in 
depth,  and  a  large  daily  output  or  yardage  is  desired,  the  hy- 
draulic method  should  be  adopted  with  a  great  deal  of  caution. 

Duty  of  the  Water  and  Size  of  Installation.  The  amount  of 
water  necessary  to  move  one  cubic  yard  of  material  depends  upon 
the  grade  of  the  flumes,  the  character  of  the  material  and  to  a 
more  or  less  extent  upon  the  pressure  of  water  available.  The 
quantity  of  water  is  of  more  importance  than  the  pressure.  Com- 
paratively light  grades  can  be  used  for  the  flumes  if  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water  is  present  to  effect  complete  suspension.  Clay 
requires  more  water,  greater  pressure  and  greater  flume  grades 
to  handle  than  ordinary  loam  or  dirt.  The  amount  and  size  of 
rocks,  if  any,  also  affects  appreciably  the  duty  or  carrying  ca- 
pacity of  the  water.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  as  a  mini- 
mum, with  ordinary  loam  or  soft  clay  and  flume  grades  of  7  to 
9%,  10  cu.  yd.  of  water  are  required  to  move  1  cu.  yd.  of  ma- 
terial. As  a  basis  for  an  estimate,  however,  it  is  generally  not 
advisable  to  depend  upon  a  greater  percentage  of  spoil  than  15% 
for  loam  or  dirt  with  the  usual  flume  grades  of  7  to  9%.  For 
soft  clay  and  heavy,  sticky  loam,  10  to  12%  can  be  considered  a 
safe  estimate  where  7  to  9%  grades  can  be  obtained.  The  above 
duties  are  based  upon  a  flow  of  1,000  gal.  per  min.,  which  is  the 
minimum  discharge  advisable  for  hydraulicking. 

In  stripping  gravel  deposits  a  considerable  amount  of  water 
is  lost  by  flowing  down  into  the  gravel,  which  must  often  be 
considered  in  estimating  the  necessary  water  supply.  If  the  top 
stratum  of  the  gravel  deposit  is  a  sand  or  compact  gravel,  this 


1040  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

loss  is  generally  insignificant,  amounting  to  only  2  or  3*# . 
If,,  however,  the  top  stratum  is  a  coarse,  loose  gravel,  the  loss 
from  this  source  may  be  as  high  as  10%. 

A  pressure  of  from  40  to  60  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  at  the  noz/.le  is 
usually  sufficient  for  the  sluicing  of  loam  or  dirt.  For  soft  clay 
and  some  heavy  loams,  60  to  80  Ib.  pressure  is  usually  required. 
A  pump  having  a  capacity  less  than  1,000  gal.  per  min.  should 
not  be  installed.  A  1,500-gal.  discharge  would  be  more  efficient, 
and  for  the  ordinary  installation  is  to  be  preferred.  With  such 
a  discharge,  using  two  nozzles,  and  with  favorable  grades,  it 
should  be  possible  to  sluice  from  450  to  700  cu.  yd.  of  material 
per  day  of  10  hr.  A  crew  ordinarily  required  for  such  an  instal 
lation  consists  of  one  pumper  or  engineman ;  two  pipemen ;  one 
assistant  to  the  pipemen;  three  laborers  and  a  foreman  tearing 
down  and  erecting  flumes;  and  one  laborer  on  the  dump. 

Flumes.  The  water  supply,  the  character  of  the  overburden 
and  the  fall  available  to  the  dump  determine  the  grades  of  the 
flumes.  In  the  stripping  of  gravel  pits  where  the  excavated 
space  is  used  as  a  dumping  ground,  ample  grades  for  the  flumes 
are  generally  assured.  Full  advantage,  however,  should  be  taken 
of  all  the  fall  available,  a  difference  of  only  1%  in  the  grade 
of  Jhe  flume  effecting  a  great  difference  in  the  carrying  capacity 
or  duty  of  the  water.  Where  the  available  fall  makes  necessary 
the  use  of  low  flume  grades  much  larger  quantities  of  water  are 
required  to  effect  complete  suspension  of  the  material.  For 
stripping,  grades  lower  than  6%  should  not  be  used.  Where  3% 
and  4%  are  the  maximum  that  can  be  used,  the  quantity  of  water 
necessary  for  the  operation  of  such  low  grades  is  so  great  that 
hydraulicking  fails  to  show  any  great  economy  over  other 
methods.  While  it  is  true  that  grades  as  low  as  3  and  4%  are 
often  used  in  large  hydraulic  mining  operations,  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  in  such  operations  the  flume  grades  must  be  kept 
comparatively  low,  so  that  the  velocity  of  the  water  will  not 
be  so  great  as  to  prevent  the  gold  from  settling  in  the  riffles  in 
the  bottom  of  the  flume.  The  object  here  is  to  use  sufficient  water 
to  transport  the  gold  bearing  gravel  and  flume  grades  that  will 
not  cause  excessive  velocities.  It  is  because  of  this  fact  that  the 
carrying  capacity  of  water  in  hydraulic  mining  is  very  low,  the 
material  excavated  amounting  to  only  about  2  to  6%  of  the 
water  used. 

Where  conditions  will  permit,  the  flume  grade  should  be  at 
least  7%;  8  to  10%  grades  with  an  abundant  supply  of  water 
are  considered  very  satisfactory  grades,  and  are  usually  obtain- 
able in  stripping  operations  where  the  material  is  sluiced  into 
the  worked-out  portions  of  the  pit.  These  remarks  apply  only  to 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1041 


box  flumes.  Where  ground  sluices  are  used  considerably  heavier 
grades  must  be  used,  as  they  are  very  likely  to  become  clogged 
up  from  roots,  gravel,  sticks  and  pieces  of  sod.  In  such  cases 
use  flume  boxes  in  these  open  sluices  as  shown  in  Fig.  15-8.  The 


12' 


ron. 


3ide  View. 


Angle  iron'1 


Section. 


Pressure  tine. 


$Ecfge  ofstr/pp/ng. 

Hose  connections) 

t-Edge  of  stripping. 
Stripped. 

Top  ofs/ope.~i 

V----3 

-      i 

I'lWI'll 

Flume.—  *| 

I'lWI'lW 

f  Bottom  of  &  /ope. 

Main  pressure  tine.-? 


Fig.    14.     Flume   Construction   for    Stripping   Gravel   Pits. 
Sketches    1-4. 


time  required  to  place  them  will  be  but  a  fraction  of  that  lost  in 
continually  cleaning  out  the  open  ditch. 

Flume  grades  should  be  made  as  uniform  as  possible.  A  slight 
break  in  the  grade  will  often  cause  clogging,  especially  if  a  sandy 
loam  is  being  handled.  Abrupt  changes  in  the  alinement  of  the 


1042 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


rTT^r   Levee  of  earth  or grareF/  Grovel 

IZ±  ,    7^\  backed  up  with  brush. 


Pipe  drain. 


boards. 


-4'fo7'   -J 


\; 


—  <4'to7'  —\ 


Pressure  //r/e.-j 


. 


*£ctyt  of  stripping. 
Area  stripped. 


mnmum.      I 

{-Top  of  slope 
f  Bottom  of  slope. 


3'.± 
ZFcfye 


I  ^Ground JS/uice  begins  here.      Sfr'PPin9- 
W/ng  or  deflector  board.  ^  \rWing. 

4'± 


yfs/ope 
Plan. 


of  stripping.    „ 

••rr   3\  Ground  sluices /n*    ^»          > 

T-Top  of  slope)  which  f/ume  boxes    VJ  Flume.- 

-Flume.       <^  MA  Gravel. 


Section. 


Fig.    15.     Flume   Construction   for   Stripping   Gravel  Pits. 
Sketches  5  to  8. 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1043 

flumes  are  best  made  by  making  a  break  or  drop  in  the  flume 
grade. 

Sand  requires  heavy  grades  and  shallow  sluices.  Wide,  shal- 
low sluices  should  be  used  where  the  grades  are  light.  If  the 
overburden  contains  many  stones  and  boulders  deep,  narrow 
sluices  should  be  used.  In  this  case,  the  depth  of  the  water  in 
the  flume  should  be  equal  to  the  width  of  the  flume.  The  width 
and  depth  of  flumes  depends  largely  upon  the  character  of  the 
materials  as  well  as  the  water  supply. 

The  rectangular  section  for  flumes  is  generally  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  semi-circular  or  elliptical  section.  A  large  amount 
of  the  material  carried  by  the  water  travels  or  rolls  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  flume.  Where  the  circular  section  has  been  used  the 
wear  on  the  flume  has  been  confined  to  a  relatively  small  area 
in  the  lowest  part  of  the  section.  Where  stones  or  gritty  ma- 
terial are  present  in  the  overburden  this  wear  becomes  excessive, 
the  metal  wearing  through  and  becoming  full  of  holes  in  a 
very  short  time.  With  the  square  or  rectangular  section,  how- 
ever, the  wear  is  quite  evenly  distributed  over  the  bottom,  re- 
sulting in  a  much  longer  life  of  the  flume. 

In  order  that  the  flumes  may  be  easily  and  quickly  erected 
and  taken  down  they  should  be  built  in^  sections  or  boxes  from 
10  to  12  ft.  long.  Both  wooden  and  mental  flumes  are  used. 
Wooden  flume  boxes  have  proven  very  unsatisfactory  for  strip- 
ping service,  as  they  quickly  become  water  soaked  and  heavy, 
and  when  dried  out,  check  and  split  badly.  Moreover,  in  the 
constant  nhandling  of  the  flume  boxes,  they  go  to  pieces  very 
soon.  In  stripping,  flumes  are  changed  many  times  and  a  flume 
box  should  be  built  that  will  not  only  stand  the  excessive  wear 
and  abrasion  of  the  material  being  carried,  but  the  rough  and 
constant  handling  as  well.  For  this  service  the  metal  flume  is 
probably  the  best  suited.  Fig.  14-1  is  a  sketch  of  a  steel  box 
flume  that  has  given  very  good  service.  This  flume  is  constructed 
of  No.  14  gage  steel,  and  is  made  in  sections  12  ft.  long. 

It  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  carry  the  sluiceway  or  flume 
through  an  intervening  ridge  to  obtain  a  dumping  ground  for  the 
sluiced  material.  If  the  tunnel  has  a  heavy  grade,  vitrified  sewer 
pipe  will  prove  satisfactory.  If  the  grade  is  light,  however,  any 
slight  settlement  of  the  pipe  joints  is  liable  to  cause  clogging. 
Under  such  conditions  riveted  steel  pipe  in  lengths  of  20  ft. 
or  more  has  given  very  satisfactory  results.  Pipe  No.  16  to 
No.  14  gage  steel  has  been  used  for  this  purpose. 

Stripping  Shale  in  Illinois.  The  shale  ledge  worked  by  the 
Western  Brick  Co.,  of  Danville,  111.,  is  covered  with  from  3  to  6  ft. 
of  loamy  sand  and  gravel,  which  is  stripped  and  carried  away  by 


1044  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

means  of  hydraulic  giants  at  a  cost  of  about  2  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
From  information  furnished  by  F.  W.  Butterworth,  the  general 
manager  of  the  company,  the  following  description  of  the  plant 
and  of  the  methods  of  operation  is  given  by  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Aug.  15,  1906. 

Water  is  brought  to  the  giants  from  the  pumping  station 
through  a  10-in.  pipe  which  is  now  about  4,000  ft.  long.  This  pipe 
is  kept  extended  to  a  point  somewhere  near  the  bank  where  it  is 
tapped  with  two  4-in.  pipe  connections  which  extend  to  within 
from  20  ft.  to  50  ft.  of  the  working  face  and  end  in  4-in.  hose 
carrying  2^-in.  nozzles.  The  nozzles  are  fitted  with  adjustable 
needle  points,  which  permit  a  variation  from  y2  in.  to  li£  in.  in 
the  stream.  The  pressure  at  the  nozzle  is  normally  75  Ib.  per 
sq.  in.,  but  it  may  be  doubled  when  desired.  The  water  is  fur- 
nished by  a  compound  duplex  Smith-Vaile  steam  pump,  with  a 
16-in.  water  end  and  16:in.  and  24-in.  steam  ends.  The  pump 
is  located  on  the  bank  of  the  Vermillion  River,  which  passes 
through  the  shale  bed,  and  it  takes  steam  from  a  72-in.  x  16-ft. 
tubular  boiler  located  in  a  house  on  the  crest  of  the  river  bank 
and  some  distance  away.  Because  of  the  separate  boiler  and  en- 
gine houses  a  fireman  and  engineer  are  required;  were  the  en- 
gine and  boiler  in  one  building  the  engineer  could  do  his  own 
firing.  It  is  to  be  noted  further  that  the  steam  connections  are 
so  arranged  that  live  steam  can  be  turned  into  the  low  pressure 
cylinder;  this  enables  the  water  pressure  to  be  jumped  up  to 
150  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  at  the  nozzle  when  hard  material  is  encoun- 
tered. Normally  the  pump  pressure  is  kept  at  115  Ib. 

Two  giants  are  worked,  each  operated  by  one  man,  and  there 
are  in  addition  a  fireman  and  an  engineer,  making  a  labor  force  of 
four  men  in  all.  These  men  get  $2  per  10-hr,  day.  On  the  aver- 
age about  2,000  cu.  yd.  are  moved  every  10  hr.  This  gives  a 
labor  cost  of  0.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  excavating  and  transporting. 
The  material  is  carried  away  in  sluices,  and  it  has  been  found 
easily  possible  to  handle  it  1,600  ft.  in  this  manner  on  grades 
of  3%.  Including  costs  of  pumping,  sluices,  etc.,  the  total  cost 
has  not  exceeded  2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  moved  during  the  four  years 
that  the  process  has  been  used.  The  cost  of  stripping  is  made 
more  expensive  than  ordinary  excavation  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  shale  has  to  be  perfectly  cleaned  by  holding  the  stream  on  it 
after  the  earth  has  been  practically  all  removed. 

Stripping  Shale  in  Iowa.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr. 
19,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

The  shale  pit  is  about  1,800  ft.  from  the  Raccoon  River  in  Des 
Moines,  la.  The  nearest  building  of  the  plant  itself  to  the  shale 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1045 

pit  is  the  pan  room,  150  ft.  away.  The  pan  room  floor  is  9  ft. 
above  the  floor  of  the  pit.  There  is  no  place  near  the  pit  to  which 
the  over-burden  might  be  moved,  and  it  became  necessary  to  de- 
vise a  scheme  for  carrying  the  material  some  1,100  or  1,200 
ft.  to  a  tract  of  low  ground. 

The  hydraulic  plant  consists  of  a  14  and  20,  101/4  x  15,  Worth- 
ington  compound  duplex  outside  packed  plunger  pump,  steam  for 
which  is  furnished  by  a  75-hp.  horizontal  fire  tubular  boiler.  The 
pump  has  8-in.  suction,  7-in.  discharge,  2i£-in.  exhaust  steam,  and 
5-in.  exhaust.  At  the  entrance  to  the  pump  the  suction  line 
carries  a  vacuum  chamber  12  ft.  high,  8  in.  in  diameter,  with  a 
vacuum  gage.  The  pump  is  operated  at  40  revolutions  per  min- 
ute (80  Ib.  steam).  That  portion  of  the  8-in.  line  which  runs 
between  the  river  and  river  bank  is  carried  on  two  floats  and  is 
connected  to  the  line  at  the  river  bank  by  a  rubber  sleeve  se- 
curely clamped.  The  7-in.  discharge  line  carries  a  gate  valve  at 
the  pump  and  a  pressure  gage. 

Two  leads  of  hose  are  carried  from  5-in.  line  by  a  Siamese  con- 
nection. Each  lead  is  operated  by  one  man.  This  is  possible 
by  reason  of  a  standard  to  which  the  play  pipe  is  rigidly  at- 
tached, and  which  is  susceptible  of  both  a  vertical  and  hori/ontal 
motion.  Each  lead  of  hose  terminates  in  a  ~/8  in.  nozzle. 

The  6-in.  spiral  pipe  is  connected  to  a  6  to  12-in.  spiral  in- 
creaser,  flat  on  the  bottom.  Above  this  increaser  are  three  10-ft. 
lengths  of  12-in.  spiral  pipe,  which  afford  a  reservoir  to  the  6-in. 
spiral  pipe.  The  spiral  pipe  is  susceptible  of  easy  bends.  There 
are  two  45°  ells  in  the  spiral  pipe  line.  The  spiral  pipe  is  car- 
ried through  a  12-in.  cast  iron  pipe  under  the  C.  G.  W.  tracks. 
The  cast  iron  pipe  terminates  in  three  lengths  of  12-in.  sewer 
pipef 

The  pump-house  was  located  about  655  ft.  from  the  river  bank, 
and  so  planned  that  the  lift  from  the  river  would  amount  to 
less  than  18  ft.  at  extreme  low  water.  It  was  decided  to  install 
a  pump  sufficiently  large  to  handle  the  requisite  amount  of  water 
without  injury  to  the  pump,  at  the  same  time  insuring  fuel 
economy.  The  difficult  problem,  of  course,  was  the  determination 
of  the  character  of  sluiceway  which  would  carry  away  the  ma- 
terial from  the  pit  and  place  it.  For  only  a  short  distance  could 
the  sluiceway  be  carried  above  ground. 

An  experimental  line  of  12-in.  sewer  pipe  was  tried  with  much 
misgiving.  True  to  prophecy,  it  was  impracticable,  requiring 
long  periods  of  flushing,  and  thus  reducing  the  efficiency  of  the 
plant  in  that  only  a  small  amount  of  stripping  could  be  done  in 
a  day.  This  line  was  one  already  in  place,  it  being  used  as  a 


1046  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

drainage  sewer  to  carry  off  storm  water,  drips,  etc.,  from  the  pit 
and  from  the  plant.  The  sewer  line  could  dispose  of  clay  or 
earth  in  solution  or  gravel,  but  it  was  absolutely  impracticable 
in  the  disposition  of  sand.  The  sand  would  settle  to  the  bottom 
of  the  pipe,  requiring  hours  to  remove  it. 

Because  of  the  large  proportion  of  sand  in  the  overburden, 
much  more  than  is  apparent  from  a  casual  observation,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  devise  a  sluiceway  which  would  insure  greater 
velocity  to  the  effluent  and  at  the  same  time  agitate  the  sand  dur- 
ing its  flow.  A  6-in.  spiral  pipe  line  was  decided  upon  and  in- 
stalled. It  works  splendidly.  This  line  has  become  clogged  only 
twice.  The  plant  has  been  in  operation  since  May  1,  and  since 
that  time  to  Nov.  1  there  has  been  moved  about  50,000  cu.  yd. 
of  overburden. 

The  following  are  the  principal  data  relating  to  the  pipe  lines : 

8-in.   Suction  Line: 

Elevation  extreme  low  water    80.0 

Elevation    bottom    8-in.    pipe    at    intersection    with 

pump    house 93.66 

Elevation   top   of   pump   foundation    97.1 

Elevation  entrance  to  pump    97.6 

Extreme  total   lift  <>f  suction    17.6 

Length  of  suction  line  from  pump  to  river  bank  (ft.)  655 

Total  length  of  line   (ft.)    690 

•   Grade  from  piimp  house  to  river  bank  (per  cent.)...  1.67 

7-in.  Discharge  Line  (Water  Line) : 

Total  present  length   (ft.)    1,080 

Elevation   at   pump    100.75 

Elevation   at  discharge    161.0 

Total  lift  of  discharge   60.25 

6-in.   Spiral  Pipe   (Hydraulic  Sewer) : 

Total  present  length    ((ft.) 1.090 

Elevation  of  intake  (station  1,065)    140 

Elevation  of  station  729    '. 109.67 

Elevation  of  station  375  (45°  bend)    103.6 

Elevation  of  station  025  (45°  bend) 101.45 

Elevation  of  station  000  (outlet)    101.25 

The  work  accomplished  and  its  cost  were  as  follows :  Total 
volume  of  water  per  minute  at  20  complete  revolutions  of  each 
piston  rod  equals  428.8  gal.  Total  volume  per  day  of  9  hr.  equals 
231,552  gal.,  equals  1,146.6  yd.  Total  effluent  per  day  equals 
1,432.5  cu.  yd.  Of  this,  conservatively,  2Q%  is  solid  material, 
thus  giving  286.5  cu.  yd.  overburden  disposed  of  per  day  of  9  hr. 
Samples  of  effluent  are  taken  every  hour  and  percentage  measured. 

Boiler    fireman     $2.25 

Man  at  intake 1.50 

One  man  at  nozzle   2.00 

One  man  at  nozzle   1.80 

Total  labor  per  day $7.55 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1047 

Fuel,  1V2  tons,  at  $1.50  $2.25 

Oil     0.15 

Maintenance    and    supplies,    including    hose,    new    pipe, 

etc 0.85 

Total  cost  per  day $10.80 

At  286.5  cu.  yd.  per  day,  it  follows  that  the  cost  of  stripping 
and  placing  is  about  3%  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Stripping  a  Quarry.  The  following  data  are  given  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Mar.  1,  1911,  regarding  the  method  used 
for  stripping  the  limestone  rock  at  the  quarry  of  the  Mathews 
Stone  Co.,  Bloomington,  111. 

The  depth  of  quarry  stone  being  25  ft.  an  area  is  cleared  suf- 


Fig.  16.     Glazier  Turret  Nozzle  Hydraulic  Monitor. 

ficient  for  a  season's  work,  the  overlying  soil  being  each  year 
washed  into  the  quarry  pit  left  by  the  previous  season's  work. 
To  keep  the  new  and  old  pits  separate  a  dividing  wall  of  rock 
is  left  unquarried.  The  floor  area  of  the  pits  is  about  100x120 
ft. 

The  equipment  employed  consists  of  a  100  lip.  boiler  deliver- 
-ing  steam  at  100  Ib.  pressure  to  a  compound  duplex  pump  having 
10xl2-in.  and  12  x  18-in.  steam  cylinders  and  12  x  18-in.  water 
cylinders,  and  of  7 -in.  pipe  reduced  to  4  in.,  with  4-in.  flexible 
joints  and  a  Glazier  turret  nozzle,  Fig.  16.  -;*>T 

In  front  of  the  quarry  floor  is  a  large  hole,  30  ft.  deep,  and 
120  by  150  ft.  in  extent.  The  overburden  of  the  quarry  is  washed 


1048  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

into  this  hole  by  water  from  the  hydraulic  monitor.  The  water 
then  overflows  into  another  hole,  arid  at  this  point  the  pump  is 
located.  rJhe  monitor  is  operated  at  a  point  about  10  ft.  from 
the  edge  of  the  earth,  one  man  being  required.  The  water  is 
directed  so  as  to  undercut  the  bank,  and  wash  the  earth  to  the 
sump.  At  the  same  time  the  seams  of  the  rock  are  cleaned, 
and  after  a  floor  has  been  quarried  off,  the  debris,  such  as  spalls 
and  dirt,  is  washed  off  also.  The  earth  is  hard  red  clay,  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  require  picking  for  hand  excavation.  The  over- 
burden is  removed  in  strips  10  ft.  wide.  When  the  monitor  is 
moved,  the  pump  is  shut  down  and  the  engineman  helps  to  relo- 
cate the  monitor.  The  cost  of  operation  is  the  cost  of  the  wages 
of  three  men,  and  the  cost  of  coal  and  oil. 

Removing  a  Land  Slide  by  Hydraulic  Jetting.  The  following 
is  given  by  W.  G.  Curt  in  Trans.  Am.  8oc.  C.  E.,  vol.  24. 

A  land  slip  blocked  the  mouth  of  a  tunnel  on  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific R.  R.  in  California.  The  slide  was  almost  entirely  removed 
by  wheelbarrows  in  5,500  man-days  of  1 1  hr.  each,  when  another 
heavy  rain  and  snow  storm  caused  a  second  slide  of  as  large  a 
quantity  as  the  first.  Falling  stones  and  earth  and  the  soft  na- 
ture of  the  material  prevented  a  further  use  of  wheelbarrows  and 
the  material  was  removed  with  a  hydraulic  jet. 

Twelve  ordinary  standard  "  surface  "  steam  pumps  in  a  gang 
discharged  3,300  gal.  per  min.  (16.5  cu.  yd.).  They  were  set  in 
a  line  100  ft.  from  the  river  and  15  ft.  above  it.  Steam  was 
supplied  by  3  locomotives.  The  discharges  led  into  a  12-in.  pipe, 
one  end  of  which  was  connected  to  a  circular  air  chamber  60  in. 
diameter  by  06  in.  high.  This  gave  a  steady  stream.  From 
the  air  chamber  sheet  iron  pipe  (No.  12  Birmingham  gage)  in 
30-ft.  sections,  carried  the  water  to  the  monitor.  The  ends  of 
the  pipe  were  slid  into  one  another  and  pushed  tight,  or  "  stove- 
piped."  The  giant  was  fitted  with  a  3  or  4-in.  nozzle,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  material.  The  material  was  carried  in 
wooden  sluices  to  the  river. 

In  9  days  9,000  cu.  yd.  were  moved  at  the  rate  of  1,000  cu.  yd. 
per  day  of  24  hr.  The  water  required  was  about  2,000  gal.  per 
min.  (10  cu.  yd.)  at  a  pressure  of  45  to  50  Ib.  Each  miner's  inch 
(1,728  cu.  ft.  or  64  cu.  yd.  in  24  hr.)  moved  5  cu.  yd.  This  is 
somewhat  less  water  than  is  required  in  mining  operations.  The 
cost  was  as  follows  per  24-hr,  day: 

25  cords  of  wood  at  $3  $  75 

8  firemen  and  pumpers 20 

Machinists  and  repairers  25 

Men  operating  giant  (high  wages)  20 

30  laborers     50 

Total  at  20  ct.  per  cu.  yd $200 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1049 

A  steam  shovel  could  not  have  been  used  economically,  both 
because  of  the  danger  from  falling  rocks  and  because  of  the 
lack  of  room  for  switching  cars. 

Methods  and  Cost  of  Hydraulicking  on  the  Panama  Canal. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Mar.  1,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

The  channel  of  the  Panama  Canal  for  a  length  of  about  1^ 
miles  south  of  the  Miraflores  Locks  requires  the  excavation  of 
about  1,500,000  cu.  yd.  of  rock  covered  with  8,158,000  cu.  yd.  of 
earth.  To  remove  these  materials  by  dredging  and  subaqueous 
rock  excavating  methods  would  necessitate  a  plant  of  such  size 
that  it  could  not  be  assembled  for  some  time  and  would  be  very 
costly.  Investigation  indicated  that  once  the  rock  were  cleared 
of  its  earth  overburden  it  could  be  excavated  more  rapidly  by 
steam  shovels  than  in  any  other  way.  Steam  shovel  plant  was 
not  available,  however,  to  strip  off  the  earth  as  rapidly  as  the 
progress  required  demanded,  and,  moreover,  the  swampy  nature  of 
the  earth  made  it  certain  that  the  maintenance  of  tracks  would 
be  difficult  and  expensive.  To  meet  the  conditions  most  cheaply 
and^  expeditiously  it  was  decided  to  remove  the  overburden  by 
hydraulicking  and  pumping,  and  then  excavate  the  rock  in  the  dry 
by  steam  shovels. 

By  the  method  of  excavation  indicated  for  removing  the  over- 
burden two  principal  operations  were  involved:  (1)  disinte- 
grating the  material  and  washing  it  to  sumps  by  means  of  water 
jets  under  high  pressure;  (2)  lifting  ^and  conveying  the  loosened 
material  through  flumes  by  means  of  dredging  pumps.  The  plant 
required,  therefore,  consisted  of  ( 1 )  a  central  pumping  station, 
(2)  pipe  lines  and  hydraulic  monitors  and  (3)  dredging  pumps. 

A  portion  of  the  area  to  be  excavated  was  originally  occupied 
by  the  bed  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The  river  w^as  diverted  and  a 
dike  built  across  the  south  end  to  prevent  the  tide  water  from 
flowing  up  the  old  bed.  Upon  the  completion  of  the  dike  the 
water  remaining  in  the  inclosure  was  pumped  out  until  just 
enough  remained  to  float  the  barges  in  the  lowest  places.  The 
giants  were  operated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  barges  so 
as  to  lower  them  to  bed  rock,  thus  forming  a  sump  for  the  suc- 
tions of  each  dredging  pump.  The  regular  operation  of  under- 
cutting and  washing  the  material  to  the  dredging  pumps  by 
means  of  the  monitors  was  begun,  the  cutting  being  extended 
until  there  was  sufficient  slope  to  sluice  the  material  to  the  dredg- 
ing units;  the  water  would  then  be  allowed  to  rise  high  enough 
to  float  the  barges  to  new  positions. 

During  the  three  months  up  to  Jan.  1,  1911,  that  the  plant 
described  was  in  operation  the  amount  of  excavation  was  156,125 
cu.  yd.  and  its  cost  was  as  follows: 


1050  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Ct. 

Pumping   station    12.5 

Pipe    lines 5.5 

Dredging    pumps    8.2 

Relay    pumps    0.5 

Dykes     0.3 

Maintenance   of   equipment    8.2 

Power     25.2 

Plant  arbitrary   5.0 

Division    expense 1.4 


Total  division  cost   66.7 

Administration  and  general  expenses    4.6 

Total  per  cu.  yd 71.3 

Excavating  a  Canal  by  Hydraulicking.  At  Seattle,  Wash., 
part  of  the  waterway  for  a  canal  was  excavated  with  a  hydraulic 
monitor.  The  canal  was  designed  to  have  a  length  of  about 
2  miles,  a  width  at  bottom  of  GO  ft.  and  at  low  water  mark  of 
140  ft.,  arid  a  minimum  depth  of  35  ft.  The  following  details 
of  the  work  were  given  by  C.  H.  Rollins  in  a  paper  read  before 
the  Pacific  Northwest  Society  of  Engineers,  abstracted  in  Engi- 
neering Record,  Nov.  12,  1904. 

The  water  was  obtained  from  a  reservoir  belonging  to*  the 
city  waterworks  system,  about  a  mile  distant.  The  available 
head  varied  from  190  to  250  ft.  Wood-stave  pipes,  30  and  18  in. 
in  diameter,  and  a  15-in.  steel  pipe  at  the  end,  were  used  for 
conveying  the  water  to  the  monitor. 

The  material  removed  was  of  glacial  formation,  consisting  of 
sand,  gravel,  boulders,  and  various  clays.  Light  blasting  was 
sometimes  required.  The  quantity  of  water  required  varied 
between  10,000,000  and  15,000,000  gal.  per  24  hr.  About  3,000 
cu.  yd.  was  removed  daily,  using  a  6-in.  nozzle. 

The  excavated  material  was  used  for  reclaiming  a  tract  of 
land  that  was  submerged  at  high  tide.  Most  of  the  material 
was  carried  from  the  pit  to  the  dump  through  a  flume  on  a 
trestle.  The  minimum  slope  found  desirable  was  2.6%  The 
flume  was  lined  with  wooden  blocks,  10  to  12  in.  thick,  set  with 
the  grain  on  end.  The  material  was  spread  on  the  dump  by  the 
use  of  shear  boards  and  muck  rakes. 

To  reach  positions  of  the  dump  that  could  not  be  filled  by  the 
use  of  flumes,  penstocks  and  pipe  lines  were  tried.  This  latter 
method  has  the  advantage  of  possessing  greater  flexibility  of  di- 
rection and  lower  cost  of  construction.  One  vertical  penstock, 
20  by  30  in.  inside  and  66  ft.  high,  was  constructed  to  receive 
the  entire  discharge  from  the  flume.  It  was  constructed  of  3-in 
plank,  but  after  three  weeks'  use  the  upper  20  ft.  was  so  worn  by 
the  discharge  from  the  flume  that  it  had  to  be  lined  with  wooden 
blocks.  The  head  used  was  about  two-thirds  of  the  available 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1051 

head  of  66  ft.,  and  the  material  could  be  conveyed  through  2,200 
ft.  of  pipe,  Another  penstock  sloping  at  an  angle  of  45°  gave 
a  head  of  20  ft.  Heavy  material  was  distributed  from  this 
through  a  pipe  line  800  ft.  long. 

Cleaning  Sediment  from  a  Reservoir.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Apr.  6,  1910,  gives  the  following: 

Reservoir  No.  1  of  the  Cincinnati,  0.,  water  works  had  been  in 
constant  service  for  over  two  years.  It  was  taken  out  of  service 
on  March  20,  1909,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  4  days  in  order  to 
allow  complete  sedimentation  before  drawing  the  water.  On 
March  30  the  water  was  drawn  off  for  a  depth  of  3  ft.  during 
the  night  and  allowed  to  stand  during  the  day,  when  the  mud 
was  washed  off  the  exposed  slopes  by  hose  streams  under  pressure 
of  flushing  pumps  in  the  wier  house.  The  following  night  the 
water  level  was  again  lowered  to  stand  during  the  day,  when  the 
slopes  were  washed  down.  This  procedure  was  repeated  every  24 
hours  until  April  9,  when  the  water  had  become  very  turbid.  The 
30-in.  drain  was  then  opened,  drawing  off  all  the  water  and  such 
mud  as  it  carried.  The  deposit  of  mud  remaining  on  the  slopes 
and  bottom  was  then  disintegrated  and  slid  to  the  drain  opening 
by  means  of  1^-in.  hose  streams  under  heavy  pressure.  The  depth 
of  accumulated  mud  was  found  to  be  from  12  in.  to  36  in.  and 
the  total  amount  removed  was  estinmated  .as  30,000  cu.  yd. 
Some  35,494,600  gal.  of  water  were  wasted  in  draining  the  reser- 
voir and  16,902,600  gal.  were  used  for  removing  the  mud,  or  about 
505  gal.  per  cubic  yard  of  mud  removed.  The  cost  of  cleaning  was 
as  follows: 

Water,  at  $3.28  per  mil.  gal $  55.44 

22,032  kw.  electric  power,  at  1.1  ct 242.36 

Labor  operating  pumps   57.94 

Labor   cleaning   reservoir    427.27 


Total     $783.01 

The  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  mud  removed  was,  for  cleaning 
proper,  2.6  ct.  Charging  in  the  35,494,600  gal.  of  water  lost  in 
draining  the  reservoir  'at  $3.28  per  million  gallons  we  have  an 
additional  item  of  $116.42,  or  0.41  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  cleaning 
was  completed  May  1,  1909. 

Hydraulic  Fills  on  Railway  Trestles.  Trestle  No.  374,  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  Ry.,  in  Frazer  Canyon,  231  ft.  extreme  height,  was 
filled  in  1896,  with  148,000  cu.  yd.,  at  a  cost  of  $5,089,  or  7.25 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  including  cost  of  plant,  explosives  used  on  ce- 
mented gravel,  labor,  etc.  Fifty  per  cent,  was  cemented  gravel, 
30%  loose  gravel  and  20%  large  boulders,  which  were  removed 
with  a  derrick.  The  plant  consisted  of  1,450  ft.  of  sheet  steel 
15-in.  pipe,  1,200  ft.  of  sluices  or  flumes,  3  ft.  wide  x  3  ft.  deep; 


1052  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

one  No.  3  "  giant  "  monitor  with  5-in.  nozzle,  and  a  large  derrick 
driven  by  a  Pelton  water  wheel  to  handle  boulders.  Piping  head 
was  125  ft.  Sluice  boxes  v/ere  laid  on  a  11%  grade  for  the  first 
430  ft.  and  25%  the  rest  of  the  distance,  700  ft.  The  boxes  wore 
partly  supported  on  high  trestles.  The  sluices  were  paved  with 
wood  blocks  on  the  light  grades,  and  old  railway  rails  on  the 
heaviest  to  protect  them  from  abrasion.  The  entire  force  were 
common  laborers,  except  the  pipeman  and  the  foreman,  working 
as  follows :  One  man  at  "  giant,"  one  at  head  of  sluice,  two  along 
sluice  keeping  large  stones  moving,  three  at  outlet  of  sluice  di- 
recting stream,  and  building  small  retaining  barriers  of  brush  or 
old  ties  and  a  foreman  who  was  also  a  carpenter,  total  8.  The 
water  used  was  20  second-feet  or  1,000  miner's  inches,  the  duty 
performed  being  1.77  cu.  yd.  gravel  moved  per  24-hr. -inch,  which 
is  equivalent  to  about  980  cu.  ft.  of  water  per  cu.  yd.  excavated, 
but  it  is  claimed  that  if  the  head  had  been  about  400  to  500 
ft.  and  the  gravel  all  loose,  "  the  duty  of  the  water  would  have 
been  increased  fourfold."  Note,  however,  that  amount  of  water 
actually  used  agrees  closely  with  Mr.  Radford's  placer  mining  ex- 
perience above  given. 

The  time  of  the  whole  force  occupied  in  making  this  fill  was: 

Sluicing     95.3 

Removing  boulders   from  pit    50.4 

Repairing  flume  and  plant   13.5 

Total  days  of  10  hr 159.2 

The  total  number  of  yards  moved  divided  by  the  actual  work- 
ing time  when  sluicing  was  in  progress  gave  an  average  of  738  cu. 
yd.  per  10-hr,  day.  The  cement  gravel  and  boulders,  it  will  be 
seen,  greatly  delayed  work.  At  Chapman's  Creek,  in  1894,  the 
railway  company  made  a  similar  fill  of  66,000  cu.  yd.,  at  4.34 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  labor,  and  estimating  20%  of  the  first  cost  of 
the  plant  as  chargeable  to  this  job,  the  total  was  7.15  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  The  actual  labor  cost  of  sluicing  was  only  1.78  ct.  per 
cu.  yd. 

Mountain  Creek  trestle  was  filled  in  1897-8  with  400,000 
cu.  yd.  This  trestle  was  10,086  ft.  long,  with  an  extreme  height 
of  154  ft.  The  fill  was  carried  up  on  a  1.5  to  1  slope.  For 
the  first  60  days,  of  10  hr.  each,  the  output  of  the  plant  was 
nearly  1,100  cu.  yd.  a  day,  and  during  that  time  the  cost  was: 

Mattresses     $1,370.79 

Labor   sluicing 1,195.96 

Maintenance    and   repairs    678.90 

Superintendence  and  tools    38505 

Total,   65,000  cu.  yd.  at  5.59  ct $3,630.70 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1053 

About  2.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  should  be  added  for  the  proportionate 
part  of  the  first  cost  of  plant. 

The  water  was  delivered  to  the  "giant"  under  a  head  of  160 
ft.,  the  nozzle  being  5^  in.  The  volume  was  therefore  15.75  sec- 
ond-feet. The  ratio  of  water  to  gravel  was  19  to  1.  The  sluice 
boxes  were  laid  on  an  8%  grade.  The  water  supply  was  brought 
two  miles  in  a  flume,  4  ft.  wide  x  2  ft.  high,  on  a  grade  of  20  ft. 
to  the  mile.  The  entire  plant,  including  roads,  camp,  stables, 
flume,  1,200  ft.  of  pipe  line,  600  ft.  of  sluice  boxes,  etc.,  cost 
$10,038. 

Latham  Anderson,  in  a  paper  published  in  the  1901  volume  of 
the  "  Association  of  Engineering  Societies,"  gives  some  abstracts 
from  the  "  United  States  Geological  Survey  Report,"  1896-97, 
Part  IV,  which  we  can  here  repeat  to  advantage  in  illustrating 
what  has  already  been  done  in  the  way  of  economic  earth  ex- 
cavation. 

Northern  Pacific  R.  R.  Trestles.  During  1897,  in  eight  high 
trestles,  377,000  cu.  yd.  were  moved  for  about  4.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Sluicing  and  building  side  levees    3.85 

Hay   used  in  levees 0.09 

Tools     0.08 

Lumber  and  nails   0.22 

Labor   building   flumes    0.44 

Engineering  and  superintendence    0.11 

Total  ct.  per  cu.  yd 4.79 

In  the  above  work  water  was  carried  by  gravity.  In  one  case 
pumping  was  resorted  to,  and  42,250  cu.  yd.  were  moved  for  13.5 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  plant  was  inexpensive.  One  No.  2  "  giant  " 
costing  $95,  with  300  to  1,000  ft.  of  light  sheet-iron  pipe  costing 
27  ct.  per  foot,  and  lumber  for  sluices,  which  may  be  re-used  in 
moving  from  place  to  place,  constituted  the  outfit.  Five  to  six 
men  were  required  to  erect  and  operate  the  plant. 

This  work  was  done  in  a  dense  forest,  where  the  ground  to  be 
sluiced  had  to  be  cleared.  In  the  one  case,  above  referred  to, 
where  pumping  was  necessary,  the  cost  was: 

Sluicing  and  building  levees  10.81 

Hay  used  in  side  levees    0.21 

Tools      , 0.14 

Lumber  and  nails    0.12 

Labor  building   flume    0.14 

Coal  used  in  pumping 1.87 

Engineering  and  superintendence   0.20 

Total,   ct.  per  cu.  yd 13.50 

In  all  cases  the  sluice  boxes  were  paved  with  square  3-in. 
blocks  laid  so  that  the  ends  would  receive  the  wear  due  to  the 
gravel.  It  was  found  that  grades  of  7%,  preferably  8%,  were 


1054  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

best  where  there  was  large  gravel  or  rock  to  be  moved.  The 
flumes  were  made  in  the  most  temporary  manner  of  1^4-in. 
lumber,  the  boxes  being  16  to  18  in.  square.  Hay  was  used 
for  building  up  the  side  levees  of  the  embankment  and  easily 
moved  baffleboards  to  deflect  the  main  current  from  striking 
the  levees.  The  waste  water  was  taken  off  through  a  waste 
box.  Several  gates  were  provided  in  the  flume  so  that  coarser 
material  might  be  deposited  where  the  finer  is  found  to  be  in 
excess. 

The  following  shows  the  range  of  costs: 

Trestle  No.         Cu.  yd.          Ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

164  18,300  8.21 

165  6,200  16.58 
167              24,500  *  14.00 
170              30,800  8.75 

172  4,300  10.55 

173  9,700  6.23  , 

178  •  2,100  13.25 

179  19,800  9.31 
182              53,600  3.80 

184  96,650  4.34 

185  800  30.24 

186  51,600  7.02 
189             158,100  5.19 

-*!     190  128,800  6.11 

191  42,250  13.50 

It  will  be  noted  how  the  cost  per  cu.  yd.  decreases  as  the 
number  of  cu.  yd.  to  be  moved  increases.  A  railway  trestle 
can  thus  be  filled  without  interfering  with  traffic,  and  when 
filled  there  is  no  settlement  of  the  embankment.  Photographs 
of  this  work,  as  well  as  of  similar  work  on  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific Railway,  are  given  in  Schuyler's  excellent  book  on  "  Reser- 
voirs." 

Further  data  on  filling  trestles  by  sluicing  are  given  in  Engi- 
neering News,  Oct.  12,  1899.  There  is  nothing  special  in  the 
process  except  the  manner  of  forming  the  outer  dam  or  levee 
around  the  top  of  the  embankment.  This  is  built  of  alternate 
layers  of  tough  marsh  hay  or  straw  and  earth.  The  hay  is  shaken 
down  loosely  by  a  man  walking  along  the  edge,  and  the  earth  is 
spaded  from  inside.  This  hay  protects  the  levee  from  erosion  dur- 
ing construction,  and,  as  the  seeds  germinate,  a  sod  is  formed. 

Banks  of  this  character  are  remarkably  solid  and  show  no  signs 
of   settlement.     One    of   the   great   advantages   possessed    by   this^ 
process  is  that  the  tracks  are  not  occupied  by  work  trains.     The' 
only  disadvantage  connected  with  the  method  is  the  slow   speed 
of  construction.     A  crew  of  five  men  and  one  giant  will  place  be- 
tween 500  and  1,500  cu.  yd.  per  day.     If  water  is  abundant,  how- 
ever, several  crews  can  be  worked. 

E.  H.  McHenry  states  that  the  cost  of  filling  about  30  trestles 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1055 

on  the  Northern  Pacific  Ry.  has  averaged  for  several  million  yards 
about  G  ct  per  cu.  yd.,  ranging  from  1.5  to  25  ct. 

Cost  of  Sluicing  a  Highway  Embankment  is  given  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Oct.  9,  11)07,  as  follows: 

In  connection  with  the  building  of  a  dam  in  Newaygo  county, 
Mich.,  a  wagon  road  had  to  be  changed.  A  cut  was  to  be  exca- 
vated and  an  embankment  made.  The  cut  for  the  most  part  was  a 
side  hill  cut,  the  grade  descending  15%  toward  the  river.  The 
material  had  to  be  deposited  40  to  50  ft.  below  the  cut,  and 
from  100  to  500  ft.  distant.  In  all,  20,000  cu.  yd.  were  sluiced; 
but  a  record  of  the  cost  of  only  the  first  3,000  cu.  yd.  was  kept. 

For  this  work  there  was  installed  one  3-in.  Gould's  rotary  fire 
pump.  This  was  set  up  on  the  river  bank  and  a  3-in.  pipe  line 
run  up  the  bluff.  The  pump  was  driven  by  a  30-hp.  motor.  One 
3-in.  hose  and  a  1^4-in.  nozzle  were  used.  The  trough  for  trans- 
porting the  water  and  earth  was  of  iron,  20  in.  wide  with  5-in. 
vertical  sides,  and  was  laid  on  the  ground  as  the  wofk  progressed 
upward  on  the  15%  grade.  The  earth  was  held  to  the  slopes  of 
the  embankment  below  by  means  of  brush,  poles  and  straw. 

The  nozzle  was  clamped  to  a  2  x  10-in.  plank,  about  12  ft.  long, 
and  this  plank  was  pivoted  to  a  standard  similar  to  the  jack  used 
by  a  wagon  "wheel  painter,  only  heavier.  With  this  arrangement 
one  man  handled  each  nozzle,  and  was  assigned  one  helper  for 
moving  hose  and  keeping  troughs  in  shape  near  the  nozzle. 

The  material  excavated  was  sand  and  gravel.  The  pump  and 
pipe  line  were  set  up  in  two  days  by  two  men.  Four  men  sluiced 
the  3,000  cu.  yd.  in  four  days,  or  750  cu.  yd.  per  day.  The  cost 
of  plant  was  as  follows : 

3-in.   Gould   pump    $    200 

500  lin.  ft.  steel  trough  50  ct.  per  lin.  ft 250 

3  in.    pipe    line   fittings    250 

30-hp.   motor    450 

Total $1,150 

The  labor  costs  were: 

Setting  Up   Plant: 

2  men  20  hr.  at  20  ct.  per  hr $  8 

Sluicing: 

4  men  40  hr.  at  20  ct.  per  hr $32 

1  man  40  hr.  at  25  ct.  per  hr 10 

Dismantling  Plant: 

2  men  10  hr.  at  20  ct.  per  hr 


Total  labor    $54 

The  man  at  25  ct.  an  hour  ran  the  motor  and  attended  to  the 
pump. 

r  :.f?.V     :\  '•'•    S'.»'(  •••Uf>»  >    ?•'!'     t!'*V»l!l     IftMOJSJM     -.!i1v     TRlN     O*    (iMU'i     n 


1056  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  power  to  run  the  motor  was  furnished  by  an  electric  power 
plant,  the  charge  for  the  power  being  1  ct.  per  kw.  hour,  a  low 
price. 

Summarizing  we  have  the  following  cost  per  cu.  yd.  on  this 
3,000-yd.  job: 

Installating   and   dismantling  plant   0.4 

Labor  sluicing    1.4  ' 

Straw,   oil,  water,   etc 0.1 

Electricity  at  1  ct.  per  kw.  hr 0.3 

Total,  ct.  per  cu.  yd.   2.2 

Since  the  first  cost  of  the  plant  was  only  $1,150,  a  charge  of 
$6  a  day  for  plant  rental  would  exceed  100%  per  annum,  even 
though  the  plant  were  idle  one-third  of  the  time;  but  $6  a  day 
is  only  %  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  Sheerboard  Method  of  Retaining  Wet  Earth.  Engineer- 
ing News,  Sept.  5,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

The  sheerboard  method  of  construction  is  largely  used  in  the 
building  of  hydraulic  fills  and  dams.  Under  most  conditions  it  is 
a  cheaper  and  more  effective  way  of  retaining  the  water-borne 
earth  than  any  other  method.  Under  this  plan  the  material  is 
retained  by  two  or  more  bulkheads  or  "  sheerboards,"  made  of 
plank  laid  horizontally  on  edge  and  retained  by  sticks.  On  light 
work,  two  1  x  12-in.  boards  nailed  to  24-in.  stakes  about  7  ft. 
long  are  sufficient.  The  stakes  should  be  about  4  ft.  apart. 
After  the  material  is  carried  up  to  the  top  of  the  first  row  of 
sheerboards,  a  second  row  is  built  from  4  to  7  ft.  back  of  the 
first.  The  bottom  of  this  top  sheerboard  is  placed  from  5  to  10 
in.  below  the  top  of  the  lower  bulkhead  to  prevent  bulging  and 
flowing  out  between  the  bulkheads.  The  amount  of  "  seal  "  neces- 
sary depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  material  being  handled. 
In  ordinary  loams,  6  in.  has  proven  effective,  while  in  fine  clay 
and  sandy  loam,  10  in.  is  often  necessary.  As  many  sheerboards 
are  built  in  this  manner  as  are  necessary  to  build  up  to  the 
desired  height.  By  this  method  the  water  is  taken  off  through 
spillways  that  lead  to  pipe  drains  or  natural  drainage  courses. 

For  full  descriptions  of  this  method  see  the  description  of  the 
grading  of  Westover  Terraces  at  the  close  of  this  chapter.  See 
also  Chapter  XV  on  hydraulic  dredging. 

A  Small  Sluicing  Job.  The  hydraulic  method  was  adapted  in 
a  Southern  Michigan  village  in  1914  for  replacing  and  compact- 
ing portions  of  the  head-race  dike  of  a  gristmill  which  had  been 
washed  out.  This  head-race  winds  along  a  low  bluff  on  one  side 
of  a  flat  valley.  Gravelly  sand  along  the  top  of  the  bluff  was 
available  for  the  embankment.  As  it  was  necessary  to  install 
a  pump  so  that  this  material  might  be  compacted  with  water,  it 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1057 

was  decided  to  make  the  till  by  the  hydraulic  method.  The  fol- 
lowing data  on  this  work  are  taken  from  an  article  by  William 
G.  Fargo  in  Engineering  Xeics-ttecord,  Feb.  14,  1918. 

A  3-in.  rotary  fire  pump  was  taken  from  the  mill.  Five  hundred 
feet  of  old  21^-in.  hose  and  nozzles  were  borrowed  from  the  vil- 
lage fire  department.  Two  sets  of  troughs  were  made  as  shown 
in  Fig.  17,  so  one  could  be  moved  forward  without  stopping  the 
work.  The  embankment  was  first  brought  approximately  to  the 


l<....£¥!.;>|  /0'k- 70'- -«->k- ed 

Head  Race' 


;:.c.  56>. .......  ..>] 

CANALS 


SECTION 


TIN. 


?;<  t<- '•«-• 


ri"'1  ~7 

I      j  [P*^_[*'**>' s 


TROUGH  DETAILS 

Fig.    17.     Method  of  Building  Small   Embankment   with   Flume. 


outline  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  water  let  into  the  canal  so  the  mill  could 
be  started.  The  spillway  in  the  meantime  was  inclosed  in  a 
coffer-dam.  The  use  of  troughs  for  transporting  filling  material 
across  the  race  made  it  unnecessary  to  provide  a  bridge  for  teams 
or  to  defer  the  turning  of  water  into  the  canal.  The  amount  of 
the  fill  handled  by  this  simple  hydraulic  equipment  was  only  670 
en.  yd.,  which  was  placed  and  sloped  in  5i/£  days  of  10  hr.  each. 
The  cost  was  as  follows: 

Troughs,   156  linear  feet  or  1,500  ft.b.m.    @    $20.00  M, 

less   salvage    $  30.00 

1  —  3-in.  pump  on  hand,  no  charge. 

500  ft.  of  21/£-in.  hose,   on  hand,  no  charge. 

Traction  engine,  10  hp.,  with  man,  6  days   @   $5 30.00 

Labor,  5  men,'  2  days  installing  and  dismantling  @  -$2  20.00 

Labor,  5  men,  sluicing  5%  days  55.00 

Coal,    2,500   Ib 6.25 

Proportion    supervision    15.00 

Total  at  23.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd $156.25 

If  the  work  had  involved  four  times  as  much  fill,  adding  the 
proportional  labor,  fuel  and  engine  rental  charges,  the  cost  per 
cu.  yd.  would  have  been  16  ct. 


1058  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Sluicing-  Earth  into  a  Dam  on  the  Snake  River.  Three  dams 
of  the  hydraulic-fill  and  rock-fill  type  on  the  Snake  River  in 
Idaho,  are  described  by  James  U.  Schuyler  in  Transactions, 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  LVIII.  The  earth  fill 
amounted  to  58,000  cu.  yd.  in  one,  62,850  cu.  yd.  in  the  second 
and  48,000  cu.  yd.  in  the  third;  114,250  cu.  yd.  of  rock  were  used 
in  the  three  dams.  A  wooden  core  wall  was  built  of  2-in.  plank 
from  the  bottom  to  within  6  ft.  of  the  top,  the  plank  being 
laid  horizontally,  breaking  joints,  and  being  spiked  to  3  x  6-in. 
uprights  placed  2  ft.  apart  from  center  to  center.  The  base  of 
this  wooden  partition  was  embedded  in  concrete,  which  filled  the 
trench  to  above  the  line  of  the  bed  rock,  and  formed  a  tight  bond 
with  the  rock. 

The  principal  part  of  the  hydraulic-filling  for  the  north  dam 
was  delivered  from  the  north  side  of  the  river  through  a  flume, 
in  the  upper  end  of  which  a  receiving  box  was  placed  where  the 
earth  was  dumped  from  wagons  into  a  trap.  Water  pumped 
from  the  river  washed  it  down  to  the  dam.  The  earth  was  loaded 
into  the  wagons  by  an  elevating  grader.  The  water  used  was 
about  1  cu.  ft.  per  second,  delivered  by  a  No.  4  centrifugal  pump. 
The  lower  end  of  the  flume  discharged  along  the  upper  side  of  the 
wooden  core  wall,  first  filling  the  voids  in  the  rock-fill  and  then 
extending  up  stream  in  the  water,  assuming  a  very  flat  slope  of 
6  or  7  on  1  under  the  water  line.  Great  difficulty  was  experienced 
for  some  time  in  stopping  a  few  leaks  through  the  wooden  parti- 
tion, and  considerable  earth  filling  was  carried  through  the  dam 
and  lost.  This  may  have  been  due  to  the  settlement  of  the  cribs 
under  the  weight  of  rock,  or  to  imperfect  joining  with  the  bed 
rock.  The  necessity  for  doing  much  of  the  work  in  freezing 
weather  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  serious  difficulty  encoun- 
tered in  making  the  hydraulic  fill.  Layers  of  frozen  earth  were 
formed  in  the  embankment  and  these  subsequently  thawed  out 
when  the  water  was  allowed  to  rise  against  the  dam,  treating 
alarming  settlement  in  the  earth  next  to  the  rock-fill.  This 
alarm  was  due  to  the  extent  of  the  disappearance  of  the  earth- 
fill  below  the  water  line  along  almost  the  entire  length  of  the 
dam,  and  the  volume  of  leakage  through  the  dam  when  the  water 
reached  its  normal  height.  This  leakage  was  not  definitely  meas- 
ured, but  it  was  estimated  at  one  time  at  more  than  6  cu.  ft.  per 
second.  In  an  ordinary  earth  dam  such  leakage  would  necessarily 
be  fatal.  In  this  case  it  was  never  a  source  of  actual  danger,  and 
only  resulted  in  the  loss  of  2,000  to  3,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  fill- 
ing (possibly  less),  before  the  leaks  were  finally  closed  with  fine 
gravel  brought  in  a  barge  from  a  few  miles  above. 

The  contract  prices  for  these   dams  were:      Dry  earth   in   em- 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1050 

.bankment,  27.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.;  and  sluicing  earth,  37.5  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  These  prices  were  high  for  several  reasons,  namely  the 
high  cost  of  fuel,  the  scarcity  of  earth  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
dams  and  the  high  price  of  labor. 

Dam  at  Tyler,  Texas.  This  earth  dam  was  built  in  1894  by  the 
hydraulic  method.  The  embankment  is  32  ft.  high,  575  ft.  long, 
and  contains  24,00<?  cu  yd  The  water  for  hydraulicking  was 
pumped  through  a  6-in  pipe  from  the  city  pumping  station  by 
a  Worthington  steam  pump  of  750,000  gallons  daily  capacity. 

In  beginning  the  dam  a  trench  4  ft.  wide  was  excavated  through 
the  surface  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  feet,  and  was  filled  with 
selected  clay  sluiced  in.  Then  low  sand  ridges  or  levees  were 
thrown  up  at  the  toes  of  the  proposed  dam  and  carried  up  as  the 
dam  progressed,  the  clear  water  being  drawn  off  from  time  to 
time. 

In  loosening  the  material  for  the  dam  a  water  jet  was  directed 
by  an  ordinary  1^-in.  nozzle  attached  to  a  2^-in.  hose,  and 
the  pressure  was  100  Ib.  per  sq.  in. 

The  washing  was  carried  into  the  hill  on  a  3%  grade,  which 
soon  gave  a  10-ft.  face,  increasing  gradually  to  a  36-ft.  face.  The 
jet,  of  course,  was  directed  at  the  foot  of  the  face,  undermining 
the  material.  The  cost,  including  plant,  labor,  etc.,  was  4.75 
ct.  per  cu.  yd.  excavated. 

The  material  was  transported  in  a  13-in.  sheet-iron  pipe  put 
together  stove-pipe  fashion,  with  loose  joints.  The  pipe  ex- 
tended from  near  the  face  of  the  bluff,  where  the  jet  was  operat- 
ing, across  the  center  line  of  the  dam.  When  the  end  of  the  dam 
nearest  the  bluff  reached  full  height  the  pipe  was  raised  on  a 
trestle  to  give  it  grade  for  transporting  the  material  to  the  oppo- 
site side.  The  material  transported  varied  from  18%  in  clay  to 
30%  in  sand.  The  volume  of  water  pumped,  computed  on  a 
basis  of  these  percentages,  was  less  than  20,000,000  gallons. 
The  entire  cost  of  this  dam  was  $1,140,  which  is  a  marvel  of 
cheapness  and  illustrates  what  can  be  done  using  the  hydraulic 
method.  It  should  be  noted  here  that  dam  building  should  never 
be  attempted  with  earth  sluice  ditches  in  place  of  pipes. 

La  Mesa  Dam,  California.  This  dam  is  described  in  Schuyler's 
"  Reservoirs  "  where  excellent  photographs  are  given  of  the  work 
in  progress.  In  this  case,  no  "  giants "  were  used,  most  of  the 
material  being  loosened  with  plows  and  carried  with  scrapers  to 
ground  sluices  or  boxes  in  which  the  water  ran  that  carried  the 
material  to  the  dam  site;  38,000  cu.  yd.  were  thus  handled, 
some  of  which  was  transported  2,200  ft.  in  the  sluices,  and  11.5 
acres  were  stripped  to  a  mean  depth  of  2  ft.  to  get  the  material. 
This  shallow  cutting  made  the  dam  cost  three  or  four  times  what 


10GO      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

it  otherwise  would  have  cost.  The  dam  was  a  rock-fill  with  an 
earth  core  washed  to  place,  as  described.  From  the  main  water 
supply  ditch,  laterals  were  cut  so  as  to  divide  the  area  to  be  ex- 
cavated into  zones  50  to  100  ft.  wide  by  several  hundred  feet  long, 
leading  toward  the  dam  on  6%  grade. 

Where  the  grade  of  ditches  was  25%  or  more,  they  eroded 
their  own  banks,  and  required  no  assistance  from  picks  or  plows. 
After  these  ditches  had  secured  their  load  of  gravel,  they  delivered 
to  a  24-in.  wooden-stave  pipe,  which  carried  the  material  to  the 
dam  site.  About  2,000  ft.  of  this  wood  pipe  was  used,  the  first 
cost  of  the  pipe  being  90  ct.  a  ft.  It  was  made  in  12-ft.  sections, 
loosely  placed  together,  and  connected  by  strips  of  canvas 
wound  around  these  butt  joints,  and  held  with  a  tarred  rope 
tourniquette.  The  pipes  wore  rapidly.  Sheet-iron  or  open-wood 
flumes  would  be  preferable. 

During  the  first  30  days  of  24  hrs.  each,  700  cu.  yd.  a  day 
were  moved.  The  solid  material  was  3.3%  of  the  water;  27  to  45 
men,  working  in  8-hr,  shifts,  were  employed.  The  cost  of  loosen- 
ing was  the  main  item. 

The  San  Leandro  Dam  (Cal.).  This  dam,  built  in  1874-5, 
contains  542,700  cu.  yd.,  of  which  160,000  cu.  yd.  were  deposited 
by  the  hydraulic  method  at  a  cost  of  }4  to  i/j  the  cost  of  moving 
earth  by  carts  or  scrapers.  The  water  was  brought  four  miles 
in  a  ditch,  and  the  sluiced  gravel  was  conveyed  in  a  flume  lined 
with  sheet  iron,  laid  on  a  4  to  6%  grade. 

Hawaiian  Dam  Built  by  Sluicing.  James  D.  Schuyler  in  Trans- 
actions, American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  LVIII,  gives  the 
following : 

A  dam  on  the  Island  of  Vahn,  Hawaii,  was  of  the  hydrau- 
lic and  rock-fill  type,  being  98  ft.  high  and  580  ft.  wide  on  the 
base  and  25  ft.  at  the  crest.  Ground-sluicing  was  the  method 
used,  the  soil  being  plowed  and  pushed  into  a  stream  of  water, 
which  carried  it  to  the  dam.  The  work  of  loosening  and  deliver- 
ing the  soil  to  the  sluice  was  done  by  contract  for  8  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.  The  cost  of  distributing  averaged  3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  making 
a  total  of  11  ct.  In  all  141,000  cu.  yd.  were  excavated;  100,000 
yd.  were  handled  by  steam  plows  and  a  "  crowder,"  a  V-shaped 
scraper  pulled  by  a  traction  engine,  while  41,000  cu.  yd.  were 
handled  by  men  with  picks  and  shovels. 

A  Small  Hydraulic  Fill  Dam.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Jan.  13,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

A  dam  built  for  a  small'  reservoir  of  2,000,000  gal.  capacity, 
was  located  in  California.  The  material  for  the  dam  was  sluiced 
into  place  with  a  No.  1  giant  with  2  and  23£-in.  nozzles.  This 
giant  complete  cost  $70.  A  4-in.  centrifugal  pump  furnished  the 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1001 

water.  The  water  was  available  under  a  40-ft.  head  and  by  means 
of  a  direct-connected  30-hp.  motor  the  pressure  was  increased  to 
45  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  The  consumption  of  water  was  425  gal.  per  min. 

The  material  washed  down  was  obtained  from  the  reservoir 
site,  so  as  to  increase  its  capacity.  This  material  was  a  decom- 
posed porphyry  that  had  to  be  blasted.  The  method  of  making 
the  blast  holes  in  the  rock  was  novel,  as  the  holes  were  bored  to 
a  sufficient  depth  for  blasting  with  the  giant  or  monitor.  The 
blasting  was  done  with  dynamite. 

The  method  adopted  for  making  the  embankment  was  as  fol- 
lows. Two  flumes  were  built  on  the  edges  of  the  dam  site  and  al- 
lowed to  flow  inward.  In  this  way  the  gravel  and  sand  were 
mixed,  and  the  fine  material  had  a  tendency  to  collect  at  the  mid- 
dle of  the  dam,  while  the  coarse  formed  a  good  protection  to  the 
outside  of  the  dam.  The  embankment  was  made  exceptionally 
wide,  so  that  the  capacity  of  the  reservoir  could  be  increased  at  a 
later  date.  The  resulting  dam  was  well  packed,  and  required 
only  a  slight  riprapping  on  the  upper  slope.  The  embankment 
contained  7,600  cu.  yd. 

Work  was  carried  on  about  15^  hr.  each  day  and  the  job  was 
finished  in  80  days  with  5  to  7  men  working  with  one  team. 
About  31,620,000  gal.  of  water  were  pumped,  equal  to  about  156,- 
000  cu.  yd.  of  water,  to  excavate  and  transport  7,600  cu.  yd. 
The  volume  of  material  moved  was  about  5%  of  the  volume  of  the 
water.  For  each  4,175  gal.  of  water  pumped  1  cu.  yd.  of  earth  and 
rock  was  excavated  and  put  into  place.  For  each  kilowatt  hour 
of  power  consumed  about  2,100  gal.  of  water  was  pumped.  In  ad- 
dition 3,200  Ib.  of  dynamite  was  used  in  blasting. 

The  foreman  was  paid  $3.00  and  the  laborers  $2.25  per  day. 
Electrical  power  was  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  $60  per  hp.  per  year, 
and  40%  dynamite  cost  13  ct.  per  Ib.  Teams  are  rated  at  $5.00 
per  day. 

The  total  cost  of  the  work,  exclusive  of  general  expense  and 
any  charge  for  plant,  was  as  follows: 

Foreman    3.1 

Laborers     14.2 

Team     5.2 

Power 4.2 

Dynamite     6.5 

Incidentals     ^. 2.0 

Total,   ct.   per  cu.  yd 34.2 

Handling  Hydraulic  Fill  on  the  Piute  Dam.  Hydraulicking 
material  for  this  95-ft.  earth  dam  required  four  seasons.  The 
work,  finally  completed  in  1914,  is  described  by  Joseph  Jenson 
in  Engineering  Record,  July  17,  1915. 


1002  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Before  hydraulicking  was  started  the  up  stream  toe  was  built 
up  53  ft.  by  hauling  with  wagons  and  dump  boards  in  the  usual 
manner  from  a  deposit  lying  too  low  to  be  available  for  sluicing. 
The  first  trestle  was  built  from  end  to  end  of  the  dam  100  ft. 
inside  the  down  stream  toe.  Branch  trestles  were  built  latterly 
from  the  main  trestle  which  had  a  4%  grade.  On  these  steel- 
lined  sluice  boxes  were  built  of  2-in.  plank  and  %-in.  carbon  steel 
plates.  Butt  joints  between  sections  of  sluice  boxes  were  se- 
cured by  lapping  the  steel  plates  from  one  14-ft.  section  to  an- 
other. Each  of  these  sections  was  so  arranged  that  it  could  be 
handled  as  a  unit  without  knocking  down. 

As  the  fill  proceeded,  side  and  cross  braces  were  taken  off  so 
that  only  the  posts  and  caps  of  the  trestle  remained  standing 
in  the  fill.  After  the  dam  was  brought  to  the  height  of  the  tirst 
trestle,  smaller  trestles  were  used. 

The  lifts  were  made  by  stages  of  10  or  12  ft.,  as  it  was  found 
that  small  trestles  were  more  economical  of  both  timber  and  time. 

Sluicing  operations  began  along  the  lower  toe,  which  was  kept 
built  up  of  solid  material  to  a  height  of  4  ft.  above  the  surface 
of  the  settling  pond.  The  lower  toe  was  built  to  a  1  on  2  slope, 
but,  as  weight  was  added,  the  saturated  material  forming  the  dam 
squashed  out.  The  width  so  added  was  taken  advantage  of  later 
to  build  the  dam  up  to  a  95-ft.  elevation  instead  of  only  90  ft.  as 
originally  planned. 

During  the  second  season  and  until  the  completion  of  the  dam, 
a  heavy  dry  bank  was  hauled  in  along  each  edge  and  the  regular 
slope  maintained.  The  last  5  ft.  of  fill  forming  the  crest  of  the 
dam  was  also  hauled  in  dry. 

The  flow  of  water  used  for  sluicing  varied  from,  4  to  6  cu.  ft. 
per  second,  depending  on  the  elevation  and  consequent  pressure  at 
the  giant  nozzle.  The  giants  used  were  No.  1  Hendy  giants  with 
4-in.  diameter  nozzle  tips.  Best  results  were  obtained  when  the 
sluice  bank  was  distant  from  the  giant  setting  from  50  to  150  ft. 
At  nearer  settings  it  was  found  more  difficult  to  regulate  the 
amount  of  earth  carried  down  to  the  sluice  flume  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  utilize  the  full  carrying  power  of  the  water,  and  to  keep 
the  sluice  boxes  from  clogging.  At  greater  distances  the  ero.ding 
power  of  the  jet  was  lessened,  and  the  system,  therefore,  operated 
under  light  load.  It  was  found  advantageous  to  keep  a  boosting 
jet  near  the  head  of  the  sluice  boxes.  This  was  obtained  by  at- 
taching a  length  of  3i£-in.  fire  hose  to  the  pipe  line  back  of  the 
giant,  with  a  fire  nozzle  attached  and  fastened  immediately  over 
the  sluice  box,  with  the  jet  directed  slightly  downward  and  along 
the  direction  of  the  sluice  box.  This  was  found  particularly  ef- 
ficient in  giving  the  very  coarse  material  a  rolling  rather  than 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING 


1063 


a  sliding  motion  along  the  sluice  box  bottom.  By  this  device  it 
was  possible  to  handle  rocks  weighing  50  to  60  Ib.  without^  dif- 
ficulty. 

Tangents  Better  than  a  Curve.  Another  item  which  proved 
rather  interesting  was  the  manner  in  which  turns  in  the  sluice 
box  should  be  made.  It  was  at  first  assumed  that  these  turns 
ought  to  consist  of  long  smooth  curves.  These,  however,  gave 


HanoerBi  . 
Boulders  from 
ing  Bottom  away 
from  Sides 


Fig.    18.     Hanger   Bolts   to   Prevent   Boulders    fr6m   Pounding 
Bottom   Away   from    Side. 

considerable  trouble,  even  when  the  grade  was  somewhat  steeper, 
by  the  rougher  material  slowing  up  and  thereby  causing  the 
boxes  to  clog.  Carefiil  observation  showed  that  this  was  due  to 
the  added  friction  caused  by  pressure  against  the  side  of  the  box. 
It  was  also  observed  that  when  this  rough  material  was  allowed 
to  impinge  against  a  vertical  surface  set  obliquely  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  motion  that  the  larger  rocks  would  rebound  from 
the  surface,  then  return  to  the  side  with  a  series  of  decreasing 


1064  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

impacts  and  velocities  before  they  finally  assumed  their  altered 
direction  with  an  accelerating  motion.  When  the  turns  were 
made  with  a  series  of  tangents  14  ft.  long,  each  one  making  an 
angle  of  about  150°,  i.e.,  a  30°  offset  with  the  preceding,  the  clog- 
ging tendencies  were  almost  entirely  overcome. 

The  sluice  banks  on  the  east  side  contained  a  large  amount  of 
rocks  and  boulders.  These  would  eventually  cover  the  borrow 
pit  area  to  such  an  extent  that  it  would  become  impossible  to 
penetrate  the  surface  with  the  stream  from  the  giant.  It  was, 
therefore,  necessary  to  keep  a  force  of  men  and  teams  at  work 
clearing  away  these  rocks  and  boulders  which  were  dumped  on 
the  downstream  slope  of  the  dam  and  were  later  hand  laid,  thus 
forming  a  very  efficient  riprap  and  serving  as  a  protection  of 
this  slope  against  weather  erosion  as  well  as  from  ^the  tramping 
of  sheep  and  cattle. 

The  257,600  cu.  yd.  of  hydraulic  fill  cost  20.9  ct.  per  yard, 
estimating  100%  depreciation  of  plant.  This  figure  would  be 
reduced  to  18.7  ct.  if  a  plant  depreciation  of  50%  were  charged 
off.  (The  plant  cost  about  $11,300.) 

The  dry  fill  of  186,500  cu.  yd.  cost  47.8  ct.  per  yd.  Riprap 
on  the  upstream  slope,  8,540  cu.  yd.,  cost  $1.905  per  yd.,  and  the 
3.,!  77  cu.  yd.  on  the  downstream  slope  cost  72.9  ct.  per  yd.  The 
total  cost  of  the  dam  and  contiguous  work  was  $322,311.  The 
unit  cost  of  the  total  fill,  444,100  cu.  yd.,  based  on  50%  plant 
depreciation,  amounted  to  30.9  ct.  per  yd. 

Hydraulic  Fill  Dam  in  Michigan.  In  the  construction  of  the 
hydroelectric  development  of  the  Grand  Rapids-Muskegon  Power 
Co.,  Michigan,  104,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  for  the  dam  and  20,000 
cu.  yd.  for  a  bridge  approach  were  sluiced  into  position,  accord- 
ing to  Engineering  Record,  Oct.  19,  1907. 

The  bridge  approach  fill  was  started  in  November,  1906.  A 
3-in.  Gould  rotary  fire  pump,  driven  by  a  30-hp.  motor,  supplied 
water  from  the  river  to  a  l}4-in-  nozzle  through  a  line  of  3-in. 
pipe  and  hose.  The  loosened  material  was  carried  down  into 
the  fill  in  a  sheet-iron  flume,  20  in.  wide  at  the  bottom  and  5  in. 
high,  laid  at  a  grade  of  15%.  The  pump  and  pipe  line  were  set 
up  by  2  men  in  2  days. 

In  five  days  of  10  hr.  each,  4  men  and  1  foreman  placed  3,000 
cu.  yd.  at  a  labor  cost  of  $42  or  1.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

These  pumps  were  not  adapted  to  the  hard  continuous  service 
required  in  sluicing  operations  and  were  out  of  commission 
about  50%  of  the  time.  The  pumps  were  designed  to  deliver. 
1,125  gal.  per  min.  each.  The  nozzles  used  were  114  to  li/£ 
in.  in  diameter-.  The  pressure  at  the  nozzle  was  60  to  #0  Ib.  per 
sq.  in. 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1005 

The  material  was  mainly  sand  containing  hardpan  and  clay. 
With  the  pressures  attained  the  jets  could  not  loosen  the  latter 
materials.  The  average  height  of  the  bluff  was  30  ft.  The 
greatest  distance  the  material  was  moved  in  flumes  was  800  ft. 
The  flumes  were  laid  on  grades  ranging  from  5  to  9%.  With 
grades  of  less  than  6  or  1%  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  man  at 
each  50  ft.  of  flume  to  prevent  stoppages.  The  costs  were  as 
follows: 

Cost  of  Equipment  and  Materials : 
Two  6-in.   Rumsey   underwriters   rotary   fire   pumps 

(new)      $    840.00 

Two    6-in.    Gould    underwriters    rotary    fire    pumps 

(second    hand)     750.00 

430   ft.   10-in.   No.  16  gauge  spiral  riveted   pipe,   cost 

60  ct.   a   foot  when  new,   second-hand,   45  ct 193.50 

400  ft.  8-in.  wrought-iron  pipe  and  fittings    (new)..         436.45 
414  ft.  6-in.  wrought-iron  pipe  and  fittings   (new)..         272.00 
120    ft.    4-in.    wrought-iron    pipe    and    fittings    (new) 
material    bought    second-hand    including    all    fit- 
tings for  the  10-in.  line,   also  6-in.,  8-in.  and    10- 
in.    fittings   for   pumps,    150  ft.   4-in.  rubber   hose 
and  nozzles;  350  ft.  of  30-in.  No.  12  gauge  flumes 

used  two  months  on  another  project    800.00 

500  ft.  No.  12  gauge  30-in.  flume  250.00 

Pulleys,    belting    3-in.,    cotton    mill    hose    and    other 

sundries      200.00 


Total    plant    $3,741.95 

Charge  50%  of  this  total  to  next  job,  leaving  $1,875  to  be 
divided  by  104,000,  which  was  total  number  of  cu.  yd.,  gives  the 
proportionate  cost  of  plant  as  1.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Labor  and  Supplies : 

Labor  from  pay  roll,  total   $3,774.61 

Teams      (removing     stumps      and     stone,      handling 

flumes  and  trestle  timber) 248.56 

Straw 18.00 

Oil,   waste,  pumps  repairs  and  sundries   118.83 

Total  labor  at  4  ct.  per  cu.  yd $4,160.00 

Killowatt  hours  of  power  measured  at  meter  at  Big 

Rapids  dam  18  miles  from  Croton  138,008 

Deduct  for  line  and  transformer  losses  and  for 

power  used  for  other  purposes  at  Croton 46,008 

Net  power  used  by  pumps  of  sluicing  plant   92,000 

92,000    kw.-hr.    at    1    ct.  =  $920,    which    divided    by    104,000 
equals  0.9  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Summary  of  Cost: 

Plant    depreciation    1.8 

Labor   and  supplies    4.0 

Power  at  1  ct.  per  kw.-hr 0.9 

Motor  rental   0.1 

Total  ct.  per  cu.  yd 6.8 


1000  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Cost  of  Plant  and  Operation,  Lyons  Dam,  Mich.  The  material 
was  mainly  from  a  10-ft.  bed  of  sand  and  gravel  overlying  a 
tough  clay  bluff,  about  70  ft.  high.  Several  expensive  trestles 
were  required  to  carry  the  flumes  to  the  dam  site.  These  trestles 
and  the  difficultis  causd  by  ice  (the  sluicing  was  started  in  No- 
vember, 1900)  materially  increased  the  cost  of  the  work.  Much 
of  the  bank  froze  and  had  to  be  blasted.  The  cost  of  the  plant 
and  its  operation  is  given  in  Table  2,  which  is  taken  from  En- 
gineering tiecord,  Oct.  20,  1907. 

Labor  and  Coal  Cost: 
Setting    pumping    plant,    labor    on    house    for    same, 

placing    pipe,    etc $    531.38 

Labor  at  power  house    577.20 

Labor  at  pump  house   486.60 

Sluicing  labor,    building  flumes   and  trestle 3,117.50 

675  tons   of   coal    •  1,687.50 


$6,400.18 

Earth  moved  from  pit,  23,400  cu.  yd.    $0.273  per  cu. 
yd.  for  labor  and  coal. 

Cost  of  Sluicing  Plant  at  Lyons  Dam: 
2  —  6-in.    rotary    fire    pumps,    new;    1  —  5-in.    rotary 

fire   pump,    second-hand    $1,300.00 

Pipe  fitting,   trough,   etc 1,200.00 

Lumber    and    sundries    500.00 

Total    first    cost    $3,000.00 

Less  salvage,    on   sale   of  plant    1,800.00 

Cost  to  be  charged  to  this  work  $1,200.00 

$1,200  -r-  23,400  =  $0.0513,     cost     of     plant     per     cu.     yd.     of 
earth  moved. 

Labor  cost  per  cu.  yd $0.273 

Plant  cost  per  cu.  yd.    0.0513 

Total  cost  per  cu.   yd $0.3243 

Ran  45  24-hr,  days,  Dec.  5,  1906,  to  Feb.  20,  1907. 

Hydraulicking  a  Dam  with  Mine  Tailings.  Cyril  Wigmore  is 
the  author  of  an  account  in  Engineering  Record,  Sept.  9,  1910, 
describing  the  work  performed  by  an  Arizona  copper  mine  for 
.the  storage  of  mine  tailings.  Mill  0  of  the  Arizona  Copper 
Company  is  situated  near  Morenci,  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  ft. 
The  average  production  of  tailings  from  this  mill  amounts  to 
about  1,500  tons  per  day,  and  the  disposition  of  this  waste  prod- 
uct has  been  the  subject  of  careful  study  on  the  part  of  engineers 
retained  by  the  company. 

On  account  of  the  floods  during  the  rainy  season  the  main  caiion 
was  considered  a  difficult  place  to  impound  tailings.  However, 
the  first  storage  for  tailings  was  provided  by  a  dam  constructed 
across  the  main  canon  about  1,200  ft.  in  length  and  equipped 
with  a  timber  wasteway  and  tunnel  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 


HYDKAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1067 

off   the   settled  waters  and  the  runoff  from  the   drainage  basin 
located  above. 

This  dam  was  an  earthfill  built  up  with  scrapers  and  provided 
with  a  hydraulic-fill  core.  The  height  was  approximately  50 
ft.  and  the  basin  back  of  it  was  completely  filled  with  tailings, 
about  250,000  tons  being  impounded.  The  cost  of  placing  the 
earthfill  with  teams  and  scrapers,  however,  was  excessive  and 
figured  out  to  be  approximately  6  ct.  per  ton  of  tailings  im- 
pounded. It  was,  therefore,  deemed  necessary  to  devise  some 
other,  less  expensive,  scheme  for  disposing  of  the  tailings. 

After  a  series  of  experiments  carried  on  in  1907  and  1908  a 
plan  was  devised  for  using  the  coarse  sandy  portion  of  the  tail- 
ings to  build  up  a  hydraulic-fill  dam,  while  the  finer  material 
was  held  back  from  the  face  of  the  dam  itself  for  a  considerable 
distance  upstream.  A  site  was  selected  in  one  of  the  branch 
cafions  which  would  hold  approximately  6,000,000  tons  of  solids 
when  filled  to  the  height  which  the  low  hill  on  both  sides  of  the 
cafion  fixed  as  a  storage  limit.  In  making  this  calculation,  1 
ton  of  tailings  deposited  under  water  was  taken  as  the  equivalent 
of  approximately  20  cu.  ft.  in  volume. 

At  the  site  selected  for  the  dam  an  8-in.  wood-stave  pipe  was 
laid  along  the  axis  of  the  canon  from  a  point  below  the  down- 
stream toe,  extending  upstream  approximately  4,000  ft.  At  in- 
tervals of  300  or  400  ft.  in  this  pipe  tees  wrere  placed  with  a 
nipple,  elbow  and  length  of  pipe  standing  vertically,  the  nipple 
fitting  loosly  in  the  tee  so  that  the  pipe  could  be  swung  in  a 
vertical  arc.  By  this  means  the  entrance  to  the  pipe  could  be 
kept  at  the  reservoir  level  and  would  drawr  off  only  the  clear  sur- 
face water.  At  the  lower  end  of  this  pipe  line,  below  the  toe  of 
the  dam,  pumps  were  installed  which  returned  the  clear  water  to 
the  mill  to  be  used  over  again. 

The  surface  of  the  ground  at  the  dam  site  consisted  of  soil  and 
detritus  carried  "down  from  the  mountains.  Nothing  was  done  to 
prepare  the  surface  for  the  dam  except  to  scrape  up  a  dike  about 
6  ft.  high  along  the  downstream  toe.  This  dike  was  to  prevent 
tailings  from  washing  away  until  the  scheme  of  construction 
could  be  put  into  effect.  The  flume  itself  was  set  back  about  20 
ft.  from  this  dike. 

First  Installation.  The  first  installation  at  the  dam  site  con- 
sisted of  a  10xl2-in.  flume  (Fig.  19)  made  of  2  x  12-in.  plank 
supported  on  bents  12  ft.  apart.  The  bents  were  constructed  of 
2  x  6-in.  lumber  with  legs  supported  on  small  foot-boards  and 
with  1  x  6-in.  diagonal  bracing.  The  flume  was  .  approximately 
1,000  ft.  in  length  and  was  built  on  a  2%  grade,  which  made  the 

center  bent  of  the  flume  about  24  ft.  in  height. 

fe      •-'   uum   ;,nO     <ius:{.' 


1068  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

In  the  bottom  of  the  flume  %-in.  holes  were  bored  ever  4  ft. 
and  beneath  these  were  fastened  short  troughs  or  spouts  made  of 
two  pieces  of  1  x  6-in.  lumber  6  to  8  ft.  in  length.  "These  spouts 
pointed  down  the  cation  and  were  given  a  pitch  from  the  hori- 
zontal of  from  30  to  60°,  which  was  varied  as  required.  The 
coarse  sands,  being  heavier  than  the  finer  material  carried  in 
suspension,  traveled  along  the  bottom  of  the  flume  and  poured 
through  the  small  holes  in  steady  streams  without  permitting 
the  escape  of  much  water.  This  coarse  material  rapidly  piled  up 
beneath  the  spouts,  and  from  these  piles  it  was  shoveled  up  by 
hand  in  a  continuation  of  the  dike  which  at  first  marked  the 
downstream  toe  of  the  fill. 

The  percentage  of  coarse  sand  carried  determined  the  number 
of  small  holes  that  would  be  kept  open.  In  order  to  increase 
the  height  of  the  dam  uniformly  throughout  its  length,  successive 
sections  of  the  flume  were  used  in  rotation. 

At  first  small  pipes  about  3  in.  in  diameter  were  placed  through 
the  earth  dike  to  carry  off  the  excess  water  and  prevent  the 
washing  away  of  the  material,  but  the  hydraulic  fill  was  found 
to  build  up  very  rapidly,  and  by  keeping  the  dike  a  foot  or  two 
higher  than  the  depositing  material  the  fill  was  found  to  assume 
a  grade  of  about  7%  on  the  upstream  side.  This  flat  slope  re- 
sulted from  the  incoming  water  and  fine  material  impounded  be- 
hind the  coarse  fill.  It  is  notable  that  the  water  drained  from 
the  coarser  material  with  great  rapidity,  and  it  was  possible  to 
walk  over  it  almost  immediately.  In  a  few  hours  there  was  no 
water  visible  in  the  higher  portions  of  the  slope.  It  was  ob- 
served that  the  fill  settled  very  slightly  on  account  of  the  solidity 
with  which  the  material  packed  down  as  it  fell  from  the  flume. 
The  filling  of  the  canon  required  the  use  of  three  dams,  all  of 
which  were  built  in  the  same  manner. 

One  laborer  per  8-hr,  shift  was  found  to  be  enough  to  keep  the 
dike  shoveled  up  along  the  crest  of  the  downstream  slope.  It 
was  intended  to  keep  the  incline  of  this  slope  at  about  30°,  but 
it  was  found  that  the  sand  shoveled  up  by  hand  assumed  a  slope 
of  about  45°,  and  this  was  allowed  to  govern.  The  fill  was  con- 
tinued on  each  stage  until  the  material  reached  the  bottom  of  the 
flume  and  necessitated  its  removal  to  a  new  position.  When  the 
flume  was  moved  it  was  set  back  upstream  a  sufficient  distance 
to  bring  the  general  slope  of  the  downstream  face  to  about  30°, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  19.  In  moving  the  flume,  bents  which  could  be 
easily  pulled  were  taken  out  and  used  again,  the  others  being 
abandoned.  The  loss  of  lumber  was  very  slight. 

Four  men  were  normally  required  in  the  construction  of  the 
dam.  One  man  on  each  of  the  three  8-hr,  shifts  watched  the 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1069 


1070  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

flume,  attended  to  the  plugs  in  its  bottom,  and  shoveled  up  the 
dike  or  border,  while  a  fourth  man  acted  as  foreman.  The  mov- 
ing of  the  flume  necessitated  by  the  completion  of  each  stage  in 
the  building  of  the  dam  occurred  at  intervals  of  about  90  days. 
Flood  waters  were  carried  off  through  a  tunnel  driven  through 
a  hill  on  the  west  side  of  the  basin.  A  6  x  6-ft.  timber  waste 
tower  was  built  at  the  entrance  to  this  tunnel,  and  the  height  of 
this  tower  was  increased  from  time  to  time  as  the  work  ad- 
vanced. 

The  cost  of  handling  the  material  used  in  constructing  a 
dam  96  ft.  high,  amounted  to  approximately  one  cent  per  ton,  not 
including  the  cost  of  the  water,  and  about  1,500  tons  of  tailings 
were  placed  daily. 

The  Calaveras  Dam.  G.  A.  Elliot,  in  Engineering  Record, 
Aug.  19,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

The  Calaveras  dam  is  the  highest  earthfill  structure  yet  under- 
taken, and  in  volume  is  second  only  to  the  Gatun  dam.  It  is  45 
miles  southeast  of  San  Francisco.  The  height  above  bedrock  at 
the  center  is  240  ft.,  the  crest  length  1,300  ft.  and  the  base  width 
1,300  ft.  The  upstream  face  slope  is  3:1  and  the  downstream 
2i£:l.  It  will  contain  3,084,700  cu.  yd.,  of  which  1,300,000  cu. 
yd.  are  now  in  place.  To  prevent  seepage  under  or  around  the 
structure,  a  trench  25  ft.  wide  and  8  ft.  deep  has  been  cut  in  the 
bedrock  under  the  crest  line.  On  the  west  side,  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  seamy  rock  in  the  abutment,  this  trench  has  been  carried 
50  ft.  below  the  ground  surface. 

Construction  was  begun  in  1913  and  will  be  completed  in  1918. 

Practically  all  of  the  hydraulic  fill  in  the  dam  has  been 
pumped.  The  location  of  only  one  of  the  eight  borrowpits  used 
was  at  an  elevation  suilicient  to  deliver  the  material  by  gravity. 
The  distance  of  transportation  has  varied  from  1,000  to  4,500 
ft.  The  equipment  used  in  the  work  consists  of  motor-driven  cen- 
trifugal pumps. 

At  the  present  time  two  sluicing  units  are  used.  A  three- 
stage  8-sec.-ft.  centrifugal  pump,  direct-connected  to  a  500-hp., 
2,200-volt  induction  motor  running  at  600  r.p.m.  is  mounted  on 
a  barge  in  the  reservoir  above  the  partly  completed  dam.  The 
water  is  pumped  through  12-in.  slip-joint  steel  pipes,  and  is  de- 
livered at  the  pit  with  a  nozzle  pressure  of  75  Ib.  Hendy  giants, 
with  discharge  tips  varying  from  2}£  to  4in.  in  diameter,  are  used 
on  the  end  of  the  line.  The  size  of  the  discharge  tips  varies 
with  the  material,  depending  upon  the  cutting  force  necessary 
to  bring  down  the  banks. 

The  second  station  is  located  in  the  canon  below  the  dam  and 
receives  its  supply  through  a  suction  pipe  laid  through  the  out- 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1071 

let  culvert.  This  installation  consists  of  two  units,  one  with  a 
capacity  of  8  sec. -ft.  against  a  400-ft.  head  and  one  of  4  sec.-ft. 
against  a  f>50-ft.  head.  The  water  from  the  smaller  pump  is 
delivered  with  a  7o-lb.  head  and  is  used  to  cut  the  banks.  Water 
from  the  second  unit  is  delivered  at  the  pit  without  head  and 
simply  gives  a  volume  sufficient  to  carry  the  material  to  the 
dam.  By  dividing  the  pumping  head  in  this  way  a  considerable 
saving  was  effected  in  the  power  cost. 

Handling  of  Jets.  The  jets  are  directed  against  the  toe  of  the 
borrowpit  bank,  which  is  undermined,  causing  it  to  cave  in. 
This  results  in  the  spoil  being  broken  up  and  allows  the  water 
to  carry  it  away.  The  soil -laden  water  flows  to  the  lowest  point 
in  the  pit,  passing  through  a  grizzly  or  screening  device  made 
of  vertical  2-in.  pipe  set  4  in.  apart.  Rocks  more  than  4  in.  in 
diameter  are  screened  out  and  passed  through  a  crusher  set  just 
below  the  grizzly.  From  this  point  the  material  is  pumped  by  a 
12-in.  mud  pump  driven  by  a  300-hp.  motor  through  a  14-in. 
slip-joint  steel  pipe  to  the  toe  of  the  dam. 

The  pipes  discharge  their  contents  on  the  outer  edges  of  the 
toes.  The  flow  is  directed  toward  the  center  of  the  dam  by  the 
work  of  one  man,  who  by  the  use  of  boards^  so  controls  the  dis- 
charge from  the  pipe  line  as  to  build  up  small  dikes  along  the 
edge  of  the  toes.  The  coarser  fill  remains  near  the  point  of 
discharge,  the  remaining  burden  of  the  water  being  deposited  au- 
tomatically as  the  velocity  of  the  stream  decreases,  until  the  pond 
is  reached.  Here  the  fine  clay  is  settled  in  comparatively  still 
water.  The  point  of  discharge  is  changed  along  the  toes  by  the 
removal  of  successive  pipe  lengths,  to  maintain  uniform  rela- 
tion between  the  widths  of  the  dry  banks  and  pond.  Pipes  are 
removed  from  the  end  of  the  discharge  line  without  interruption 
to  the  pumps,  so  that  a  delivery  run  across  the  toe  is  always 
begun  from  the  end  furthest  from  the  pit. 

Operation  of  Mud  Pumps.  The  mud  pumps  will  operate 
against  a  head  of  80  ft.  When  the  head  exceeds  80  ft.  a  booster 
of  equal  capacity  is  cut  into  the  line.  The  head  on  the  mud 
pumps  depends  largely  on  the  character  of  the  soil.  With  an 
excess  of  clay  the  friction  is  comparatively  low,  and  the  power 
required  is  a  minimum.  An  example  of  this  fact  may  be  had 
with  the  present  arrangement  at  Calaveras.  In  order  to  reduce 
interruptions  to  a  minimum,  duplicate  units  have  been  installed, 
so  that  should  work  be  discontinued  for  any  reason  the  crew 
can  be  immediately  moved  to  another  location.  Two  pits  at  the 
same  elevation  and  the  same  distance  from  the  dam  are  used 
alternately.  One  of  these  pits  is  composed  of  about  65%  clay 
and  35%  shale  rock.  In  the  other  these  percentages  are  re- 


1072  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

versed.  When  using  the  first  pit  one  pump  is  sufficient.  If  the 
second  pit  is  used,  a  booster  has  to  be  cut  in  and  the  power  is 
doubled. 

Wear  of  Pipes.  One  of  the  problems  encountered,  in  the  work 
was  to  reduce  the  wear  on  pumps  and  pipes.  The  velocity  of  the 
water  and  the  character  of  material  which  it  carries  are  the  fac- 
tors that  affect  the  life  of  the  carriers.  Although  a  high  velocity 
is  desirable  to  secure  the  maximum  carrying  power  of  the  water, 
it  was  found  that  the  minimum  velocity  in  the  pipe  lines  which 
would  keep  the  material  in  suspension  caused  the  least  wear  on 
the  pipes,  and  although  the  output  was  decreased  the  resulting 
unit  cost  was  lower.  With  the  installation  described  this  critical 
velocity  was  12  ft.  per  second.  On  an  average  the  water  carries 
8%  of  its  volume  of  material. 

All  the  wear  takes  place  on  the  bottom  third  of  the  pipe  cir- 
cumference. This  feature  is  so  pronounced  that  the  coating  on 
the  interior^  of  the  line  is  not  disturbed  on  the  top  two-thirds  of 
the  circumference  even  when  the  plate  at  the  bottom  is  worn 
through.  High-carbon  steel  pipes  are  now  being  tried,  and  the 
result  has  justified  the  slight  increase  in  initial  cost.  The  pipes 
are  turned  twice  during  their  life,  allowing  full  use  to  be  made 
of  the  metal.  / 

Wear  of  Pump.  The  runners  or  impellers  in  the  pumps  are 
subject  to  excessive  wear.  A  worn-out  runner  means  an  idle  crew 
for  half  a  shift  while  it  is  being  replaced.  Three  kinds  of  ma- 
terial have  been  used  —  cast  iron,  cast  steel  and  manganese  steel. 
Manganese-steel  runners  cost  about  six  times  as  much  as  cast 
iron;  but  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  was  cut  almost  in  two  by  the 
use  of  the  former.  In  some  cases  it  was  found  that  the  man- 
ganese-steel runners  wore  unevenly,  becoming  unbalanced  and 
creating  excessive  vibration  of  the  pump. 

The  yardage  handled  through  the  life  of  a  runner  varies  with 
the  character  of  the  material  pumped.  It  has  varied  from  30,000 
with  sand  and  gravel  to  200,000  with  excessive  clay  and  soft  shale 
rock. 

Removal  of  Water  from  Pond.  During  the  first  year  of  sluic- 
ing the  excess  water  in  the  pond  was  allowed  to  flow  out  through 
a  vertical  pipe  in  the  center  leading  to  the  culvert.  To  give  this 
pipe  stability  a  double  line  was  used,  consisting  of  a  16-in.  pipe 
set  inside  of  an  18-in.  pipe,  the  space  between  the  two  being  tilled 
with  cement  grout.  It  was  found  that  as  the  length  of  this  pipe 
increased  it  was  susceptible  to  the  movement  of  the  clay  core,  and 
this  scheme  was  abandoned  and  the  pipe  filled  with  concrete. 

Two  trenches  4  ft.  wide  were  cut  through  opposite  ends  of  the 
upstream  toe  and  bottomless  flumes  constructed  of  lin.  boards 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1073 


1074  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

with  4  x  0-in.  posts  and  2  x  4-in.  spreaders.  Excess  water  from 
the  pond  is  allowed  to  flow  out  through  the  box  which  is  farthest 
from  the  point  where  the  pipes  are  discharging,  and  runs  down 
the  slope  of  the  dam,  which  is  riprapped  up  to  the  outlet  to  pre- 
vent erosion  of  the  slope.  To  raise  the  level  of  the  pond,  rock 
and  gravel  are  dropped  into  the  cut  to  the  required  height  for 
the  width  of  the  dry  toe.  The  amount  of  clay  contained  in  the 
discharge  from  the  pond  varies  from  0.1  to  2%.  This  depends 
on  the  relative  amounts  of  material  delivered,  clay  sometimes  be- 
ing wasted  in  order  to  maintain  the  proper  relation  between  the 
dry  toes  and  the  clay  core,  to  insure  the  stability  of  the  struc- 
ture. 

Monthly  tests  are  made  of  the  clay  core  by  taking  samples  of 
the  fill  at  10-ft.  intervals.  A  1^-in.  pipe  with  a  wooden  plug 
in  the  lower  end  is  forced  down  to  the  point  a,t  which  the  sample 
is  to  be  taken.  The  plug  is  tapped  out  by  means  of  a  rod  put 
down  inside  of  the  pipe,  and  the  plastic  clay  presses  into  the  end. 
It  is  impossible  for  four  men  to  force  the  pipe  any  deeper  than 
60  ft.  At  a  depth  of  60  ft.  below  the  pond  surface  a  practically 
constant  relation  of  75%  of  clay  and  25%  of  water  by  weight  is 
found. 

In  addition  to  this  quantitative  test  a  traverse  of  the  pond 
between  the  upper  and  the  lower  toe  is  also  made,  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  relative  compactness  of  the  fill.  This  traverse  is 
made  by  forcing  a  pipe  as  far  down  as  possible  into  the  fill  at 
50-ft.  intervals.  The  comparison  between  the  periodical  depths 
and  distances  from  the  edge  of  the  pond  is  indicative  of  the 
consolidation  of  the  mass. 

Labor  and  Cost  Conditions.  Comparatively  few  men  are  em- 
ployed on  the  sluicing  units.  Two  units  are  working  two  shifts 
each  and  the  total  number  of  men  per  unit  per  shift  is  fifteen, 
making  sixty  altogether.  When  it  is  considered  that  an  average 
of  3,600  cu.  yd.  of  material  por  day  is  transported  a  distance  of 
3,000  ft.  with  a  crew  of  this  size,  the  advantage  of  this  method 
of  excavating  and  placing  fills  is  evident.  With  the  single  ex- 
ception of  the  relative  quantity  and  quality  of  the  fill,  nothing 
is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  engineer. 

The  cost  of  excavating  and  placing  this  by  the  hydraulic 
method  depends  as  much  on  the  character  of  the  material  as  on 
the  cost  of  labor,  material  and  power.  The  relative  coarseness 
of  the  material  affects  the  head  upon  the  pumps.  The  direct  cost 
of  sluicing  the  first  million  cubic  yards  of  fill  was  about  25  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  This  is  the  bare  cost  of  the  work  and  includes 
only  the  expense  of  pipes,  pumps,  motors,  belts,  power  and  labor 
.used  directly  on  the  sluicing  work.  No  interest,  overhead,  super- 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1075 

intendence,  insurance  or  the  prorated  auxiliary  costs  of  clearing 
the  reservoir  site,  building  and  maintaining  roads,  trails,  camp, 
etc.,  are  included  in  this  figure.  In  this  connection  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  work  accomplished  so  far  has  been 
on  the  base  of  the  dam,  and  that  as  the  height  is  increased  the 
unit  cost  of  placing  the  sluiced  fill  will  also  increase. 

The  work  is  being  carried  on  by  G.  A.  Elliot,  engineer  of  the 
Spring  Valley  Water  Company. 

Sliding  of  the  Dam.  Before  this  dam  was  finished,  a  large 
part  of  it  slid  out,  as  described  in  Chapter  XX. 

Percentage  of  Solids  Carried  on  Calaveras  Dam.  According 
to  Engineering  Xeics,  Oct.  1,  1914,  the  material  for  the  construc- 
tion of  Calaveras  Dam,  California,  consisted  of  20  to  50%  of 
clay,  and  the  remainder  of  gravel  and  sand.  This  was  sluiced 
from  a  borrow  pit,  and  down  an  open  channel,  having  grades 
varying  from  5%  to  7%,  to  an  8  x  8-ft.  concrete-lined  sump. 
In  the  open  channel  near  the  sump,  was  a  screen  by  which  all 
boulders  larger  than  5  in.  in  diameter  were  removed.  The  con- 
sistency of  the  mixture  arriving  at  the  sump  was  usually  about 
20%  solids  and  80%  water.  At  the  sump  this  was  automatically 
diluted  when  necessary,  an  average  of  about  15%  material  in 
suspension  being  carried  to  the  dam. 

Hydraulic  Grading  of  Westover  Terraces,  Portland,  Ore.  R. 
M.  Overstreet,  in  Engineering  Record,  Sept.  12,  1914,  gives  the 
following : 

The  work  consisted  in  cutting  down  a  steep  hill  and  grading 
it  into  roads  and  terraces  by  means  of  hydraulic  giants,  sluices 
and  sheer  boards.  A  large  part  of  the  earth  was  carried  half  a 
mile  in  a  flume  and  used  for  filling  low  ground.  The  total  yard- 
age was  approximately  3,000,000. 

Plant.  The  installation  of  pumping  machinery  at  that  time 
consisted  of  four  10-in.  five-stage  Worthington  centrifugal  pumps 
direct  connected,  in  units  of  two  each,  to  two  650-hp.  two-phase, 
60-cycle,  2,000-volt  Westinghouse  motors  with  a  25%  continuous 
overload  capacity.  The  guaranteed  efficiency  of  the  motors  was 
90%  and  of  the  pumps  70%,  making  a  combined  plant  efficiency 
of  63%.  The  pumps  were  designed  to  deliver  8,400  gal.  per  min. 
under  375-ft.  head  at  690  r.p.m. 

As  the  excavation  progressed  the  pumping  head  continually 
increased  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  install  (Oct.,  1910)  ad- 
ditional pumps  as  follows:  One  16-in.  Worthington  turbine 
pump,  direct-connected  to  a  900-hp.  Westinghouse  two-phase  in- 
duction motor.  The  efficiency  guaranteed  on  the  motor  under 
full-load  condition  was  91%.  The  pump  was  designed  to  deliver 
8,400  gal.  per  min.  under  a  pumping  head  of  675  ft.  with  a  head 


1076 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


on  the  suction  of  375  ft.  from  the  five-stage  pumps,  leaving  a 
resultant  head  of  300  ft.,  and  the  efficiency  guarantee  was  71%, 
making  64.6%  the  efficiency  of  the  combination. 

After  a  shutdown  of  14  months  from  Sept.,  1912,  to  Nov.,  1913, 
the  pumping  plant  was  entirely  rearranged.  One  group  of  two 
10-in.  pumps  with  motors  had  been  taken  to  another  piece  of 
work  after  the  shutdown,  which  left  but  two  10-in.  pumps  at 
elevation  25,  while  the  16-in.  pump  was  taken  to  a  point  on  the 
hill  west  of  the  improvement  and  set  at  elevation  326  to  act  as  a 
booster  in  the  line.  The  discharge  from  the  lower  pumps  was 
through  two  lines  of  18-in.  wood-stave  pipe  for  1,500  ft.,  and 


&& 


Fig.  21.     Section  of  Flume. 


from  here  in  a  24-in.  pipe  to  the  booster.  From  the  booster 
there  were  two  18-in.  lines,  400  ft.,  converging  into  a  24-in. 
line,  300  ft.  long,  leading  to  a  plug.  From  this  point  the  14-in. 
supply  lines  were  taken  off  to  the  giants.  Two  giants  were  con- 
nected up,  but  only  one  was  used  at  a  time.  A  record  of  the 
elevation  and  location  of  the  giants  was  kept  and  the  pressure 
taken  on  each  giant  once  every  8-hr,  shift,  and  the  discharge 
computed  from  these  pressures.  The  working  pressure  at  the 
nozzle  varied  from  50  to  80  lb.,  according  to  the  elevation  of 
the  giant  and  size  of  the  tip. 

In  1914  the  plant  remained  the  same,  there  being  a  connected 
load  of  1,550  hp.  which  delivered  about  5,850,000  gal.  x)f  water 
per  24  hr.  against  a  total  head  of  745  ft.  with  an  efficiency  of 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1077 

about  49.3%.  This  low  efficiency  was  due  to  the  throttling  of 
the  booster  pump  which  was  operating  under  conditions  far  dif- 
ferent than  those  for  which  it  was  designed. 

Trestle  and  Flume.  The  earth  was  carried  to  the  dump  in  the 
lake  in  a  0%  grade  flume  supported  on  top  of  a  timber  trestle 
crossing  streets  and  private  property  and  having  a  maximum 
height  of  75  ft.  and  a  total  length  of  2,500  ft.  See  Fig.  21. 
A  temporary  flume  on  a  9%  grade  was  bracketed  to  the  side  of 
the  trestle  and  used  for  making  a  fill  of  about  300,000  cu.  yd. 
about  half  way  between  the  cut  and  the  lake  tract.  The  water 
lines  from  the  pump  house  to  the  giants  were  also  hung  on  this 
trestle.  ,  The  (>%.  flume  was  divided  into  two  channels  by  a 
bulkhead.  One  side  of  this  was  lined  with  4  x  4  x  8-in.  blocks 
laid  with  the  grain  up  and  the  other  side  with  %-in.  white  iron 
plates,  21  x  34  in.  in  dimension  and  weighing  about  140  Ib.  each. 

The  cost  of  construction  of  the  trestle  and  flume,  not  includ- 
ing the  lining,  was  $24.20  per  1,000  ft.  b.  m.,  of  which  $9.08 
was'  for  labor,  $2.12  for  iron  and  nails,  and  $13  per  1,000  ft. 
b.  m.  for  lumber.  This  is  equivalent  to  $6.75  per  lin.  ft.  Iron 
plates  cost  from  1%  to  2}4  ct.  per  Ib. 

Life  of  Iron  Plates  and  Wood  Blocks.  The  life  of  the  iron 
plates  was  very  Satisfactory  as  compared  to  the  wood  blocks. 
The  average  life  of  the  wood  blocks  on  a  6%  grade,  working  in 
gravel,  was  found  to  be  125,000  to  150,000  cu.  yd.,  while  with 
the  plates  it  was  possible  to  carry  1,000,000  to  1,200,000  cu.  y.l. 
\Yith  the  block  lining  it  was  found  necessary  to  replace  blocks 
about  every  live  weeks,  which  woulJ  have  occasioned  consider 
able  loss  of  time  ha  1  it  not  been  for  the  extra  flume.  It  was 
found  that  the  gravel  running  over  the  steel  plates  made  so  much 
noke  that  res'dents  in  the  vicinity  complained  of  being  unable 
to  sleep  at  night,  so  the  steel-lined  flume  was  used  during  day- 
light hours  and  the  wood-lined  side  at  night.  Life  of  wood 
blocks  in  clay  was  found  to  be  about  1,000,000  cu.  yd. 

Tunnel.  At  one  point  a  flume  >vas  carried  through  the  hill  in 
a  tunnel  5i£  by  (>  ft.  in  section.  This  tunnel  was  constructed 
on  a  10%  grade  through  hard  gravel.  It  was  about  530  ft. 
long  and  cost  $2.5)5  per  lin.  ft.  This  tunnel  was  extended  up 
through  the  property  from  the  original  portal  by  constructing 
a  covered  box  and  filling  over  it.  In  Sept.,  1912,  the  6% 
flume  was  torn  down  and  all  remaining  material  sluiced  through 
the  tunnel. 

Sluicing.  When  running  in  gravel  the  discharge  end  of  the 
flumes  had  to  be  cleared  away  every  few  days,  as  the  gravel 
would  pile  up  and  not  spread,  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  level 
off  the  gravel  fill  with  a  steam  shovel  and  cars.  When  running 


1078 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


in  clay  the  material  would  flow  800  to  1,000  ft.,  making  a  fill 
as  level  as  a  table. 

Blasting  Clay.  When  the  giants  were  working  in  gravel  the 
bank  was  undermined  by  pressure  from  a  jet  without  the  use  of 
powder.  In  clay  the  pressure  of  the  stream  had  little  effect 
on  the  bank  and  it  was  necessary  to  blast  the  material.  A 
powder  crew,  consisting  of  8  men,  was  employed  on  the  day 
shift  to  keep  the  clay  broken  up  in  front  of  the  giant.  By  al- 


Fig.  22.     Arrangement  of  Sheerboards  for  Slopes  Made  by 
Hydraulic  Sluicing. 

ternating  giants  from  one  shift  to  another  it  was  possible  to 
keep  the  clay  well  broken  up  for  a  full  day's  run.  A  stumping 
powder  of  20%  strength  was  used  in  charges  of  from  three  to 
seven  sticks,  and  from  400  to  700  Ib.  were  used  daily.  Powder 
cost  $176  per  ton  delivered  on  the  work;  fuse,  $4.50  per  1,000 
ft.;  and  caps,  $9.80  per  thousand. 

Terraces  Built  with  Sheerboards.  The  hill  attacked  in  this 
work  was  graded  into  a  series  of  terraces  and  streets,  sheer- 
boards  being  used  to  hold  the  material  to  the  desired  slope. 
See  Fig.  22.  These  were  made  up  of  two  1  x  12-in.  pieces  nailed 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1070 

one  above  the  other  to  2  x  4 -in.  stakes,  0  or  7  ft.  long,  spaced 
about  4  ft.  center  to  center,  and  driven  into  the  ground  in  the 
embankment.  The  first  row  of  sheerboards  is  placed  at  the 
line  of  intersection  of  the  slope  with  the  ground;  the  second, 
third  and  subsequent  rows  of'  sheerboards  are  placed  as  the  em- 
bankment rises,  each  line  being  spaced  according  to  the  de- 
signed slope.  Slopes  on  this  work  were  1%  to  1.  The  bottom 
of  each  sheerboard  is  placed  from  2  to  10  in.  below  the  top  of 
the  upper  board  in  the  preceding  bulkhead,  depending  on  the 
nature  of  the  material  of  which  the  embankment  is  being  made. 
In  gravel,  for  instance,  the  seal  is  less  than  is  required  for 
making  a  fill  of  fine  clay.  In  the  lighter  and  finer  soils  it  is% 
necessary  to  brace  between  the  stakes  as  shown.  After  de- 
positing its  load  the  water  is  taken  off  the  fill  through  spillways, 
which  are  located  at  convenient  points.  These  consist  merely  of 
flumes  running  down  the  slope  through  the  sheerboards.  By 
this  method  the  mass  of  the  embankment  is  continually  drained 
as  the  fill  is  deposited,  and  when  the  fill  is  completed  it  is  as 
compact  and  substantial  as  though  it  were  in  the  original  bank. 
The  amount  of  lumber  required  for  the  sheerboards  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  following  data : 

Depth  of  seal,  in.  Feet,  board  measure 

2  1.09  x  area  of  vertical  projection  of  slope 

1.20  x  area  of  vertical  projection  of  slope 

6  1.33  x  area  of  vertical  projection  of  slope 

1.50  x  area  of  vertical  projection  of  slope 

10  1.71  x  area  of  vertical  projection  of  slope    - 

12  2.00  x  area  of  vertical  projection  of  slope 

Stakes  and  bracing      1.50  x  area  of  vertical  projection  of  slope 
Add  10%  for  loss  due  to  lap,  waste,  etc.,  on  1  x  12-in.  lumber. 

When  pumping  against  a  head  of  420  ft.  during  July,  1910, 
with  1,300  hp.  connected,  the  yardage  moved  was  37,800  cu.  yd., 
requiring  130,000,000  gal.,  the  earth  carried  being  5.78%  of  the 
volume  of  water  in  flumes  of  6%  grade.  The  cost  of  pumping 
per  million  gallons  of  water  was: 

Electric  current  at  0.6  ct.  per  kw.-hr $24.38 

Pump,    operators,    $270   for   the   month    2.08 

Supplies,    repairs,    etc 0.48 

Total   per  million  gallons    $26.94 

,  i>I bi'.CM  .*jj  . -Ttiil  I  '       .  ''.'Vr'Mj    fri.:Ti'«   7  on  --/;'//  {{ji't  •>({}    t-''rfi 

There  were  245  gal.  pumped  per  kw.  hr.  The  pumps  worked 
539  hr.  during  July.  In  February,  1914,  the  average  pumping 
head  was  707  ft.,  and  101,790,000  gal.  were  pumped,  moving 
94,091  cu.  yd.  the  ratio  of  earth  to  water  being  18.6%,  which 
was  the  highest  percentage  attained ;  the  grade  of  the  flumes  being 
10%.  The  cost  of  pumping  per  million  gallons  was: 


1080  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Power  at  0.6  ct.  per  kw.-hr $29.68 

Pump   operators,    including  booster  pumps,   $515 5.05 

Supplies,    repairs,    etc 0.57 

Total  per  million  gallons    $35.30 

The  connected  horsepower  was  1,550,  and  434  Ifr.  were  run 
during  the  month.  The  material  was  clay.  The  work  was  car- 
ried on  for  34  months  at  an  average  rate  of  75,000  cu.  yd.  per 
mo.,  and  the  article  above  quoted  contains  a  table  giving  out- 
put and  pumping  cost  data  for  each  month  of  the  entire  period. 
The  price  of  electric  power  was  very  low  (0.6  ct.  per  kw.  hr.), 
and  about  9.3  kw.  hr.  were  used  per  cu.  yd.  of  earth,  the  earth 
being  mostly  clay,  and  the  average  pumping  head  about  600  ft. 
Each  cubic  yard  of  earth  required  an  average  of  2,100  gal. 
Hence  the  power  for  pumping  (at  0.6  ct.  per  kw.  hr.)  cost  about 
5.6  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  or  $27  per  million  gallons.  About  226  gal. 
were  pumped  per  kw.  hr. 

A  typical  distribution  of  the  pumping  heads  was  as  follows,  on 
Apr.  16,  1914: 

Loss   of  head    in   pumps    18.4 

Loss  in  pipe  lines  to  booster  pump   12,0 

Loss   in   booster   pump    34.5 

Loss  in  pipe  line  to  giant  30.2 

Effective  head  at  nozzle  109.2 

Lift   to    nozzle    556.6 


Total  pumping  head,   ft 770.9 

Disposal  of  Earth  by  Means  of  a  Chute.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Oct.  13,  1909,  gives  the  following: 

In  the  construction  of  the  new  engine  house  at  the  Lake  View 
pumping  station  at  Chicago,  111.,  the,  contractors  used  an  eco- 
nomical and  efficient  method  of  disposing  of  tlie  sand  and  gravel 
encountered  in  the  excavation  for  the  foundations  of  the  build- 
ing. 

The  building  is  located  about  300  ft.  from  the  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan  and  the  sand  and  gravel  were  conveyed  by  a  chute 
to  the  water's  edge  of  the  lake,  where  the  waves  disposed  of 
it  after  each  storm.  A  pump  installed  for  taking  care  of  seep- 
age water  was  used  to  wash  the  sand  and  gravel  through  the 
chute.  Some  trouble  was  first  experienced,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  fall  was  not  great  enough.  It  was  found  that  to  handle 
the  sand  by  this  method  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  grade  of 
about  5%.  One  or  two  men  were  placed  along  the  chute  to 
prevent  accumulations  of  sand,  for  if  it  started  to  collect,  it 
would  accumulate  very  rapidly  and  cause  a  blockade. 

When  it  was  found  that  the  chute  would  be  a  success,  a  screen 
of  1,4  in.  mesh  was  placed  in  a  section  at  the  bottom  of  the 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1081 

chute  for  a  distance  of  about  8  ft.  in  length.  The  sand  going 
through  the  screen  was  allowed  to  fall  into  another  portion  of 
the  chute  at  a  lower  level,  the  gravel  accumulating  on  the 
screen  being  removed  by  one  laborer  with  a  hose.  In  order  to 
remove  the  large  gravel  and  cobble  stones  the  gravel  was  al- 
lowed to  fall  over  another  screen  of  1%-in.  mesh.  Between  50 
and  60  cu.  yd.  of  the  best  quality  of  gravel  for  concrete  was 
obtained  in  this  way  each  day  at  the  cost  of  four  laborers' 
wages.  After  the  gravel  screen  had  been  in  successful  operation, 
another  screen  was  placed  in  the  chute  lower  down;  this  screen 
had  10  meshes  to  the  inch.  From  this  screen  about  20  cu.  yd. 


Fig.  23.     Wood  Blocks  and  Retaining  Ribs  Before  Use. 

of  the  best  quality  of  torpedo  sand  and  gravel  was  obtained  each 
day,  at  the  cost  of  one  laborer's  wage.  In  all  there  was  ob- 
tained about  2,000  cu.  yd.  of  torpedo  sand  and  gravel  suitable 
for  concrete.  About  12,000  cu.  yd.  of  sand  and  gravel  were  han- 
dled by  means  of  the  chute. 

The  Denny  Hill  Regrade,  Seattle.  This  project,  comprising 
an  area  of  43  city  blocks,  was  undertaken  at  Seattle,  Wash.,  as 
described  at  length  in  Engineering  \'eus,  Mar.  31,  1910;  5,400,- 
000  cu.  yd.  of  material  were  moved  from  a  section  in  the  heart 
of  the  city  by  the  hydraulic  method.  The  maximum  length  of 
cut  was  about  3,000  ft.  and  the  maximum  depth  1 10  ft.  The 
contract  price  was  27  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  material  was  dis- 
charged into  (Jeep  water  in  the  harbor.  In  order  to  avoid  dis- 


I 

y 

1082  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

turbing  street  traffic  it  was  carried  part  of  the  way  through  a 
tunnel  under  the  street. 

Besides  the  hydraulic  jets,  which  were  steadily  eating  into  the 
breasts  of  the  various  cuts,  a  construction  railway  had  been  con- 
stantly in  operation,  hauling  dirt  from  the  steam-shovels  and 
dumping  it  into  an  open  cut.  Two  trains,  consisting  of  four  side- 
dump  cars  each,  were  operated  on  this  single-track  road,  with  a 
third  locomotive  to  help  out  on  the  steeper  grades. 

In  order  to  break  up  the  dirt  from  these  trains  and  wash  it  into 
the  tunnel,  two  small-size  giants  were  installed  at  this  point. 


Fig.  24.     Effect  of  Wear  on  Blocks. 

These  were  supplied  by  a  2-in.  and  a  4-in.  iron  pipe,  respectively. 

One  feature  of  the  work  which  was  favorable  to  its  early  com- 
pletion was  the  small  percentage  of  rock  occurring  in  the  mass 
to  be  removed.  And  although  the  greater  part  of  the  mass  was 
a  very  hard,  blue-black  clay  —  so  hard  and  closely-compacted,  in 
fact,  that  in  the  earlier  attempts  it  was  seriously  doubted  that  it 
could  be  handled  hydraulically  at  all  —  still  the  hardest  part  of 
the  work  is  now  past.  And  at  this  time,  the  close  of  ,1909,  the 
entire  project  is  more  than  three-fourths  completed. 

Sluiceway  Linings.  An  interesting  point  in  connection  with 
all  hydraulic  grading  is  the  extreme  difficulty  encountered  of  find- 
ing any  substance  which  will  resist  the  high  attrition  in  tho 
sluiceways.  The  remedy  finally  hit  upon  was  removable  wood 
blocks,  placed  end  up.  Where  these  are  used  in  wood-stave  pipe. 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING        1083 

two  of  the  side-sections  of  same  are  cut  larger  to  act  as  retaining 
ribs  ( see  Figs.  23  and  24 )  and  the  blocks  are  turned  in  a  lathe 
so  as  to  give  a  maximum  length  of  block  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pipe,  or  point  of  greatest  wear.  So  important  is  this  point,  that 
the  use  of  wood-block  lining  has  been  patented  by  a  local  firm, 
and  one  successful  damage-suit  has  already  been  brought  against 
infringers. 

Where  the  wood-block  lining  is  used  in  flumes,  tunnels,  etc., 
oblong  blocks,  6  in.  long,  are  cut  from  6  x  12-in.  rough  lumber,  and 
the  bottom  of  the  sluiceway  is  lined  with  these,  laid  end  up 
to  wear.  Evidently,  when  these  wear  out,  it  is  a  simple  matter 
to  remove  them  and  replace  with  new  blocks. 

In  order  to  hasten  the  sluicing,  both  by  the  loosening  of  large 
masses  and  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  more  closely-compacted 
lumps  of  the  shale-like  clay,  blasting  powder  is  used  through- 
out the  area  under  regrade.  Comparatively  small  charges  are 
used,  however,  and  very  little  disturbance  has  so  far  resulted 
from  this  cause. 

Sluicing  Silt  to  Reduce  Canal  Leakage.  The  following  is  from 
an  article  by  Fred  J.  Barnes  in  Engineering  News-Record,  May 
17,  1917.  Leakage  from  the  main  canal  of  the  Grand  Valley 
irrigation  project  in  Colorado  became  excessive  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  stop  it  by  sluicing  clay,  in  the  hope  that  the  clay 
would  settle  into  the  porous  material  in  which  the  canal  was 
built  and  stop  the  leakage. 

At  one  point  there  was  a  small  bed  of  about  8,000  cu.  yd.  of 
clay.  This  material  was  very  dense  and  compact,  in  its  natural 
state  requiring  a  pick  to  loosen  it.  It  contained  16%  moisture 
and  very  little  sand.  The  sieve  test  indicated  100%  passing  a 
No.  50  screen,  99.85%  passing  a  No.  100  screen,  and  98.22%  pass- 
ing a  No.  200  screen.  The  bed  was  on  the  upper  side  of  the  canal 
immediately  adjacent  to  and  above  the  water  surface  of  the  canal. 

A  two-stage  centrifugal  pump  with  8-in.  suction  and  6-in.  dis- 
charge was  direct  connected  to  a  75-hp.,  890  r.p.m.  induction  mo- 
tor mounted  on  the  pump  base.  A  suction  sump  was  built  in  the 
canal,  and  the  motor  and  pump  were  installed  in  a  small  shed 
adjacent.  The  discharge  line  consisted  of  40  ft.  of  8-in.  spiral- 
riveted  iron  pipe  and  75  ft.  of  heavy  6-in.  canvas  hose  connected 
by  a  flange  union  to  the  giant.  The  latter  was  mounted  on  a 
heavy  frame  to  hold  it  in  position  and  had  counter-weights  to 
facilitate  handling  the  nozzle.  The  giant  proper  was  about  0  ft. 
long,  tapering  in  inside  diameter  from  7  in.  to  3}£  in.  An  ad- 
ditional nozzle  of  3-in.  inside  diameter  was  also  provided. 

A  cut  was  made  through  the  upper  bank  of  the  canal  to  drain 
the  effluent  from  the  clay  pit  into  the  canal.  A  2-ft.  metal  Ap- 


1084  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

poletti  weir  was  installed  in  the  cut.  A  wooden  flume  extended 
from  the  weir  across  the  canal,  clearing  the  water  surface  by 
6  in.  Notches  of  varying  depths  were  sawed  in  the  vertical  sides 
of  the  flume  at  2-ft.  intervals  to  distribute  the  muddy  water 
evenly  over  the  channel  flow. 

The  pump  discharge  was  found  to  be  3.1  cu.  ft.  per  sec.  With 
the  3-in.  nozzle  this  gave  63.8  ft.  per  sec.  issuing  velocity.  By 
elevating  the  giant  the  stream  could  be  thrown  about  150  ft.  hor- 
izontally. With  the  3i^-in.  nozzle  the  issuing  velocity  was  46.7  ft. 
per  sec.,  and  the  extreme  horizontal  range  was  about  110  ft.  One 
man  attended  to  the  motor,  pump,  pipe  line  and  distributing 
flume,  while  a  second  man  handled  the  giant. 

The  idea  was  to  utilize  the  maximum  force  of  the  stream  in 
breaking  down  the  clay  to  small  particles  and  getting  it  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  water.  It  was  found  most  advantageous 
first  to  dig  a  deep  hole  in  one  side  of  the  clay  bank  by  holding  the 
giant  pointed  downward  on  a  small  area  for  15  min.  or  so.  The 
sides  of  the  clay  bank  were  then  trimmed  to  a  vertical  face,  and 
the  giant  stream  was  played  over  this  face.  It  appeared  best 
to  keep  the  stream  moving  continually  over  the  face  of  the  de- 
posit, so  as  to  remove  the  material  in  thin  layers  rather  than 
to  undercut  large  masses  and  have  them  fall  into  the  sunip. 
The  clay  required  considerable  agitation  before  becoming  thor- 
oughly mixed. 

The  crest  of  the  weir  in  the  cut  from  the  sump  to  the  dis- 
tributing flume  was  about  2  ft.  above  the  bottom  of  the  sump, 
so  that  this  served  as  a  settling  basin  for  larger  lumps.  The 
sump  floor  was  kept  at  this  elevation  by  occasionally  turning  the 
giant  stream  downward  and  keeping  it  pointed  on  one  place 
for  a  short  period.  After  the  clay  became  thoroughly  satu- 
rated, it  mixed  with  the  water  readily  and  remained  in  suspension 
for  about  60  min.  in  still  water,  although  some  precipitation 
began  immediately. 

The  effluent  passed  the  weir  with  a  vertical  fall  of  2  ft.  and 
was  carried  out  in  the  wooden  flume  with  a  velocity  of  about  5 
ft.  per  sec.  over  wooden  riffles  on  the  bottom,  which  tended  to 
grind  up  still  more  any  pieces  of  clay  that  had  been  swept  along. 
Samples  of  effluent  were  taken  at. 2-hour  intervals  to  determine 
the  percentage  of  clay  carried  in  suspension.  These  samples 
varied  widely,  showing  from  4  to  5%  of  clay  by  weight;  the 
average  clay  content,  as  indicated  by  samples,  was  5.4%.  The 
total  running  time  was  83i£  hr.,  during  which  period  941,000 
cu.  ft.  of  water  left  the  giant.  The  total  amount  of  clay  moved 
out,  determined  from  cross-sections  of  the  bank  before  and  after 


HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATION  AND  SLUICING         1085 

sluicing,  was  2,749  cu.  yd.  This  indicates  7.88%,  by  volume,  of 
clay  in  the  water. 

The  effluent  after  entering  the  canal  passed  through  different 
types  of  section  where,  on  account  of  the  rapid  succession  of 
abrupt  changes  in  velocities,  the  rapidity  with  which  the  silt 
dropped  could  not  be  accurately  found.  It  was  observed  that 
there  was  little  tendency  toward  separation  when  the  velocity  ex- 
ceeded 1  ft.  per  sec. ;  but  when  the  mean  velocity  dropped  ab- 
ruptly from  1  ft.  per  sec.,  or  more,  to  0.4  or  0.5,  there  was  im- 
mediate precipitation.  Only  slight  quantities  of  silt  were  car- 
ried as  far  as  Lewis  siphon ;  the  bulk  dropped  out  in  the  first  2 
miles  below  the  tunnel. 

The  largest  observed  percentage  by  weight  of  silt  in  the  canal 
water  immediately  below  the  silting  plant  (and  due  entirely  to 
the  plant  operation)  was  0.48%.  At  Lewis  siphon  the  largest 
observed  content  was  0.002%,  indicating  practically  complete 
precipitation  in  8.8  miles  —  neglecting  the  1.4  miles  of  tunnel 
where  precipitation  was  impossible. 

The  obvious  conclusion  is  that  for  best  distribution  the  velocity 
of  the  current  in  the  canal  should  exceed  1  ft.  per  sec.,  except 
where  it  is  desired  to  deposit  the  silt. 

The  pressure  head  was  found  by  gage,  but  no  vacuum  gage 
was  available,  so  that  the  suction  head  had  to  be  computed. 
The  total  head  thus  found  was  135.2  ft.,  using  a  31^-in.  nozzle. 
The  theoretical  horsepower  required  was  48.3 ;  the  actual  power 
consumed  was  60  kw.  at  the  Cameo  power  station,  giving  a  com- 
bined efficiency  for  the  transmission  line,  motor  and  pump  of  60%. 
Using  a  3-in.  nozzle,  the  total  head  worked  against  was  160.7  ft. 
This  required  57.3  hp.  theoretically,  and  the  actual  consumption 
was  72.3  kw.,  making  the  combined  efficiency  then  59.2%. 

When  working  the  stream  against  a  vertical  face  of  the  bank 
from  a  distance  of  40  ft.  or  less,  the  3i^-in.  stream  seemed  as  ef- 
fective as  the  3-in.,  with  much  less  power  consumption.  At 
greater  distances  or  when  digging  was  required,  the  3-in.  stream 
worked  faster. 

The,  installation  cost  of  the  silting  plant  was  largely  in  re- 
pairs to  the  pump  (an  old  one  in  poor  condition)  and  labor  of 
erecting  the  pump,  motor  house,  pipe  line,  distribution  flume, 
etc.  All  material  was  old  stuff  lying  around  the  •  camp.  The 
transmission  line  was  already  built.  No  depreciation  charge 
was  allowed  on  machinery,  since  much  overhauling  was  neces- 
sary and  the  pump  was  in  better  condition  after  sluicing  ended. 
The  cost  of  power  was  comparatively  high,  3.47  ct.  per  kw.  hr.  in 
September  and  3.84  ct.  in  October  (because  of  the  small  power 


1086         HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

output  for  these  two   months  at  the  station  and  the  relatively 
high  influence  of  fixed  charges ) .     The  following  was  the  cost : 

Plant   erection,    labor $0.066 

Plant   erection,    materials    .001 

Plant  operation,    labor    039 

Plant    operation,    materials    001 

Plant  demolition,   labor    037 

Power     068 

Engineering     056 

Closing  entries   (automobile  expense,  etc.)    023 

Total   per  cu.  yd $0.291 

Total  clay  moved,  cu.  yd 2,749.0 

Total  power  used,   kw.-hr 5,290.0 

Power  used,  kw.-hr.  per  cu.  yd.  of  clay  1.92 

Hours  of  plant  operation    83.5 

Water    pumped,    sec. -ft 3.129 

Clay    in    suspension,    %    7.88 

Total  head  on  pump  using  S^-in.  nozzle,  ft 135.2 

Total  head  on  pump  using  3-in.  nozzle,   ft 160.7 

Approximate     combined     efficiency     of     transmission 

line,  motor  and  pump,  %  60.0 

One  item  of  $145.66  for  giant,  pipe  and  fittings,  all  of  which 
were  in  as  good  condition  after  work  was  completed  as  when 
received,  is  not  included  in  the  above  cost. 

Bibliography.  "  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Mining 
in  California,"  Aug.  J.  Bowie ;  "  Manual  of  Hydraulic  Mining," 
T.  F.  VanWagener ;  "  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining,"  Third  Edi- 
tion, Eugene  B.  Wilson ;  "  Reservoirs  for  Irrigation,  Water 
Power  and  Domestic  Water  Supply,"  James  D.  Schuyler. 

"  Hydraulic  Excavation,"  Latham  Anderson,  Jour.  Asso.  Eng. 
Soc.,  Vol.  26,  Jan.,  1901. 

"  Notes  on  Hydraulic  Sluicing,"  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  April 
8,  1911;  "Making  a  Fill  by  Sluicing  Through  a  Flume,"  Eng. 
News,  Jan.  22,  1914. 


• 


*""P"   • 

''•    J»»u;  «TK*in.»*,-|»> 


CHAPTER  XIX 
ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS 

Although  much  of  the  information  in  preceding  chapters  is 
applicable  to  the  building  of  embankments  for  roads  and  rail- 
roads, it  is  desirable  to  have  a  special  chapter  for  this  branch 
of  earthwork. 

Embankments  for  roads  and  railroads  differ  from  other  em- 
bankments, except  levees,  in  that  they  are  usually  quite  long. 
They  differ  from  earth  dams  and  levees  in  that  they  need  not 
be  watertight. 

Road  embankments  are  usually  not  so  high  as  railroad  "  fills," 
and  most  of  the  earth  is  commonly  secured  from  the  ditches. 
The  shallowness  of  the  fills  makes  road  work  more  expensive 
than  railway  work.  Also  the  area  of  trimming  of  earth  sur- 
faces is  proportionately  greater  for  roads  than  for  railroads, 
and  makes  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  higher.  Finally,  it  is  usu- 
ally specified  that  highway  fills  and  subgrades  must  be  sprinkled 
and  rolled,  whereas  railway  fills  are  seldom  rolled  or  even 
watered  to  effect  consolidation. 

Contractors  experienced  in  railway  earthwork  usually  under- 
estimate the  cost  of  highway  work,  for  the  reasons  just  given. 
But  study  of  the  data  in  Chapter  VI  will  prevent  such  under- 
estimates. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  hard  earth  crust  of  an 
old  road  is  often  as  difficult  to  loosen  as  hardpan,  and  that 
when  loosened  it  is  not  as  easily  shoveled  or  scraped  as  ordi- 
nary field  earth. 

In  designing  railway  earthwork,  the  engineer  usually  aims 
to  "  balance  the  cuts  and  fills,"  that  is  the  earth  yardage  of  the 
excavated  parts  of  the  railway  line  is  made  approximately  equal 
to  the  yardage  of  the  embankments.  This  frequently  results 
in  long  hauls  for  the  earth.  Where  the  yardage  is  small  and 
the  hauls  become  very  long,  it  is  usually  cheaper  to  secure  the 
earth  from  "  borrow  pits "  near  the  fills.  The  increasing  use 
of  dragline  excavators  will  probably  result  in  more  frequent 
"  borrowing "  of  earth  for  fills  and  "  wasting "  of  earth  from 
cuts,  as  described  later  in  this  chapter. 

The  shrinkage  of  earth  embankments  is,  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter I. 

Besides  shrinking,  embankments  are  apt  to  settle  into  the 
material  on  which  they  are  built,  making  it  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish between  settlement  and  shrinkage.  A  striking  illus- 
tration of  the  settlement  of  an  embankment  is  shown  in  Fig.  1, 
a  diagram  of  what  happened  to  a  fill  across  the  Papio  Valley 
for  the  Union  Pacific  Ry. 

1087 


1088 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


A  Method  of  Determining  Subsidence  and  Shrinkage  has  been 
worked  out  for  use  on  levees  in  the  Orleans  Levee  District  in 
Louisiana,  and  is  described  in  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Oct.  18,  1916.  Briefly,  a  2-in.  pipe  is  driven  until  sufficient  pen- 
etration is  secured  through  good  solid  "earth,  so  that  the  pipe 
cannot  be  disturbed  by  the  superimposed  weight.  A  3-in.  pipe 
screwed  into  an  8-in.  flange,  which  in  turn  is  bolted  onto  boards, 
is  slipped  over  the  2-in.  pipe.  The  boards  give  sufficient  bear- 


.  •——  -   •  Bumbo  Soil 


•ftl 


*.'.  Water  Bearing  Sandu  Gravel  '•' .  '  ••; .. '  •'  '  .'  \  :•-':•.•  *  . 

y^ 


Fig.    1.     Section    Through    95-Ft.    Fill    Showing    Subsoil    Strata 
Before   and   After    Settlement. 


ing  surface  so  that  the  3-in.  pipe  sinks  with  the  original  ground. 
Its  upper  end  is  closed  with  a  cap.  Levels  taken  on  this  cap 
show  the  subsidence,  and  taken  in  connection  with  levels  on  top 
of  the  embankment  they  show  the  shrinkage. 

Calculating  the  Ultimate  Subsidence  of  an  Embankment.  In 
the  Transactions  of  the  Association  of  Engineering  Societies, 
July,  1892,  there  is  a  paper  by  Henry  M.  Carter  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  on  the  settlement  of  the  embank- 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1089 

ment  between  Squantum  and  Moon  Island,  Boston  Main  Drain- 
age Works.  The  embankment  is  4,200  ft.  long  built  on  soft  ma- 
terial. The  embankment  was  to  be  20  ft.  wide  on  top  and  to 
have  side  slopes  of  2  to  1. 

The  original  surface  on  which  the  embankment  was  to  be  built 
consisted  of  a  gravel  bar  at  about  half  tide  elevation,  varying 
in  thickness  from  2  to  8  ft.,  and  extending  from  Moon  Is- 
land 2,800  ft.,  toward  Squantum.  At  this  point  the  bar  disap- 
peared and  the  surface  showed  mud  alone  at  the  elevation  of 
low  water. 

Two  sets  of  borings  showed  an  apparently  solid  gravel  bar, 
so  a  contract  was  let  for  building  an  embankment  on  this  bar 
and  for  dredging  out  the  mud  for  the  remaining  distance  and 
filling  in  with  solid  earth.  After  work  was  commenced  a  doubt 
was  raised  as  to  the  extent  of  the  gravel  bar,  and  further  bor- 
ings showed  it  to  be  entirely  underlain  by  mud.  This  discovery 
caused  the  abandonment  of  the  original  plans.  It  was  decided 
to  build  the  embankment  to  2  ft.  above  the  proposed  grade  and 
to  allow  it  to  settle  thoroughly  'before  attempting  further  work. 
A  very  careful  set  of  borings  was  then  made  to  determine  the 
depth  of  mud  along  the  whole  line  of  embankment.  Iron  plates 
2  ft.  square,  attached  to  rods,  were  set  in  the  fill  already  built, 
so  that  records  could  be  kept  as  these  settled  with  the  em- 
bankment. 

Observations  have  been  made  on  the  settlement  of  this  em- 
bankment for  a  period  of  9  years.  One  rod  settled  14  ft.  during 
the  first  six  months,  2  ft.  during  the  next  year,  the  embankment 
being  built  as  the  sinking  took  place.  The  entire  settlement  to 
date  was  17.4  ft.,  the  gravel  filling  having  sunk  through  the  mud 
until  it  rested  on  the  hard  clay  beneath. 

The  settlement  from  1885  on  was  plotted  as  a  curve,  and  from 
these  curves  the  ultimate  settlement  at  each  point  was  figured, 
as  also  the  date  when  it  would  become  less  than  0.01  ft.  per  year. 
These  calculations  were  used  in  setting  the  invert  grade  of  the 
sewer.  Rods  were  placed  on  top  of  the  sewer  with  the  inten- 
tion of  further  study  comparing  the  actual  settlement  with  the 
calculated  settlement. 

A  remarkable  feature  in  the  settlement  of  this  embankment 
is  that,  while  at  points  the  fill  has  sunk  through  the  mud  until 
it  is  supported  on  the  clay  beneath,  at  other  points  it  is  still 
supported  upon  the  mud.  A  fourth  set  of  core  borings  show 
the  condition  existing  when  the  embankment  had  settled  to  ap- 
proximately its  permanent  position.  A  profile  published  with 
this  paper  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  degree  to  which  the  mud  has 
been  compressed. 


1090  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

A  Tamping  Roller.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Dec.  4, 
1907,  gives  the  following: 

The  face  of  each  roller  is  studded  with  numerous  "  iron  feet " 
which  do  the  tamping.  See  Fig.  2.  In  road  or  street  work,  the 
subgrade  to  be  compacted  is  first  loosened  with  a  plow  to  a 
depth  of  about  6  in.  When  the  rolling  tamper  is  drawn  over 
this  loosened  earth,  its  iron  feet  sink  into  it  nearly  to  their 
full  length,  and  thus  begin  the  process  of  compacting  the  earth 
at  the  bottom.  Successive  trips  of  the  roller  over  the  earth 
result  finally  in  a  mass  so  thoroughly  compacted  that  the  "  iron 
feet  "  no  longer  sink  into  it,  but  ride  on  top. 

To  test  out  the  roller,  a  clay  soil,  weighing  90  Ib.  per  cu.  ft. 


Fig.    2.     Traction    Engine   Drawing   Tamping   Rollers. 

in  its  natural  state  in  place,  was  plowed  up  and  rolled  with 
rolling  tampers  until  their  "  feet "  walked  on  top  of  the  com- 
pacted surface.  Then  a  cubical  block  of  this  soil  2  ft.  square 
and  6  in.  thick  was  dug  up  and  weighed;  Its  weight  was  found 
to  be  115  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.,  as  compared  with  90  Ib.  before  rolling. 
By  mixing  some  gravel-  with  the  plowed  clay,  and  rolling,  a 
weight  of  125  Ib.  per  cu.  ft.  was  easily  secured. 

The  tamping  roller  is  made  by  W.  A.  Gillette,  South  Pasadena, 
Calif. 

Cost  of  Grading  Southern  Roads.  The  cost  of  grading  a  num- 
ber of  gravel  and  sand-clay  roads  in  several  of  the  Southern 
States  during  1910,  under  the  supervision  of  the  U.  S.  Office  of 
Public  Roads,  is  given  in  a  text  book  on  Highway  Engineering, 
by  Messrs.  A.  H.  Blanchard  and  H.  P.  Browne.  The  costs  were 
as  follows: 

Labor        Team 

Cu.  yd.  Cost  per    Haul  10-hr.        10-hr, 

moved    cu.  yd.     in  ft.  Tools  used  day  day 


2,400        15  200      ,     _  $15Q          $2QO 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1091 

Sandy     3,635        11.2         223  l.SOa         3.60a 

Subsoil,     sand,  ["Road    graders, 

loam,  clay  and  •<      9  wheel  scrapers, 

mixture    3,352         8.8         200      I    8    drag    scrapers..      1.60b         2.80b 

fRoad    machine, 
Sand  and  clay..     3,654         6.06        ...     ^     drag-scraper, 

[     5    dump    wagons..      O.SOc         1.00 
Black   waxy 
prairie  subsoil    6,407        38.1          . . .        Plows,    graders    1.50  ^3.00 

a  —  9-hr.   day.    b  —  8-hr.  day.    c  —  convicts,   mule  team. 

Road  Work  with  Power  Machinery.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, May  15,  1918,  describes  some  very  low  cost  work  done 
on  a  road  leading  north  toward  Pontiac,  111. 

The  first  5  miles  of  this  highway  was  changed  from  a  narrow 
winding  road  to  a  level,  well  drained  all  the  year  road,  60  ft. 
wide  between  fences  and  40  ft.  wide  between  drainage  ditches. 

Clearing.  The  work  of  clearing  the  right-of-way  was  started 
on  May  1,  1917,  and  completed  June  16,  1917,  during  which 
period  5.18  acres  were  cleared  of  a  tangled  mass  of  brush  and 
shrubs  and  over  200  live  trees  from  ,3  in.  to  3  ft.  in  diameter. 
Trees  were  pulled  by  a  75-hp.  caterpillar  tractor  using  a  100-ft. 
cable.  Two  cable  outfits  were  used,  so  that  the  tractor  was  not 
delayed  waiting  for  hitches  to  be  made.  The  cost  of  clearing 
the  roadway,  including  labor,  interest  on  investment  and  an 
allowance  of  20%  for  depreciation  of  equipment,  was  $990.90, 
or  $191.29  per  acre. 

Grading.  The  grading  was  started  on  June  18,  1917.  One 
75-hp.  caterpillar  tractor  was  used  to  pull  two  Western  graders, 
one  12-ft.  to  make  the  cut,  followed  by  an  8-ft.  to  carry  the  dirt 
to  the  center  of  the  road.  A  Western  elevating  grader  pulled 
by  a  75-hp.  caterpillar  -tractor  was  used  in  some  places  in  mak- 
ing fills.  However,  on  some  of  the  deeper  fills  it  was  necessary 
to  use  some  other  method,  in  order  to  make  time,  and  a  75-hp. 
caterpillar  tractor  was  used  in  connection  with  a  caterpillar 
land  leveler.  This  land  leveler  is  a  tool  used  extensively  in  the 
West  and  is  in  reality  a  large  scraper  having  a  capacity  of  ap- 
proximately 3y2  yd.  With  this  machine  the  dirt  could  be  taken 
up  and  carried  across  the  road  and  then  unloaded  gradually  or 
at  one  time,  as  conditions  required. 

The  gravel  for  the  surfacing  of  the  road  was  taken  from  a 
nearby  creek  with  a  dragline  excavator  which  delivered  it  to  a 
loading  hopper.  With  the  dragline  excavator  working  steadily 
it  was  possible  to  keep  the  hopper  filled,  so  that  when  the  tractor 
trains  came  up,  which  consisted  of  one  75-hp.  caterpillar  tractor 
and  six  reversible  trailers,  they  could  be  loaded  without  delay 

or  without  shoveling. 

•6          iT   "  *-<'  -  '- 


1092  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

With  this  equipment  a  total  of  a  little  over  125,000  cu.  yd. 
of  dirt  was  moved  in  75  working  days.  The  total  coat,  including 
labor,  interest  on  investment  and  an  allowance  of  20%  covering 
depreciation  on  equipment,  was  $5,147,  or  4.1  ct.  per  cubic  yard. 
At  no  time  were  more  than  8  men,  including  the  superintendent, 
employed  on  the  job.  Horses  or  mules  were  not  used  at  any 
time  in  the  work. 

Road  Embankments  Over  Marshy  Ground.  Highway  embank- 
ments must  often  be  built  over  soft  ground  where  an  indefinite 
amount  of  filling  material  sinks  out  of  sight.  It  is  difficult  to 
build  such  embankments  in  layers  because  the  ground  is  too 
soft  to  sustain  horses  or  machinery.  Many  ingenious  methods 
of  overcoming  the  difficulties  encountered  have  been  devised,  a 
few  of  which  are  described  in  the  following  paragraphs  given  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  30,  1909. 

In  general  some  of  the  methods  employed  in  securing  a  good 
foundation  for  roads  over  soft  ground  are  as  follows: 

1.  By  draining  the  subsoil  so  as  to  consolidate  the  ground  as 
much  as  possible. 

2.  Where  the  soft  material  is  not  too  deep  nor  its  extent  too 
great,   a   trench   may   be   dug   and   filled   with    solid   material   to 
form  a  foundation   for  the  embankment. 

3.  By  consolidating  the  soft  material  by  driving  short  piles  and 
throwing   stone   in   the   side   ditches   to   prevent   the   muck    from 
oozing  to  the  sides.     By  filling  in  with  stone  or  gravel  and  sand 
until  an  embankment  is  formed  resting  on  the  solid  ground,  and 
with  its  top  rising  to  the  required  elevation. 

4.  By  distributing  the  weight  over  the  soft  ground  by  means 
of  brush  mattresses,  timbers,  poles,  etc. 

By  Draining.  In  most  cases  the  firmness  of  the  natural 
ground  can  be  increased  by  digging  wide  and  deep  side  drains 
parallel  to  the  side  of  the  intended  road.  In  the  case  of  bogs 
it  is  possible  by  draining  the  moss  to  condense  it  into  a  more 
or  less  solid  peat.  The  undrained  moss  of  bogs  usually  con- 
sists of  about  10%  of  vegetable  matter,  the  remainder  being 
water.  So  it  is  necessary  that  the  drainage  be  at  a  gradual 
rate  to  avoid  carrying  off  particles  of  vegetable  matter,  thus 
causing  the  sides  of  the  ditches  to  cave.  The  side  drains  are 
usually  carried  down  into  the  solid  ground,  and  it  is  well  to 
cut  them  in  a  series  of  benches  so  as  to  expose  as  large  a  sur- 
face as  possible  to  the  sun  and  wind.  The  side  ditches  are 
placed  about  30  ft.  or  more  from  the  center  line  of  the  road,  the 
distance  depending  upon  the  width  of  the  berm  which  is  to  be 
left  between  the  edge  of  the  roadway  and  the  side  ditch.  In  no 
case  should  the  berm  be  less  than  6  ft.,  and  it  is  better  to  have 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  109.3 

it  more  than  this  if  possible.  Side  ditching  destroys  the  natural 
sustaining  power  of  the  bog,  and  the  drains  should  therefore 
be  made  a  considerable  distance  from  the  line  of  the  proposed 
road.  Cross  drains  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  side  drains 
are  placed  at  frequent  intervals,  in  most  cases  about  30  ft. 
apart.  These  cross  drains  should  extend  across  the  site  of  the 
intended  road  and  beyond  the  side  drains  from  50  to  100  ft. 

By  Consolidating  the  Soft  Material.  This  was  done  in  one 
case  as  follows :  A  country  road  supervisor  was  told  to  construct 
a  corduroy  road  across  swampy  ground.  Instead  he  took  the 
logs  and  drove  them  endwise  beside  the  road.  These  logs  kept 
the  muck  from  oo/.irig  to  the  sides  and  the  road  proved  very  sat- 
isfactory. The  logs  were  about  16  ft.  long  and  were  put  down 
with  a  hand  pile  driver  made  of  an  elm  butt,  with  three  handles 
so  that  three  men  could  be  used  on  it.  In  another  case  a  country 
road  superintendent  drew  cobblestones  in  the  winter  time  and 
threw  them  into  the  ditch  alongside  the  road.  In  the  spring 
the  stones  sank  out  of  sight.  The  next  winter  he  threw  in  more 
stones.  These  stones  sank  some  but  not  out  of  sight,  and  as  a 
result  he  had  two  walls  on  each  side  of  his  road  so  that  the 
muck  could  not  ooze  to  the  sides.  There  has  been  no  sinking 
of  this  road  since. 

Filling  in  with  Solid  Material  This  method  is  often  employed 
in  the  case  of  sink  holes  and  for  soft  places  of  no  great  length  or 
depth.  In  one  instance  a  sink  hole  about  60  ft.  long  was  filled 
in  the  following  manner:  A  crossway  above  the  water  level 
was  first  constructed  of  3-ft.  second  growth  ash  poles.  On  this 
cobblestones  were  placed  to  a  depth  of  2  ft.  and  flanked  by 
boulders  to  hold  the  dirt.  The  stone  was  then  covered  with 
gravel  to  the  level  of  the  road  on  each  side  of  the  sink  hole. 

Distributing  the  Weight  Over  the  Soft  Ground.  Various 
methods  have  been  employed  for  "  floating "  a  roadway  or  rail- 
way embankment  over  soft  ground.  In  one  instance  a  railroad 
grade  that  has  stood  up  for  over  12  years  without  any  trouble 
was  built  over  ground  so  soft  that  a  pole  could  be  run  down 
30  ft.  by  hand,  by  first  making  a  mat  of  trees  and  then  placing 
earth  on  top  of  the  mat.  The  trees  were  from  1}£  in.  to  3  in. 
in  diameter. 

In  another  case,  a  temporary  road  across  a  marsh  of  soft 
mud  covered  with  high  grass  was  built  in  the  following  manner: 
Drift  wood  was  placed  along  the  line  of  the  proposed  road,  the 
bottom  layer  of  sticks  being  placed  lengthwise  and  the  top  layer 
crosswise.  The  high  marsh  grass  was  then  cut  and  spread  over 
the  timber  and  covered  with  earth. 

Somewhat  similar  methods  were  used  in  the  construction  of  a 


1094  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

permanent  road  through  a  marsh.  The  marsh  was  about  one 
mile,  and  was  covered  with  water  from  a  few  inches  to  2  ft. 
deep.  The  marsh  was  covered  with  wild  rice  about  8  ft.  high, 
with  stalks  from  }4  in.  to  %  in.  in  diameter  at  the  bottom. 
Through  the  central  portion  there  was  an  open  channel  about 
10  ft.  wide,  which  widened  out  into  small  pools  every  few  hun- 
dred feet.  The  channel  and  pools  had  from  3  to  4  ft.  of  water 
and  about  the  same  depth  of  decayed  vegetable  matter.  The 
turf  was  about  1  ft.  thick  with  from  2  to  6  ft.  of  soft  black 
vegetable  mould  underneath,  beneath  which  was  a  hard  bottom 
of  blue  clay.  Beginning  at  dry  ground,  an  18-ft.  x  1-ft.  x  1-in. 
board  was  laid  lengthwise  on  the  outside,  9  ft.  from  the  center 
of  the  proposed  road.  Another  board  was  laid  in  the  center  6  ft. 
in  advance  of  the  first  board  and  a  third  board  laid  on  the  opposite 
side  6  ft.  in  advance  of  the  second  board.  The  three  longitudinal 
pieces  were  covered  with  18-ft.  inch  boards  laid  crosswise  and 
nailed  as  fast  as  laid  to  keep  them  in  their  places.  Three  more 
boards  were  placed  lengthwise  on  these,  one  each  side  and  one  in 
the  center,  and  nailed  through  into  the  boards  underneath.  Wild 
rice  for  a  space  of  about  75  ft.  on  each  side  was  cut  down  and 
forked  onto  this  "  floating "  platform,  making  a  compact  cover- 
ing about  2  ft.  thick.  A  turn  around  for  teams  was  made  at 
the  end  of  the  first  500  ft.  of  road.  The  first  500  ft.  of  roadbed 
was  then  covered  to  a  width  of  16  ft.  with  about  15  in.  of  stones, 
and  on  this  was  placed  3  in.  of  crushed  stone.  The  road  was 
built  in  500-ft.  sections,  the  turn  around,  which  was  made  36 
ft.  square  of  doubled  boards,  being  moved  to  the  end  of  each 
section.  A  pond  about  200  ft.  wide  near  the  middle  of  the 
marsh  was  crossed  by  a  bent  bridge  50  ft.  wide  and  by  platforms 
the  same  as  those  used  on  the  marsh,  except  wider.  The  road  did 
not  break  through  the  turf  in  any  place  and  only  settled  an 
average  of  2  ft.  This  road  was  in  service  for  over  25  years. 

In  one  instance  a  wagon  road  was  constructed  over  a  bog 
by  placing  a  layer  of  brush  forming  a  mattress.  On  top  of  this 
mattress  was  placed  material  taken  from  the  side  ditches,  and 
on  top  of  this  was  placed  a  layer  of  larger  stone,  the  whole  be- 
ing surfaced  with  5  in.  of  gravel.  In  this  case  the  surface  of 
the  bog  was  drained,  care  being  taken  to  place  the  drainage 
ditches  so  that  they  would  not  impair  the  sustaining  power 
of  the  natural  crust  of  the  bog. 

In  another  case  a  road  was  constructed  over  a  soft,  deep,  wet 
and  yielding  swamp  on  a  raft  constructed  of  long  poles.  Long 
poles  laid  longitudinally  with  broken  joints  formed  the  bot- 
tom course,  and  a  second  course  was  formed  by  poles  laid  trans- 
versely. The  two  courses  were  then  covered  with  brush,  and  on 


ROAD  AND  PxAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1095 

this  was  laid  the  earth  and  surfacing  materials.  The  grade 
line  was  kept  low  and  the  filling  was  a  clay  loam.  The  black 
vegetable  mould  from  the  swamp  should  not  be  used  for  the 
earth  covering.  It  is  better  to  use  clay  loam,  a  gravelly  loam, 
or  clay.  Sand  when  slightly  moist  makes  a  good  foundation 
material.  In  some  of  these  roads  there  has  been  remarkably 
little  settlement.  In  the  case  of  one  road  there  was  a  settle- 
ment only  of  2  in.  after  the  roadbed  had  been  subjected  to  heavy 
traffic  for  over  a  year.  This  embankment  was  built  from  peat 
bog  at  the  elevation  of  mean  high  tide,  but  too  soft  to  sustain 
a  man  without  sinking  in  nearly  to  the  knees.  The  road  was 
20  ft.  wide  with  a  40-ft.  carriageway  and  the  grade  line  was  an 
incline  varying  from  4  to  20  ft.  above  the  surface  of  the  marsh. 
The  depth  to  the  hard  bottom  was  8  ft.  below  the  bog  surface. 

Dry  peat  was  used  by  George  Stephenson  to  carry  the  Liver- 
pool &  Manchester  Ry.  across  Chat  Moss  in  Great  Britain, 
On  the  4ry  peat  embankment  was  placed  two  layers  of  bundles 
to  carry  the  ballast. 

One  of  the  first  railroads  constructed  in  New  York  state  was; 
carried  across  a  swamp  by  spreading  the  pressure  over  a  large 
surface  by  means  of  a  wooden  platform. 

In  the  construction  of  a  short  piece  of  railroad  over  float- 
ing land  it  was  not  possible  to  put  in  a  trestle  because  the  ground 
was  not  strong  enough  to  hold  the  piling.  Accordingly  small 
willow  brush,  which  abounded  along  the  right  of  way,  was  cut 
and  bound  into  mattresses,  which  were  spread  in  a  uniform 
binding  plan  across  the  right  of  way.  Stringers  to  support  the 
ties  were  then  laid  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  road.  Dump 
cars  were  next  pushed  out  on  this  road  and  sufficient  dirt  was 
brought  up  and  spread  to  allow  of  flat  cars  being  pushed  out 
on  the  track  with  an  engine.  The  fill  made  in  this  way  had  a  2 
to  1  slope,  and  in  the  main  the  plan  was  successful,  although  in 
some  places  the  roadbed  failed  to  hold. 

In  Cape  May  County,  New  Jersey,  a  number  of  roads  have 
been  constructed  across  marsh  lands  to  connect  seashore  resorts 
with  the  main  land.  These  marsh  lands  consist  of  large  deposits 
of  soft  mud,  in  many  cases  25  ft.  deep,  overlain  by  a  sod  or 
crust  of  sedge  or  grass  roots.  In  many  cases  this  crust  is  not  of 
sufficient  strength  to  support  the  weight  of  a  horse.  The  meth- 
ods employed  in  constructing  these  roads  were  as  follows:  A 
foundation  is  laid  of  poles  and  stringers  of  sufficient  area  to 
support  the  weight  of  filling  soil  and  pavement,  together  with 
the  added  weight  of  travel,  without  breaking  down  the  meadow 
crust.  The  sides  of  the  roadway  are  protected  from  wash  by 
curbing  and  bulkheading  on  both  sides  of  the  road  throughout. 


1096  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  entire  length,  and  also  by  a  continuous  line  of  mud  banks 
solidly  compacted  against  the  outerside  of  the  curbing.  In  some 
of  the  latest  roads  constructed  by  the  comity  a  "  tie  "  is  placed 
every  8  ft.  under  the  pole  foundations  at  right  angles  to  the 
center  line  of  the  road.  These  ties  are  securely  spiked  or  bolted 
to  the  piling  supporting  the  side  curbing  or  bulkheading  and 
thus  bind  the  two  lines  of  curbing  together,  preventing  the 
spreading  of  the  roadway  and  at  the  same  time  carrying  a  part 
of  the  weight  of  the  roadbed  to  the  piling.  After  the  pole 
foundations  are  properly  laid,  good  soil  is  filled  in  between  the 
lines  of  curbing  until  the  required  elevation  is  reached,  after 
which  shells  and  gravel  are  spread  over  the  roadway  until  the 
finished  surface  is  brought  to  an  elevation  of  about  2  ft.  above 
the  mean  high  water  level.  The  pavement  that  has  given  satis- 
faction on  these  roads  consists  of  oyster  shells  spread  5  in. 
deep  and  covered  with  4  in.  of  gravel. 

Somewhat  different  methods  from  those  given  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  were  used  in  the  construction  of  a  road  in  Atlantic 
County,  New  Jersey.  This  road  was  constructed  across  salt 
meadows,  the  mud  varying  in  depths  from  6  to  28  ft.  The  sur- 
face along  the  line  of  the  road  was  mostly  a  floating  sod,  vary- 
ing in  thickness  from  2  to  4  ft.;  below  this  was  a  semi-liquid 
mud  resting  upon  hard  pan.  The  latter,  in  a  few  places,  was 
only  4  ft.  thick,  and  below  this  was  another  stratum  of  soft 
mud.  The  first  layer  of  hard  pan  was  depended  upon  to  support 
the  roadway.  The  approaches  to  a  bridge  along  the  line  of  the 
road  were  piled,  a  water  jet  and  hammer  being  used  to  put 
down  the  piles.  In  driving  the  piles  the  first  resistance  was 
met  at  a  depth  of  28  ft. ;  at  35  ft.  this  resistan.ee  disappeared 
and  the  pile  with  weight  of  hammer  sank  indefinitely.  Accord- 
ingly the  piles  were  only  driven  to  a  depth  of  30  ft.  The  pit  at 
this  point,  however,  extended  for  only  a  short  distance,  and  in 
most  cases  a  solid  bed  of  gravel,  sand  or  clay  was  usually  struck 
at  a  depth  of  from  10  to  20  ft.  below  high  tide.  After  the  line 
of  road  was  located,  sod  banks  5^  ft.  high,  12  ft.  wide  at  the 
base,  and  2  ft.  wide  at  the  top  were  built.  This  sod  was  taken 
from  between  the  banks  and  was  placed  with  the  grass  side  out. 
The  inside  edges  of  the  sod  banks  were  60  ft.  apart.  The  space 
between  the  sod  banks  was  then  filled  in  with  sand  dredged  from 
an  adjoining  bank  and  pumped  through  pipes  for  a  distance  of 
one-half  mile  or  more.  As  the  sand  settled  it  pushed  the  mud 
sidewise  until  it  reached  an  equilibrium  or  the  sand  rested  on 
the  hard  pan.  When  the  bed  of  sand  was  6  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  meadow  its  weight  was  sufficient  to  displace  the  mud  along 
the  line  of  the  road,  and  a  good  foundation  was  secured.  There 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1097 

were  a  number  of  silt  ponds  along  the  right  of  way  of  the 
road  and  at  these  points  there  was  no  sod  for  banks.  Pine 
bulkheads  were  used  at  these  places.  After  the  sand  fill  had 
thoroughly  settled  the  roadway  was  given  the  proper  crown  and 
surfaced  with  a  coating  of  gravel. 

Methods  in  a  way  similar  to  those  previously  described  are 
sometimes  used  in  Yukon  Territory,  Alaska,  in  constructing 
roads  over  frozen  muck  and  gravel  flats.  The  ground  usually 
consists  of  a  layer  of  frozen  gravel,  next  a  layer  of  frozen  muck 
and  on  this  a  layer  of  moss.  A  bed  of  3-in.  poles  is  laid  length- 
wise on  the  layer  of  moss,  then  comes  a  layer  of  brush  placed 
crosswise  and  on  top  is  broken  stone  or  gravel.  The  layer  of 
brush  is  usually  1  ft.  thick  and  the  surface  of  gravel  or  stone  is 
6  in.  thick.  The  top  width  of  the  road  is  16  ft.  in  most  cases. 
Such  a  road  built  over  frozen  ground  costs  about  $3,200  per 
mile  and  can  be  maintained  at  much  less  cost  than  a  road  built 
along  hill  sides.  In  constructing  roads  of  this  type  it  has  been 
found  best  to  leave  the  moss  intact  under  the  bed  of  poles,  as 
it  protects  the  ground  from  thawing.  The  black  frozen  muck, 
having  the  consistency  of  solid  stone,  remains  as  a  firm  bed. 
The  side  ditches,  usually  3  ft.  deep,  are  cut  either  entirely  in 
muck  or  partly  in  muck  and  partly  in  underlying  gravel.  These 
conditions  vary  with  the  thickness  of  the  muck.  The  inside 
faces  of  the  ditch  are  often  banked  with  sod,  thus  furnishing  an 
additional  protection.  In  the  construction  of  a  side  hill  road 
it  is  necessary  to  cut  into  the  moss  blanket,  and  as  a  result  the 
frozen  muck  is  thawed  out  by  the  sun  and  seepage  water  and 
becomes  a  soft,  slimy  mass.  The  cost  of  maintaining  such 
roads  has  been  found  to  be  so  much  greater  than  for  roads 
on  flat  ground,  that  the  latter  are  now  constructed  even  if  the 
distance  between  the  termini  is  greater. 

Compression  of  Marsh  Soil.  When  a  bank  is  filled  on  marsh 
land  there  is  first  compression  of  the  lighter  marsh  material 
between  the  heavier  filling,  then  a  shrinkage  of  filling  material, 
and,  third,  a  gradual  settlement  of  the  embankment,  compact- 
ing and  displacing  the  softer  marsh  that  sometimes  continues 
for  many  years.  Eugene  R.  Smith,  in  Transactions  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  37  (1897),  gives  .data  on  the 
compressibility  of  salt  marsh  at  Islip,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  under 
the  weight  of  an  earth  fill.  This  salt  marsh  (locally  known 
as  meadow)  consists  of  a  growth  of  salt  grasses  on  mud  just 
above  the  level  of  ordinary  high  tide.  The  mud  consists  of 
an  accumulation  of  decayed  seaweed  and  other  vegetable  mat- 
ter, and  is  very  soft  and  compressible.  The  sod  forms  a  cover- 
ing over  the  mud  and  distributes,  in  some  measure,  the  pres- 


1008         HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

sure  due  to  the  weight  of  the  filling  material  placed  above. 
The  pressure  on  the  mud  from  the  iill  increases  the  .firmness 
of  the  mud  by  squeezing  out  the  water. 

The  specifications  called  for  a  fill  3  ft.  high  above  the  ordi- 
nary level  of  the  meadow  surface  or  about  3.4  ft.  above  ordi- 
nary high  tide.  The  work  was  performed  by  an  18-in.  centrifugal 
pump  dredge,  dredging  sand  from  Great  South  Bay  adjacent 
and  from  a  canal  dug  through  the  meadow.  This  sand  was  a 
very  sharp  quartz  and  weighed  from  2,875  to  2,956  Ib.  dry  and 
3,037  to  3,118  Ib.  wet  per  cu.  yd. 

The  percentage  of  compression  of  various  depths  of  meadow 
sod  ranging  from  1.5  to  6.5  ft.  thick  during  periods  from  1  to 
12  months  are  given  in  detail  by  Mr.  Smith.  The  general 
average  compression  for  all  thicknesses  was  as  follows: 

Months  1246  8  9          10         11 

Percentage    ....10.0      13.1      15.1      15.9      16.9      16.6      16.2      16.7 

Meadows  averaging  2.7  ft.  thick  ranging  from  1.5  to  3.5  ft. 
inclusive,  varied  from  the  general  average  by  minus  percentages 
ranging  from  2.3  for  a  period  of  1  mo.  to  5.6  for  a  period  of  11 
mos.  Meadows  averaging  4.7  ft.  thick,  ranging  from  3.6  to  6.5 
ft.  inclusive,  varied  from  the  general  average  by  plus  percentages 
ranging  from  0.0  for  a  period  of  1  mo.  to  2.8  for  a  period  of  11 
mos.  Meadows  over  6.6  ft.  thick  and  averaging  6.9  ft.  varied  from 
the  general  average  percentage  of  compression  by  plus  percent- 
ages ranging  from  0.0  for  a  period  of  1  mo.  to  1.3  for  a  period 
of  11  mos. 

Mr.  Smith  states  that  his  experience  in  January,  when  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  was  greater,  indicated  that  great 
changes  in  tide  level  permitted  an  opportunity  for  the  meadow 
to  dry  out  and  reduced  its  compressibility  under  filling. 

Railway  Embankments.  These  are  seldom  built  in  layers  ex- 
cept when  they  are  made  by  scrapers  or  barrows.  For  high  fills 
the  usual  practice  is  to  build  out  from  the  end  or  to  dump  from 
trestles.  Consolidating  during  construction  usually  being  im- 
practicable, allowance  for  shrinkage  must  be  made.  This  can 
be  done  in  several  ways : 

( 1 )  By  raising  the  height  of  crown  above  the  established  sub- 
grade   by   a   percentage   of   embankment   height. 

(2)  By  adding  additional  width  to  the  standard  crown  width. 

(3)  By  combining  methods  one  and  two. 

(4)  By   adding  a   shrinkage  percentage   to   the  height   of   em- 
bankment,   computing    a    new    slope    distance    for    this    corrected 
height,  thus  increasing  the  width  between   slope  stakes. 

The   last   method   seems   unusual   and   defeats   the    purpose    of 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1099 

shrinkage,  as  it  adds  width  to  the  embankment  where  gravity 
and  the  action  of  the  elements  naturally  provide  it.  In  cases 
where  sliding  or  sloughing  is  to  be  expected,  it  is  better  practice 
to  increase  the  slope  ratio. 

While  raising  the  height  of  crown  places  the  material  where 
it  is  most  needed,  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  making  temporary 
humps  in  the  grade  line.  If  the  fill  is  on  maximum  grade  the 
allowance  for  shrinkage  may  cause  that  grade  to  be  exceeded 
to  a  serious  extent  until  the  ultimate  shrinking  has  taken  place. 
This  leads  to  the  practice  of  adding  additional  width  to  the 
crown,  the  extra  material  being  used  to  raise  the  tracks  after 
subsidence  takes  place. 

In  building  a  long,  high  levee,  gravelly  earth  was  dumped 
through  a  temporary  trestle,  and  spread  with  a  dragline  scraper. 
The  material  was  kept  soaked  with  water  from  a  pipe  line  on 
the  trestle.  For  about  5  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  it  was  thus  spread  in 
layers  and  compacted.  This  is  a  relatively  cheap  method  that 
might  be  used  on  railway  embankments  where  subsidence  is  suf- 
ficiently objectionable  to  warrant  the  cost  of  consolidation. 

Subsidence  of  Embankments  on  Soft  Ground.  This  is  usually 
treated  by  continuing  to  fill  until  either  the  soft  material  is  en- 
tirely replaced  or  until  it  is  sufficiently  compacted  to  carry  the 
required  load.  Hence  it  often  happens  that  railroad  embank- 
ments contain  much  more  material  than  appears  on  the  surface. 
The  importance  of  discovering  this  hidden  embankment  in  val- 
uation work  is  obvious.  F.  J.  Wright,  in  Engineering  Record, 
Mar.  3,  1917,  describes  surveying  work  on  the  C.  C.  C.  and  St. 
L.  Ry.  to  disclose  the  "  lost  yardage." 

The  depth  to  which  the  different  fills  had  .subsided  ranged  all 
the  way  up  to  25  ft.  The  filled  material  also  varied  greatly, 
so  that  it  was  found  expedient  to  use  two  methods  in  determin- 
ing the  slope  of  subsidence  —  (1)  the  excavation  of  test  pits  at 
the  toe  of  the  slope  and  (2)  the  drilling  of  test  holes  through 
the  fill. 

The  fills  tested  by  the  excavation  of  pits  were  either  those 
which  had  subsided  a  comparatively  small  amount  or  those 
made  of  rock  and  other  coarse  material,  making  drilling  im- 
possible. The  pits  were  dug  at  the  toe  of  the  slope,  from  100 
to  200  ft.  apart,  between  the  points  of  no  subsidence  at  the  ends 
of  the  fill.  The  excavation  of  each  pit  was  carried  back  several 
feet  into  the  fill,  the  depth  varying  as  the  downward  slope  of  the 
surface  of  the  old  ground  toward  the  center  of  the  fill. 

Test  pits  were  impractical  in  sounding  fills  which  had  sub- 
sided more  than  8  or  10  ft.  The  presence  of  water  near  the 
surface  of  the  marsh  or  bog  made  the  test-pit  method  more  un- 


1100 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


satisfactory.  When  these  conditions  were  found,  test  holes  were 
drilled  down  through  the  fill  with  an  ordinary  soil  auger  until 
old  ground  was  reached.  To  facilitate  drilling,  pits  were  usu- 
ally dug  at  the  toe  of  the  slope,  in  about  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  3. 

The  drilling  outfit  consisted  of  the  following  material :  One 
2-in.  soil  auger  welded  to  a  6-ft.  length  of  i£  x  n/^-in.  galvanized- 
iron  pipe,  the  upset  end  threaded  for  a  l^-in.  standard  pipe;  ten 
5-ft.  lengths  of  }£  x  13,4-in.  galvanized  pipe,  threaded  at  both 
ends;  three  5-ft.  lengths  of  %6  x  2i£-in.  galvanized  pipe  (casing)  ; 
eighteen  l^-in-  galvanized  pipe  sleeve  couplings;  two  IG-in. 
Stillson  pipe  wrenches,  and  one  length  of  2-in.  galvanized  pipe 


^ 

*'  j 
Fig.  3.     Typical  Arrangement  and  Depths  of  Drill  Holes. 

fitted  with  a  standard  li/4-in.  galvanized  pipe  tec  at  the  center 
(handle) . 

When  the  test  holes  were  less  than  6  ft.  deep,  the  pipe  handle 
was  attached  to  the  end  of  the  auger.  In  the  case  of  deeper 
holes  the  pipe  handle  was  removed  and  pipe  lengths  were  added 
as  the  depth  of  the  hole  demanded,  the  auger  being  turned  with 
the  pipe  wrenches.  The  pipe  casing  was  used  only  in  fills 
containing  cinders,  sand,  or  coarse  gravel,  and  was  driven  down 
until  it  passed  through  the  material  causing  the  difficulty  in 
drilling. 

In  putting  down  a  test  hole,  the  driller  withdrew  the  auger 
at  about  every  foot  of  depth,  and  the  earth  brought  up  was  ex- 
amined and  removed.  The  drilling  was  continued  until  material 
was  reached  which  could  be  identified  with  the  surrounding 
land.  In  cases  where  the  filled  earth  and  old  ground  were  sim- 
ilar as  to  color  and  formation,  roots  and  twigs  in  the  latter 
aided  in  distinguishing  between  them. 

The  estimated  yardage  due  to  subsidence  of  eight  fills  sounded 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS 


1101 


was  250,000  cu.  yd.  This  work,  which  involved  1,090  lin.  ft.  of 
drilling  and  270  cu.  yd.  of  shovel  work,  was  accomplished  at  a 
total  cost  of  $305. 

Subsidence  Investigations,  C.  B.  &  Q.  R.  R.  W.  W.  K.  Spar- 
row, in  Engineering  yews-Record,  June  20,  1918,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing: '  •*!>  ••?•'•, 

A  hidden  quantity  of  material  30%  in  excess  of  the  apparent 
amount  was  found  by  the  valuation  department  of  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy  R.  R.  in  a  peat  bog  in  northern  Illinois. 
At  a  cost  of  $313  material  amounting  to  80,000  cu.  yd.  was  found, 
mainly  by  means  of  test  borings.  The  bog  was  under  a  20-ft. 
fill  which  extended  both  ways  from  the  bog.  The  entire  extent 
of  the  latter  was  only  1,100  ft.,  and  the  appearance  of  the  ground 
surface  was  no  different  from  that  on  either  side  of  it. 

To   ascertain   the   extent   and   the   amount   of   subsidence,    test 


JOO- 


40  J 


Fig.    4.     Typical    Cross-Section   Near   Midpoint   of    Bog. 


holes  were  put  down  by  means  of  a  2^-in.  wood  auger  attached 
to  a  %-in.  gaspipe  cut  into  convenient  lengths.  Trenching  was 
resorted  to  at  a  few  points,  but  did  not  give  as  satisfactory 
results  as  the  test  holes. 

Where  undisturbed,  the  bog  showed  a  top  stratum  composed  of 
a  black  dirt  which  gradually  turned  into  a  stratum  of  brown 
crumbly  material  known  as  peat.  Under  this  was  a  plastic 
mass,  gray,  which  after  a  few  feet  turned  to  a  greenish  color. 
It  was  possible  to  push  the  auger  through  this  stratum  without 
turning  it;  the  whole  gave  off  a  strong  odor  of  marsh  gas,  and 
when  the  auger  was  withdrawn  the  hole  closed  at  once.  Un- 
der this  mass  a  stratum  of  stiff  blue  clay  was  found,  and  at 
succeeding  depths  this  material  was  found  to  become  harder, 
with  a  tendency  to  contain  gravel. 

Tests  on  either  side  of  the  bog  developed  a  different  forma- 
tion, in  which  no  subsidence  was  found.  The  surface  material 
was  the  same  as  for  the  bog.  Under  it  a  blue  clay  was  found, 
containing  streaks  of  yellow  which  gradually  disappeared,  leav- 


1102  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ing  the  material  exactly  the  same  as  that  found  under  the  plastic 
mass  in  the  bog. 

Fig.  4  shows  the  location  of  test  holes,  the  strata  revealed  by 
them  and  the  amount  of  hidden  material  compared  with  the  vis- 
ible embankment.  The  yardage  of  embankment  above  the  ap- 
parent ground  line  within  the  limits  of  the  bog  was  01,300.  The 
yardage  of  hidden  material  was  80,000,  showing  the  hidden  quan- 
tity to  be  30%  in  excess  of  the  apparent  quantity.  To  obtain 
the  data,  four  men,  receiving  a  total  of  $19.55  per  day,  worked 
16  days,  this  cost  amounting  to  $312.80.  Fifty-two  holes  were 
bored  to  an  average  depth  of  21  ft.,  and  25  to  an  average  depth 
of  6.6  ft.  The  cost  of  the  survey  per  linear  foot  of  hole  bored 
was  24  ct.  The  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  hidden  material  revealed 
was  0.4  ct. 

Temporary  Trestles.  These  are  often  used  to  carry  construc- 
tion track  in  building  embankments.  Dumping  from  them  saves 
the  use  of  a  considerable  number  of  men  who  would  be  required 
to  raise  the  tracks  with  jacks  from  time  to  time  if  no  trestle 
was  used.  Most  of  the  timber  used  in  trestles  remains  buried  in 
the  fill.  Trestles  are  a  frequent  source  of  difficulty.  They  are 
always  in  danger  of  injury  from  rocks  or  boulders  in  the  filling 
material.  Subsidence  of  the  ground  due  to  the  weight  of  the 
growing  embankment  frequently  destroys  their  alignment  and 
usefulness.  So  many  factors  enter  into  the  question  of  the  econ- 
omy of  using  trestles  that  each  case  must  be  decided  for  itself. 
It  is  impossible  to  state  any  minimum  height  of  embankment  for 
which  dumping  from  temporary  trestles  would  be  cheaper  than 
raising  the  track. 

Engineering  A'ews,  Aug.  9,  1906,  describes  the  method  em- 
ployed to  raise  an  old  embankment.  Earth  was  first  dumped 
from  the  old  main  track  and  spread  with  a  Jordan  spreader. 
New  track  was  laid  on  the  newly  dumped  material  and  the  em- 
bankment widened  to  slope  stakes  by  throwing  the  track.  The 
new  track  was  then  thrown  to  the  final  center  and  raised  by 
tamping.  Thirty  men  handled  30,800  cu.  yd.  of  fill  in  one  month. 
Their  pay  at  $1.75  per  day  , was  $52.50  daily  or  3.4~  ct.  per  cu. 
yd.  A  trestle  would  have  released  22  men,  making  a  saving  of 
2.5  per  cu.  yd.  or  32  ct.  per  lin.  ft.  of  embankment  built,  which 
was  not  enough  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  10-ft.  trestle  required. 
On  a  higher  fill  a  trestle  would  have  saved  its  cost. 

Costs  of  Temporary  Trestles.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
July  20,  1910,  quotes  D.  J.  Hauer  in  discussion  of  a  paper  on 
building  embankments  which  was  presented  before  the  Am.  Soc. 
of  Eng.  Contractors  as  follows: 

In  regard  to  costs,  I  might  say  that  in  building  a  large  number 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1103 

of  temporary  trestles,  and  keeping  very  accurate  records,  where 
logs  could  be  obtained  on  the  ground  at  from  3  to  5  ct.  per  linear 
foot,  and  carpenter  wages  were  from  $2.50  to  $3.00  a  day,  my  ex- 
perience is  that  the  cost  of  a  trestle  ranges  anywhere  from  1  to 
8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Over  low  structures,  where  the  amount  of  ma- 
terial to  be  dumped  is  not  large,  the  cost  runs  frequently  from  4 
to  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  maybe  a,  little  higher;  although  in  one 
case,  near  Savannah,  Ga.,  I  erected  a  long,  low  temporary  trestle, 
at  an  average  height  of  8  ft.,  for  2}£  ct.  a  yd.  But  I  was  able 
to  get  my  stringers  by  buying  and  reselling,  so  the  cost  was  only 
$2  per  thousand.  For  the  short  bents,  placed  on  18-ft.  centers, 
I  was  able  to  get  the  timber  off  the  right-of-way.  But  on  that 
same  work,  where  we  were  compelled  to  buy  our  longer  timbers, 
the  .cost  was  about  3  ct.  a  cu.  yd.  for  a  trestle  about  28  ft.  high. 

On  one  job  in  North  Carolina,  I  erected  temporary  trestles, 
varying  in  height  from  30  ft.  to  50  ft.,  in  some  cases  triple-deck 
in  their  framing,  and  they  cost  from  2}£  ct.  to  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
for  the  material  placed  in  the  embankment.  The  cost  of  timber 
was  3  ct.  per  lin.  ft.,  and  carpenters  were  paid  $2.50  a  day.  The 
amount  of  iron  was  small,  being  in  the  bents  mostly.  The 
stringers  and  ties  were  not  fastened  with  metal. 

I  have  some  costs  of  one  structure,  about  70  ft.  high,  where 
the  price  of  timber  was  about  5  ct.  a  foot,  and  of  labor  $3  a  day 
for  the  carpenter,  and  the  average  cost  of  the  trestle  was  between 
7  and  8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  There  were  something  like  150,000  cu. 
yd. 

Dumping  Trestles  on  the  Southern  Ry.  Engineering  News, 
Nov.  16,  1916,  illustrates  several  trestles  in  use  on  the  Southern 
Railway. 

Railway  fills  are  made  chiefly  by  dumping  from  one  or  more 
lifts  of  trestle  or  by  building  one  trestle  and  then  jacking  the 
track  to  grade.  As  is  the  case  on  most  large  grading  jobs  where 
several  contractors  are  doing  the  work,  both  these  methods  are 
in  use  in  grading  the  50-mile  second-track  Southern  Ry.  relo- 
cation between  Central,  S.  C.,  and  Cornelia,  Ga. 

Half  a  mile  south  of  Ayersville,  Ga.,  the  trestle  for  a  fill 
on  the  new  line  is  built  on  the  side  of  the  old  70-ft.  fill.  This 
trestle  was  not  anchored  very  securely,  as  Fig.  2  indicates.  In 
dumping  the  12-yd.  cars  were  backed  out  on  the  trestle  very 
carefully  and  just  far  enough  to  dump  clear. 

The  timbers,  which  are  obtained  near  the  right-of-way,  are 
hauled  to  place  and  hoisted  by  hand,  by  ox  team  or  by  mules. 
Fig.  5  shows  the  design  of  a  trestle  at  Seneca,  S.  C.,  in  which 
some  of  the  bents  were  wired  together. 

Two  especially  good   examples   of  the  trestle   method   and   the 


1104 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


jacking  method  are  found  on  this  work.  The  heaviest  fill  is  150 
ft.  high,  and  it  has  been  carried  up  more  than  UO  ft.,  to  date,  by 
jacking  the  tracks  from  the  first  18-ft.  trestle  lift.  This  work 


C  ross  -Section  £  \  e  v  a  -H  o  n 

Fig.  5.     Trestle  at  Seneca,  S.  C.,  Used  in  Heavy  Fill. 


Fig.   6.     Trestle   Built  on    Slope   of  Old   70-Ft.    Fill.     Two-Story 

Trestle. 

is   near    Toccoa,   on   the    Lane    section.     Near   Deercourt,    Ga.,    a 
105-ft.  fill  is  being  made  from  three  parallel  trestles  of  increas- 
ing height.     Both  these  large  fills  are  almost  entirely  borrow. 
Cost  of  Two  Dumping  Trestles.     John   C.   Sessen,  Proceedings 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1105 

of  the  American  Railway  Engineering  and  Maintenance  of  Way 
Association,  1907,  gives  the  following: 

These  trestles  were  designed  to  carry  a  loaded  train  of  5-yd. 
dump  cars  before  the  trestle  was  filled,  the  engine  being  carried 
only  after  filling.  Second-hand  material,  except  bracing,  was 
used.  Two  8  x  16-in.  stringers  were  used  for  13-ft.  spans.  The 
stringers  were  recovered,  the  balance  of  the  material  was  buried 
in  embankment.  Each  bent  consisted  of  two  piles,  cap  and  sway 
braces. 

Name    of    Job  Big  Shoal  Little  Shoal 

Length   of   trestle,    ft 2,961  2,142 

Average  height,   ft 40  35 

Total  cost  of  trestle   $9,007  $5,853 

Labor  cost  per  lin.  ft $1.30  $1.22 

Material  cost  per  lin.   ft 1.74  1.51 

Total  cost  per  lin.  ft $3.04  $2.73 

Except  as  an  approach  to  a  higher  trestle  it  does  not  usually 
pay  to  build  trestles  under  16  ft.  in  height.  For  trestles  be- 
tween 20  and  60  ft.  in  height,  the  cost  of  trestle  per  cu.  yd.  of 
earth  is  about  the  same. 

Movable  Trestles  for  Bank  Construction.  In  Engineering 
Neivs,  June  12,  1902,  Joseph  Wright  describes  and  illustrates 
"  A  Method  of  Bank  Construction  by  Dumping  from  Movable 
Trestles."  The  bank  was  to  be  about  1^  miles  long  and  6  ft. 
high  for  a  railroad,  over  practically  level  ground.  A  trestle 
was  built  in  sections  17  ft.  long;  the  side  on  which  the  earth  was 
dumped  being  closely  sheeted  with  plank.  Each  section  of  the 
trestle  rested  on  two  long  wooden  skids,  so  that  one  team  could 
shift  each  section  of  the  trestle  when  it  became  necessary  to 
move.  Let  it  be  noted,  however,  that  if  the  embankment  had 
been  much  over  6.5  ft.  high  the  pressure  of  the  earth  against  the 
plank  sheeting  would  have  shifted  the  trestle  without  the  aid 
of  a  team;  and  means  would  have  had  to  be  provided  to  keep  the 
trestle  in  place.  This  is  an  ingenious  method,  and  enables  a 
very  long  embankment  to  be  built  without  leaving  any  timber  in 
the  bank. 

A  method  well  adapted  to  similar  conditions,  but  where  the 
bank  is  high,  is  described  and  illlustrated  in  Engineering  News, 
Jan.  16,  1902.  A  fill  %  mile  long  and  60  to  65  ft.  high  was 
to  be  made  over  practically  level  ground.  Instead  of  trestling, 
the  contractor  had  a  light  movable  steel  bridge  made  with  a  span 
of  150  ft.,  and  14  ft.  between  the  trusses,  the  weight  being  about 
40  tons. 

One  end  of  the  bridge  was  supported  by  the  bank,  on  rollers; 
the  other  end  was  supported  by  a  wooden  tower  or  trestle  60  ft. 


1106  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

high,  made  with  bents,  each  having  three  "  stories."  The  tower 
was  16  ft.  wide  on  top  and  25  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  it 
rested  on  wheels  running  upon  rails  25  ft.  apart.  Guy  ropes 
prevented  overturning  from  wind  pressure. 

By  using  block  and  tackle,  one  team  of  horses  can  shift  the 
trestle  with  the  bridge  a  distance  of  30  ft.  in  three  hours'  time. 
A  train  of  12  dump  cars  (3  cu.  yd.  each)  running  on  a  36-in. 
gage  track  is  hauled  by  a  locomotive. 

Three  cars  are  dumped  at  a  time,  then  the  train  is  shifted,  and 
three  more  cars  dumped  exactly  where  the  first  three  stood. 
This  dumping  in  one  place  is  supposed  to  pack  the  earth  and 
prevent  future  settlements.  Thus  far  settlements  have  not  oc- 
curred. The  material  is  clay,  and  the  steam  shovel,  working 
night  and  day,  is  loading  about  1,600  cu.  yd.  every  24  hr.  Had 
a  temporary  trestle  been  built  the  cost  for  timber  would  have 
been  double  the  cost  of  the  movable  steel  bridge  and  tower. 

These  two  methods  of  saving  timber  in  trestling  for  fills 
(where  timber  is  scarce)  illustrate  the  possibilities  of  great  sav- 
ing in  cost  when  the  contractor  has  a  full  knowledge  of  his 
business  —  and  a  goodly  share  of  ingenuity.  The  author  would 
suggest  that  the  first  movable  trestle  method  might  be  used  even 
for  very  high  fills,  simply  by  building  the  fill  up  in  layers  of  say 
8  ft.  thick  the  full  length  of  the  fill;  and  by  so  doing  a  more  com- 
pact embankment  would  be  secured. 

Cost  of  Carpenter  Work  on  Trestles.  In  building  an  embank- 
ment 16  ft.  high  across  Otisco  Lake,  N.  Y.,  the  author  used 
round  unsawed  timber  with  two  posts  in  each  bent;  the  caps 
were  sawed  and  the  beams  between  bents  upon  which  the  rails 
rested  were  also  sawed  timber  that  was  saved  and  used  again  and 
again.  In  this  way  the  cost  of  trestling  was  made  very  slight. 
With  carpenter  wages  at  25  ct.  per  hr.,  and  labor  at  15  ct.  per 
hr.,  the  cost  of  framing  and  erecting  the  trestle  was  $6  per 
1,000  ft.  B.  M.,  or  about  l/£  ct.  per  lineal  ft.  of  heavy  timber. 

Additional  costs  are  given  in  my  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data." 

A  Wire-Rope  "  Trestle."  V.  L.  Ingle,  Jr.,  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  June  1,  1910,  gives  the  following: 

Usually  two  methods  are  employed  in  making  embankments 
where  locomotives  and  dump  cars  are  used.  The  first  method 
is  to  lay  the  track  on  the  ground,  and,  by  dumping  alternately 
to  right  and  left,  jack  up  the  track  until  the  required  height  is 
reached.  This  method  is  most  economically  employed  where  the 
ratio  of  length  of  embankment  to  height  is  25,  or  more,  to  1. 
The  second  method  is  to  build  a  trestle  and  make  the  fill  by 
dumping  from  it.  Building  trestles  is  expensive,  and,  if  the 
material  to  compose  the  embankment  contains  a  considerable  pro- 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS 


1107 


portion  of  large  rock  or  boulders,  there  is  always  the  danger  of 
carrying  away  a  bent  or  otherwise  seriously  injuring  the  struc- 
ture. 

On  a  piece  of  heavy  railroad  work  in  the  South  where  the 
embankments  were  high  one  of  the  embankments  to  be  made 
contained  about  115,000  cu.  yd.,  reached  a  maximum  height  of 
57  ft.,  and  was  slightly  over  800  ft.  long,  from  grade  point  to 
grade  point.  To  build  a  trestle  would  have  cost  between  $6,000 
and  $8,000,  and,  as  the  material  to  make  the  fill  was  mostly 
rock,  the  chances  were  very  great  that  a  part  of  the  structure 
would  be  carried  away  before  the  completion  of  the  work.  To 
avoid  the  necessity  of  constructing  a  trestle,  the  following  scheme 
was  adopted: 

The  cuts  at  both  ends  of  the  embankment  were  opened  up  in 


Fig.  7.     Side  View  of  Wire  Rope  Trestle  for  Making  Large  Fill. 


the  usual  manner  with  carts  for  about  60  ft.,  as  indicated  by  the 
dotted  lines  in  Fig.  7.  At  points,  approximately  50  ft.  from 
each  grade  point,  deadmen  were  sunk,  and  two  1^-in.  wire  cables, 
spaced  3  ft.  6  in.,  were  stretched  from  one  to  the  other  and 
hauled  as  taut  as  possible.  At  points  about  equally  dividing 
the  fill,  three  timber  bents  were  erected,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7. 
These  bents  were  made  from  timber  cut  on  the  right-of-way. 
Their  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  Caps  were  about  8x8  in. 
x  6  ft.  and  sills  about  10  x  10  in.  As  this  timber  was  cut  on  the 
ground,  the  dimensions  varied  slightly. 

In  erecting,  the  tops  of  the  caps  were  brought  to  the  estab- 
lished grade  line,  and  the  sills  were  sunk  in  a  trench  3  or  4  ft. 
deep,  which  was  backfilled  with  rock  or  earth.  This  steadied 
the  bents  and  prevented  their  kicking  out  at  the  foot,  under  the 
impact  of  the  dumped  material.  From  the  caps,  1-in.  guy  wires 


1108  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

were  run  out  at  angles  of  about  45°,  in  order  to  clear  the  dump- 
ing of  material  as  far  as  possible,  and  fastened  to  deadmen. 
The  main  cables  were  then  fastened  to  the  caps  by  wire  lashings 
and  the  ties  placed  on  them,  every  third  or  fourth  tie  being 
lashed  to  the  cables.  The  rail  was  then  laid  on  the  ties,  brought 
to  the  established  grade  line,  and  they  were  laid  far  enough 
ahead  to  accommodate  the  length  of  train  used. 

The  method  of  operation  was  as  follows:  A  train  of  loaded 
cars  was  backed  onto  the  approach  fill,  and,  at  the  point  where 
the  cables  left  the  fill,  were  dumped,  the  first  car  on  one  side,  the 
second  on  the  other  side,  alternate  cars  on  alternate  sides,  until 
the  entire  train  was  unloaded.  The  train  was  then  run  back 
on  the  approach  fill  and  the  cars  righted.  Dumping  the  cars  on 


Fig.  8.     Details  of  Timber  Bent  for  Wire  Rope  Trestle. 

alternate  sides  balanced  the  weight  on  the  cables,  prevented  the 
overturning  of  the  train  and  made  the  fill  about  equal  on  both 
sides  of  the  track.  All  cars  were  dumped  before  their  loaded 
weight  came  on  the  cables,  only  empty  cars  being  supported 
thereon.  Little  or  no  shoveling  of  material  was  required,  most 
of  it  sliding  to  the  bottom  of  the  fill,  and  what  little  remained 
was  generally  used  -in  jacking  up  the  track.  As  the  bents  were 
approached,  more  or  less  care  was  exercised  to  prevent  their 
being  injured,  but  no  more  so  than  on  any  other  trestle. 

The  work  was  carried  forward  in  this  manner  until  the  ravine 
had  been  spanned,  after  which  it  was  widened  out  in  the  usual 
way. 

In  building  the  trestle  it  was  assumed  that  the  deflection 
of  the  cables  at  the  center  of  a  bay  would  be  about  5%  of  the 
span,  but,  by  jacking  up  the  track  as  the  embankment  was  made, 
the  deflection  was  reduced  to  about  3%.  When  dumping  at  the 
center  of  a  200-ft.  span  this  gave  about  a  6%  grade  for  a  dinkey 
engine  to  start  an  empty  train  on,  and  was  not  prohibitive. 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1109 

The  plan  described  left  very  little  material  in  the  dump,  saved 
the  main  cables,  guys,  and  caps,  and  was  much  more  quickly  and 
cheaply  carried  out  than  would  have  been  the  erection  of  an  all 
timber  trestle.  The  writer  left  for  other  work  before  the  com- 
pletion of  this  fill  and  so  has  no  exact  data  as  to  cost.  Figur- 
ing maintenance  at  the  same  rate  as  during  his  connection  with 
the  work,  and  barring  accidents,  the  cost  should  have  amounted 
to  about  3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of  embankment. 

A  Suspension  Bridge  for  Making  Fills.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  May  19,  1909,  gives  the  following.  The  bridge  con- 
sists of  two  towers,  a  fixed  standard  cableway  tower  at  the  far 
end  of  the  embankment,  and  a  portable  steel  structure  on  the 
advancing  end  of  the  embankment,  both  supporting  a  suspended 
track.  The  movable  tower  is  25  ft.  wide  across  track,  20  ft. 
wide  in  the  direction  parallel  with  the  track,  this  w.idth  decreas- 
ing to  12  ft.  at  the  top,  which  is  some  70  ft.  above  ground.  The 
tower  (Fig.  9)  moves  on  a  20-ft.  gage  track,  laid  on  the  fill. 
The  movement  is  by  skidding,  horizontal  steel  plates  being  at- 
tached to  the  feet  of  the  tower  legs.  At  the  top  of  the  tower 
are  special  saddles  for  the  cables. 

The  cables  are  spaced  12  ft.  apart  and  extend  from  an  anchor- 
age back  of  the  stationary  tower  to  an  adjustment  back  of  the 
portable  tower.  They  are  2^4-in.  wire  rope  cables.  They  carry 
suspenders  which  support  the  track  platform;  these  suspenders 
are  spaced  12  ft.  apart  on  each  cable,  and  are  kept  to  proper 
spacing  by  connecting  bars  ( two  4^  x  %-in.  steel  straps ) .  Each 
suspender  consists  of  a  6-in.  trolley  sheave  having  strap  hangers 
on  each  side  which  support  a  single-sheave  block.  A  %-in.  steel 
cable  is  run  through  this  block  and  supports  in  its  bight  another 
single-sheave  block,  which  attaches  to  a  staple  bolt.  The  staple 
bolts  of  successive  hangers  run  through  and  support  the  platform 
girders.  The  block  and  tackle  construction  of  the  suspenders  per- 
mits their  length  to  be  adjusted  vertically  so  that  the  track 
platform  can  always  be  kept  level.  The  platform  girders  are 
across-track,  one  end  being  supported  by  the  suspender  from  the 
right  hand  cable  and  the  opposite  end  being  supported  by  the 
suspender  from  the  left  hand  cable.  These  girders  carry  two 
lines  of  stringers  on  which  are  laid  the  ties  and  rails  of  the 
dump  car  track. 

In  operation  the  fill  is  started  at  the  portable  tower,  the  cars 
being  backed  out  from  the  solid  embankment  onto  the  suspended 
platform  track  and  dumped,  a  car  at  a  time,  just  at  the  top  edge 
of  the  fill.  By  this  arrangement  practically  only  empty  cars  are 
carried  by  the  suspended  platform.  At  the  start  of  work  the 
platform  is  suspended  quite  close  to  the  tower,  but  as  the  em- 


1110 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


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1112 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


bankment   is    filled   out   the   platform    is   moved   away   from   the 
tower. 

This  aerial  cable  bridge  is  handling  some  1,200  cu.  yd.  of  ma- 
terial per  day,  this  being  not  the  limit  of  the  bridge,  but  the 
maximum  which  can  be  excavated  daily.  This  plant,  requires  no 


Fig.   11.     Details  of  Cable  and  Hanger. 

power  other  than  that  of  the  locomotives  used  for  hauling  ma- 
terial trains.  It  is  readily  dismantled  and  transported.  Its 
salvage  value  is  large. 

Further  details  of  this  cableway  and  suspended  bridge  are 
given  in  Engineering  ~News,  Apr.  22,  1909,  as  shown  in  Figs.  10 
and  11. 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS 


1113 


Details  of  a  Suspension  Dumping  Bridge.  Engineering  News, 
Nov.  20,  1913,  gives  the  following: 

Each  tower  is  composed  of  a  pair  of  A-frames,  braced  together 
and  carrying  a  heavy  built-up  cap.  Upon  the  caps  are  placed 
cast-iron  saddles  for  the  two  cables,  which  arc  of  plow  steel,  2 
in.  diameter.  On  the  anchorage  sides,  'the  cables  are  led  to  dead- 
men  embedded  in  the  ground  about  150  ft.  from  the  tower.  Near 
the  top  of  the  tower  they  are  connected  by  a  1-in.  steel  tierod, 
and  beyond  this  they  diverge  at  an  angle  of  30°  to  the  anchor- 
ages. The  cables  are  10  ft.  apart,  and  at  intervals  of  10  ft.  there 
are  suspenders  or  hangers  secured  to  hooks  clamped  on  the  cables. 


prow  sfeel cable 


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Fig.    12.     Suspension   Dumping   Bridge   for   Building   Embank- 
ments;   Louisville   &  Nashville   R.   R. 

These  suspenders  are  four-line  tackles  of  %-in.  steel  cable,  having 
the  upper  block  hooked  to  the  clamp  on  the  main  cable  and 
a  lower  block  hooked  to  a  belt  in  a  floorbeam  10  x  10  in.  The 
stringers  for  the  track  ties  rest  on  the  beams.  Each  stringer 
is  made  up  of  two  timbers  3x12  in.  The  track  is  laid  for  a 
length  sufficient  for  six  small  dump  cars.  The  first  section  of 
the  floor  is  supported  upon  small  bents,  the  bridge  floor  be- 
ginning where  the  height  becomes  too  great  for  such  bents. 

A  Suspension  Bridge  and  Its  Cost.  J.  D.  Mooney  in  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Oct.  2,  1907,  gives  the  cost  of  a  "  cable 
trestle"  used  in  making  a  175,000  cu.  yd.  fill  on  the  Lake  Erie 
and  Pittsburgh  Ry.,  at  less  than  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Roebling  galvanized  bridge  cable,  2^4  in.,  was  used.  The  an- 
chors were  400  ft.  apart,  and  an  A-frame  was  erected  to  support 


1114  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  two  cables  in  the  middle;  this  made  each  span  200  ft.  The 
anchor  at  the  north  bank  consists  of  a  log,  18  ft.  long,  24  in. 
thick,  imbedded  in  solid  rock.  Two  eyebolts  screw  into  the  log 
and  are  fastened  by  heavy  nuts  over  8-in.  cast  iron  washers. 
Connecting  with  these  eyebolts  are  two  10-ft.  chains  with  10-in. 
links  made  from  2i£-in.  iron.  These  chains  were  put  in  to  keep 
the  cables  from  twisting  by  covering  the  chains  with  heavy 
weights.  Two  3-in.  turnbuckles,  with  a  spread  of  3  ft.,  made  the 
connections  between  the  chains  and  the  cables.  The  cables  were 
leaded  into  the  turnbuckles.  These  turnbuckles,  which  were 
forged  especially  for  this  work,  were  used  to  take  up  the  slack 
in  the  cables.  The  anchor  at  the  south  end  consisted  of  a  log, 
25  ft.  long  and  24  in.  thick,  placed  in  a  new  fill  of  sandstone, 
10  ft.  deep.  Three-inch  planks  were  driven  in  front  of  the  an- 
chor, two  eyebolts,  22  in.  long  and  2y2  in.  in  diameter,  were 
screwed  into  the  anchor  log  and  fastened  with  nuts  over  cast 
washers,  8  in.  in  diameter  and  2  in.  thick.  The  eyebolts  con- 
nected with  clevises  by  means  of  3-in.  pins.  The  cables  were 
leaded  into  these  clevises.  A  rise  of  1  ft.  in  3  ft.  brings  the 
cables  up  to  grade  and  to  the  end  timber  supports. 

The  A-frame  which  supports  the  cables  in  the  center  is  made 
of  two  bents  of  four  timbers  each,  total  height  92  ft.  The  lower 
50  ft.  of  the  frame  is  made  of  10-in.  round  timbers,  and  the  upper 
42  ft.  of  8  x  8-in.  square  timbers.  The  cables  on  the  top  of  the 
A-frame  are  8  ft.  above  grade.  The  bents  rest  on  10-in.  mud  sills. 
They  have  a  batter  of  1^  in.  to  a  foot.  The  frame  is  32  x  26 
ft.  at  the  bottom. 

A  train  consists  of  from  six  to  twelve  4-yd.  cars.  These  are 
emptied  at  the  south  end  of  the  ravine  and  are  pushed  out  onto 
the  cableway  as  fast  as  they  are  emptied.  The  car  rails  are 
spiked  to  ties  which  rest  on  stringers.  These  stringers  rest  on 
8-ft.  logs  fastened  to  the  cables  with  U  bolts.  The  cables  are  7 
ft.  apart.  Most  of  the  fill  is  being  made  from  a  sandstone  cut 
about  a  half  mile  distant.  This  sandstone  has  a  slope  a  little 
steeper  than  1^  to  1. 

The  following  is  the  actual  cost  of  the  cableway: 

1,000  ft.  2}i-in.  Roebling  galvanized  bridge  cable....     $    600.00 

Eyebolts,  2^-in.,  with  clevises,  for  both  ends 

2  turnbuckles  at  north  end,  3-in 

2  chains  at  north  end,  10  ft.  long,  2V2-in.  iron 

4  cast  washers,  8  in.  dia.,  2  in.  thick 

Timber  for  A  frame.  (All  other  timber  was  ob- 
tained on  ground.)  Upper  was  42  ft.,  14-ft.  timber, 
8x8  in.  All  bracing  and  cross  ties. 

3,200  ft.  at  $34  per  M.  (delivered)    .-  • 

Lower   50   ft.,   round   timber,   56  ft.   long,   bought   in 

^r  ee      

Team  work   for   hauling   round  timber   and    pulling 

timber  to  place  for  erecting  6&.OU 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1115 

Carpenter  labor  on  A  frame  and  end  bents  on  bank  231.40 

Time  of  superintendent    60.00 

Common  labor: 

Digging  trenches  for  anchors  and  putting  up  cable- 
way     112.00 

Nails  and  iron  in  A  frame  and  bents   29.40 

— 

Total  cost  of  cableway $1,531.76 

A  conservative  estimate  on  the  probable  cost  of  a  timber  tres- 
tle for  this  opening,  figuring  on  square  8  x  8-in.  timber  cut  from 
native  timber,  gives  the  following  cost: 


ft.    B.    M.    (including    posts,    caps,    bracing, 

stringers,   etc.)    at  $26    $2,548.00 

Labor  putting  up  trestle,  $6  per  M.  ft 588.00 

Spikes 98.00 

Drift  bolts 40.00 


Total  estimated  cost  of  trestle   $3,274.00 

The  wages  were  probably  about  $3  for  carpenters  and  $1.50  for 
laborers  per  10-hr,  day. 

Dragline  Excavators  for  Railway  Grading.  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  June  4,  1913,  gives  the  following: 

In  double  track  construction,  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
St.  Paul  Railway,  between  Andover  and  Groton,  S.  D.,  a  fill  5 
miles  in  length  and  averaging  20  ft.  in  height  was  made  from 
natural  surface  to  subgrade  by  means  of  dragline  buckets  which 
took  the  material  for  making  the  fill  from  side  borrow  pits. 
By  this  method  slightly  over  900,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  were 
placed  in  the  fill  in  three  months'  time.  At  times  as  many  as 
five  machines  were  in  operation.  The  booms  of  these  machines 
ranged  from  50  to  100  ft.  in  length.  When  in  service  the  buckets 
of  the  machines  were  dumped,  on  the  average,  once  a  minute. 
The  buckets  used  ranged  from  2  to  3i£  cu.  yd.  capacity.  The 
largest  machine  made  3^  cu.  yd.  of  fill  per  minute  when  in 
service. 

This  method  seems  to  have  a  wide  range  of  usefulness  on  rail- 
way work. 

Haulage  Equipment  Eliminated  by  Dragline  Excavators. 
Engineering  News-Record,  June  28,  1917,  describes  work  on  the 
Lorain,  Ashland  &  Southern  R.  R.,  south  of  Wellington,  Ohio. 
Nothing  heavier  than  an  8-ft.  cut  was  met  on  the  first  three 
miles.  The  dragline  machine  borrowed  for  the  fills  and  wasted 
the  cuts,  swinging  about  GO  ft.  of  each  end  of  each  cut  onto  the 
adjacent  fill.  On  the  fourth  mile,  however,  a  cut  3,000  ft.  long, 
1,100  ft.  of  which  averaged  19  ft.  in  depth,  threatened  to  dis- 
place the  dragline  for  other  equipment.  The  material  from  this 
cut  could  not  be  placed  in  embankment  economically  and  so  was 
wasted. 


1116  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  dragline  in  making  the  cut  rode  the  center  line,  swinging 
the  material  into  spoil  banks  on  both  sides.  Only  one  move 
through  the  cut  was  required. 

The  dragline  worked  to  a  0.57%  grade,  and  on  a  40-ft.  curve 
the  entire  distance  and  handled  approximately  40,000  yd.  of 
heavy,  yellow  clay  and  blue  gumbo  during  the  six  weeks  re- 
quired to  complete  the  work.  The  slopes  were  cut  from  a  20-ft. 
base  one  to  one  and  required  no  hand  dressing.  Some  sliding  due 
to  frost  action  has  occurred,  but  the  work  compares  favorably 
with  similar  work  done  by  steam  shovel. 

The  south  approach  is  a  fill  2,300  ft.  long,  with  a  maximum 
height  of  28  ft.  built  on  a  temporary  grade  of  0.7%.  About 
48,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  was  borrowed  from  pits  on  either  side, 
having  widths  of  from  30  to  80  ft.  and  a  maximum  depth  of 
14  ft.  Two  moves  through  each  pit  were  made,  except  for  a 
short  distance  at  the  small  end  of  the  'fill.  On  the  first  move, 
near  the  outside  of  the  pit,  the  machine  took  out  the  material 
and  placed  it  about  halfway  to  the  center  line.  On  the  second 
move  this  material  was  recast  into  the  fill  and  the  remainder  of 
the  pit  made.  At  the  high  end  of  the  fill  during  the  second  trip 
the  machine  climbed  the  side  of  the  fill  in  order  to  cast  to  the 
top. 

From  10  to  20%  was  allowed  for  settlement,  as  a  great  part 
of  the  material  handled  was  from  low-lying  ground  saturated 
from  spring  rains.  An  early  and  thorough  settlement  of  the 
fill  occurred,  and  only  ordinary  maintenance  attention  has  been 
required  since.  The  land  purchased  for  the  borrow  pits  cost 
$250.  The  expense  of  temporary  trestles  was  saved;  and  al- 
though some  of  the  dirt  was  handled  twice,  the  dragline  did 
away  with  the  usual  transportation  equipment  and  force. 

Building  Railway  Embankment  with  Hydraulic  Dredges. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  in  the  issue  of  Feb.  9,  1916,  gives 
the  following: 

The  method  described  is  employed  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
&  Quincy  R.  R.  for  building  embankment  across  sloughs  on  line 
rectification  along  the  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Referring 
to  Fig.  13,  where  the  fill  first  appears  above  water,  shields  10  ft. 
long  and  2  ft.  high  are  placed  on  each  side  as  indicated  for  one 
side  only  at  a.  The  sand  is  allowed  to  deposit  until  it  is  filled  in 
as  at  b.  Sand  from  inside  the  shield  line  is  then  shoveled  over 
against  the  backs  of  the  shields  on  the  desired  2  to  1  slope,  and 
the  shields  are  jacked  up  as  in  c.  When  the  fill  again  nearly 
covers  the  shields,  the  operation  is  repeated,  and  again  a  third 
time  when  the  fill  is  about  3  ft.  deep  as  in  d.  The  whole  shield 
line  is  then  moved  in  about  6  ft.,  and  similar  operations  follow 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS 


1117 


until  the  completed  embankment  has  reached  grade  with  a  top 
width  of  34  ft.  for  double  track.  One  foot  is  the  usual  allow- 
ance for  shrinkage,  although  in  some  cases  more  has  been  deemed 
necessary.  E.  R.  Stevens  states  that  this  dredge  embankment  is 
35  to  50%  cheaper  than  steam  shovel  work. 

An  earlier  account  of  this  work  published  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting  says: 

On  shore,  about  12  to  20  men  are  required  to  handle  the  dis- 
charge pipe  and  the  shields  or  guides.  The  shields  are  pieces 
of  sheet  iron  18  in.  wide  and  16  ft.  long  which  are  placed  on 
edge  in  the  sand  at  different  locations  so  that  the  discharge  will 
be  held  in  little  ponds  until  the  material  has  settled.  The 
handling  of  these  requires  considerable  experience  in  order  to 


Cross  Section  of  Embankment 
Fig.   13.     Building  Embankments  with  Hydraulic  Dredge. 

get  the  best  results.  The  rate  of  output  depends  considerably 
upon  the  control  of  the  discharge,  so  that  the  material  will  set- 
tle properly.  The  handling  of  the  pipes  must  be  done  quickly 
so  that  the  pumping  can  be  as  nearly  continuous  as  possible. 

The  output  of  the  dredge  varies  from  3,500  to  4,500  cu.  yd. 
per  day  of  24  hr.  The  conditions  for  dredging  are  ideal,  the 
heavy  sand  pumps  easily  and  settles  readily  and  no  unusual  dif- 
ficulties have  held  up  the  work  so  that  its  cost  has  been  very 
low.  The  embankment  had  to  be  leveled  by  teams  before  laying 
tracks. 

Building  Approach  Embankments,  Columbia  River  Bridge. 
The  following  abstract  of  an  article  by  E.  E.  Howard  in  Engi- 
neering News,  Jan.  27,  1916,  is  given  as  it  offers  an  excellent 
illustration  of  the  sheerboard  method  of  retaining  hydraulic  fills. 
About  2  miles  fill  were  built,  averaging  20  ft.  in  height.  See  Fig. 
14. 

The  contract  was  let  to  the  Tacoma  Dredging  Co.,  of  Tacoma, 
Wash.,  at  its  bid  of  13.24  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  of  the  net  volume  in 


1118  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

place.  This  company  moved  its  dredge  to  the  site,  installed 
pipes  and  pumped  in  the  first  sand  on  June  9.  By  Nov.  20  all 
of  the  embankment  south  of  Oregon  Slough  had  been  placed  — 
a  total  net  volume  of  821,000  cu.  yd.  The  placing  of  this  ma- 
terial occupied  160  days,  or  an  average  of  about  5,000  cu.  yd.  a 
day.  The  material  remaining  in  the  embankment  is  a  medium- 
fine  sand,  sharp  and  clean. 

Method  of  Making  Excavation.  The  material  was  excavated 
from  the  Oregon  Slough  by  means  of  a  suction  dredge  of  usual 
type,  with  a  cutting  head,  and  was  transported  to  place  by  being 
pumped  through  a  line  of  pipe  24  in.  in  diameter.  The  opera- 
tion was  by  electric  power  from  the  high-voltage  lines  of  the 
Portland  Railway  Light  and  Power  Co.  The  main  pump  on  the 
dredge  was  operated  by  two  500-hp.  motors  connected  to  the 


Fig.   14.     Bulkheads  for  Retaining  Hydraulic  Fill  for  Embank- 
ment Approach  to  Columbia  River  Bridge. 

pump  by  rope  drives.  The  pump  was  of  capacity  to  give  a  dis- 
charge through  the  24-in.  pipe  at  a  velocity  of  12  to  15  ft.  per 
sec.  Operation  continued  24  hr.  per  day  during  the  time  speci- 
fied, and  the  dredge  was  actually  running  about  14  hr.  per  day. 
For  periods  of  a  few  hours  at  a  time  the  dredge  pumped  as  much 
as  1,000  cu.  yd.  per  hr.  There  was  of  course  a  very  considerable 
runoff  of  sand  from  the  embankment,  as  well  as  a  certain  amount 
of  fine  material  which  flowed  away  with  the  waste  water,  and  it 
is  estimated  that  about  250,000  cu.  yd.  more  than  the  above  net 
amount  was  transported.  The  discharge-pipe  line  was  extended 
to  a  length  of  about  4,000  ft.,  working  from  the  dredge  alone. 
For  the  greater  distances  a  booster  pump  was  installed  in  the 
line  to  give  additional  impetus.  This  pump  was  operated  by  a 
single  1,000-hp.  motor  operating  with  considerable  overload. 
The  dredge  and  booster  pump  together  transported  through  a 
maximum  length  of  9,000  ft.  of  pipe.  Such  long-distance  dredg- 
ing into  an  embankment  so  comparatively  narrow  and  high  is 
believed  to  mark  a  record  for  work  of  this  character.  The  pipe 
was  of  the  ordinary  riveted  variety  with  slip  joints  made  of 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1119 

7-gage  material  on  the  pontoons  and  of  10-gage  material  else- 
where. It  was  moved  about  by  teams  and  wagons. 

Timber  Bulkheads  for  Earth  Backing.  The  embankment  was 
built  up  in  steps  by  the  use  of  timber  bulkheads  (Fig.  14). 
These  were  built  of  6  x  8-in.  posts,  about  10-ft.  centers,  supporting 
2  x  12-in.  sheathing,  surfaced  both  edges.  The  sides  of  the  em- 
bankment were  built  up  by  these  means  in  steps  8  ft.  wide  and 
4  ft.  high.  The  first  bulkheads  were  placed  upon  the  natural 
ground  surface  by  driving  in  the  6  x  8-in.  posts  with  a  hand 
maul  and  setting  the  lower  plank  into  a  small  trench  so  that  the 
bulkhead  sheathing  extended  perhaps  8  to  12  in.  below  the  or- 
dinary ground  surface.  When  the  sand  had  been  filled  in  about 
the  top  of  such  first  bulkheads,  posts  for  succeeding  bulkheads 
were  set  in  place  and  the  lower  plank  placed  so  that  it  extended 
about  12  in.  below  the  top  of  the  first  bulkhead  below.  These 
posts  were  tied  back  into  the  embankment  by  2  x  6-in.  ties  spiked 
on  near  the  top  of  each  post  and  extending  back  to  a  short 
post,  in  front  of  which  were  placed  a  few  pieces  of  lagging  to 
offer  additional  resistance.  The  pipe  was  laid  to  discharge  into 
the  middle  of  the  embankment  so  marked  and  was  carried  for- 
ward from  the  river,  bringing  the  embankment  up  to  the  final 
grade  and  working  away  from  the  dredge.  A  framework  of  baf- 
fle-boards was  placed  under  the  discharging  end  of  the  pipe, 
causing  the  water  to  spread  out  and  spill  over  the  ground  be- 
low and  run  forward,  distributing  the  different  sizes  of  material 
as  the  velocity  decreased.  At  some  convenient  low  point  there 
was  provided  an  outflow  down  the  side  of  the  embankment,  for 
which  the  steps  of  the  embankment  were  paved  with  plank  to  pre- 
vent wash. 

After  sections  of  the  finished  embankments  became  thoroughly 
drained  as  the  work  proceeded,  the  posts  of  the  bulkheads  were 
cut  away  and  the  planks  removed  and  carried  forward  for  re- 
peated use.  Parts  of  the  posts  and  of  the  2  x  6-in.  ties  there- 
fore remain  in  the  embankment.  The  finishing  of  the  slopes  was 
done  by  hand  with  shovels,  and  the  successive  steps  were  so  lo- 
cated that  the  upper  corner  of  each  step  filled  into  the  lower 
corner  of  the  step  below,  to  provide  the  proper  slope.  The  ac- 
tual pumping  and  transportation  of  the  sand  in  the  hands  of 
these  contractors  were  the  simplest  parts  of  the  work,  and  they 
found  it  economical  .to  permit  a  very  considerable  wastage  of 
;material  where  a  reasonable  amount  of  such  wastage  saved  in 
the  construction  of  bulkheads. 

Filling  Trestles  by  Sluicing.  Data  on  this  will  be  found  in 
iChapter  XVIII.  This  is  so  cheap  and  satisfactory  a  method  of 
building  embankments  that  its  possibilities  should  be  thoroughly 


1120  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

investigated  before  any  other  means   of  moving  earth   are  con- 
sidered. 

Additional  information  on  filling  land  with  material  pumped 
by  dredges  will  be  found  in  Chapters  XV,  XX,  and  XXI. 

Supporting  Construction  Track  on  Ice.  According  to  Engi- 
neering News,  Feb.  26,  1903,  embankments  over  a  slough,  500  ft. 
wide,  on  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  Canal,  were  built  during  the 
year  1903  by  carrying  the  construction  track  on  ice.  The  slough 
consisted  of  very  soft  mud,  overlain  by  2.5  ft.  of  water.  The 
embankment  was  100  ft.  wide  on  top  and  14  ft.  above  the  water. 
As  ice  covered  the  slough  no  trestle  was  constructed,  but  the 
railway  track  was  laid  directly  on  the  ice.  Short  trains  of  cars 
were  brought  down  and  dumped  three  at  a  time,  one  on  each 
side,  until  a  bank  was  formed.  The  train  was  composed  of  18 
cars  as  a  rule,  but  only  6  loaded  cars  were  put  on  the  ice  at  any 
one  time.  The  ice  settled  under  the  weight  of  the  fill,  but  the 
embankment  was  raised  as  fast  as  the  ice  settled. 

At  Stillwater,  New  York,  the  construction  plant  on  part  of 
Contract  No.  68  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  was  con- 
veyed across  the  Hudson  River,  a  distance  of  1,000  ft.,  by  build- 
ing a  track  on  top  of  the  ice.  A  full  description  of  this  cross- 
ing is  contained  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  9,  1909. 

The  nearest  railway  station  to  the  site  of  this  plant  was  6 
miles  away,  and  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  hauling  the  plant  over- 
land for  that  distance,  the  contractor  conceived  the  idea  of  de- 
livering it  by  trolley  on  the  west  bank,  and  carrying  it  across 
the  ice.  The  heaviest  single  piecex  was  a  70-ton  steam  shovel, 
which  could  be  stripped  to  about  45  tons  by  the  removal  of  the 
boom  and  dipper.  There  were  also  thi'ee  locomotives  each  weigh- 
ing 18  tons,  stripped  to  15  tons.  In  audition  there  were  hoist- 
ing engines,  dump  cars,  drills,  etc.,  some  pi eces  weighing  as  much 
as  12  tons.  On  Jan.  12  when  the  machine/y  was  delivered  at 
the  river  bank,  the  ice  was  only  9  in.  thick.  1$  was  increased  to 
a  thickness  of  10  to  14  in.  by  cutting  holes  in  tbC  ice  and  PumP' 
ing  water  upon  it. 

For   spreading  the  weight  over  a  wide  area,   8  x  1^  in'  yellow 
pine  timbers,  24  ft.   long,  were  placed  beneath   the  nam^'^6 
railway    spaced    15    ft.    apart.     In    each    space    were    placed     two 
*-in.x8-ft.  ties,  thus  making  the  supports   5  ft.  apart      At  tU  e 
west  bank,  where  there  was  an  abrupt  descent,  the  ties  and  lorn* 
timbers  were  spaced  much   closer.     The   supply  of   24-ft.   timber 
was  not  sufficient  to  cover  the  whole  distance- and  near  the  west 
bank  there  was  a  stretch  of   150   ft.  over   which  the  track  was 
supported  by  ties  alone,  spaced  2.5  ft.  apart. 
A  hoisting  engine  was  first  hauled  across  and  placed  on   the 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1121 

opposite  bank.  A  cable,  1,000  ft.  long,  stretching  from  this  en- 
gine to  the  opposite  bank  was  used  to  pull  over  the  loads.  By 
taking  several  turns  with  this  cable  around  a  spool  on  the  drum 
shaft,  the  various  machines  could  be  transported  while  the  men 
were  on  shore,  and  it  was  not  necessary  to  risk  the  life  of  some 
one  upon  the  ice  when  the  heavy  loads  were  being  carried. 
Moreover,  when  once  started,  the  loads  could  be  quickly  hauled 
across.  It  took  about  4  min.  to  haul  over  a  single  locomotive. 
Under  the  weight  of  a  locomotive  the  ice  sank  down  from  6  to  7 
in.  and  formed  in  wave-like  undulations,  and  there  was  also  a 
shattering  and  cracking. 

It  was  determined  that  a  load  of  15  tons  appeared  to  be  the 
maximum  for  ice  10  in.  thick.  The  steam  shovel  was  therefore 
taken  over  the  highway  for  a  distance  of  6  miles,  involving  a 
week's  labor.  Fortunately,  there  was  almost  no  snow  on  the 
ground  and  a  thin  layer  of  ice  covered  the  surface.  It  was  thus 
possible  easily  to  haul  the  rails  and  to  lay  the  track  without 
ties,  a  few  flat  iron  rods  holding  the  rails  in  position.  The 
shovel  was  moved  for  about  $100  per  mile. 

A  Scow  Bridge  Instead  of  a  Trestle.  A  scow  bridge  was  used 
in  the  construction*  of  the  Falcon  River  Dike,  Winnipeg  Dis- 
trict. This  device  was  illustrated  in  Engineering  News,  Feb. 
4,  1915.  It  is  claimed  that  the  successful  bidders  saved  over 
$25,000  by  using  the  scow  method  as  compared  to  the  cost  of 
using  trestles.  The  contractors  used  two  scows  in  tandem.  The 
track  on  the  boats  consisted  of  90-lb.  rails  on  a  frame-work 
whose  sills  rested  on,  but  were  not  fastened  to,  the  deck.  To 
mote  forward,  the  scows  were  outhauled  under  the  rail-support- 
ing frames  by  a  cable  parsing  forward  over  a  snatchblock  at  the 
outer  end  of  the  rail  and  back  to  the  dinkey.  Then  the  in-shore 
ends  of  the  90-lb.  rails  were  moved  to  the  outer  end  of  the  scows 
in  the  new  position,  and  the  gap  filled  in  with  regular  60-lb. 
rail  as  used  in  the  rest  of  the  supply  track  on  the  finished  fill. 
The  dike,  8,000  ft.  long,  containing  about  230,000  cu.  yd.  of 
gravel,  progressed  rapidly,  being  practically  completed  in  four 
months.  The  greatest  depth  of  water  was  about  25  ft.  Ma- 
terial was  obtained  from  a  gravel  pit  adjacent 'to  the  north  end 
of  the  dike. 

Engineering  News,  Apr.  1,  1915,  gives  the  following  relative 
to  a  dumping  platform  for  disposing  of  material  on  the  break- 
water and  part  of  the  harbor  work  at  Halifax,  N.  S.  This  plat- 
form, Fig.  15,  consisted  of  a  scow  held  by  water  ballast  to 
constant  level  in  spite  of  the  tide.  A  plate-girder  bridge,  40-ft. 
long  was  mounted  at  its  forward  end  on  a  barge  40  x  8  ft.  in 
size,  and  at  its  rear  end  on  four  or  five  cross-ties  laid  on  the 


1122 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


outer  corner  of  the  embankment.  The  spoil  was  brought  in  16-yd. 
dump  cars  and  dumped  directly  from  this  bridge.  Three  or  four 
cars  at  the  head  of  a  train  were  run  on  the  bridge,  dumped  and 
returned.  The  track  was  continued  across  the  scow  as  a  tail 
track.  When  the  embankment  had  been  built  up  high  enough 
(4  ft.  above  mean  water)  in  the  space  spanned  by  the  bridge, 
the  scow  and  bridge  were  simply  hauled  forward  until  the  bridge 


Fig.  15.     A  Scow  Bridge." 

came  to  a  new  bearing  on  a  new  outer  point  on  the  embankment, 
and  the  process  was  continued.  The  tidal  rise  was  about  G  ft. 
To  keep  the  bridge  level,  water  ballast  tanks  were  provided  in 
the  scow.  These  were  pumped  full  as  the  tide  rose,  and  pumped 
out  on  the  fall  of  the  tide,  keeping  the  dumping  bridge  level  with 
the  embankment. 

Placing  a  Railroad  Fill  from  a  Pontoon  Bridge.  Engineering 
Record,  Jan.  31,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

In  the  double-tracking  and  grade-revision  program  being  car- 
ried out  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Railway  in  South 
Dak.  a  fill  was  built  across  a  lake  about  1,200  ft.  wide,  averag- 
ing from  30  to  40  ft.  deep.  The  bed  of  the  lake  is  a  soft  and 
seemingly  bottomless  muck,  test  piles  driven  to  a  depth  of  120 
ft.  indicating  no  firmer  material. 

The  contractor,  the  Cook  Construction  Company,  of  St.  Paul, 
intending  to  make  the  fill  from  side-dump  cars,  built  a  trestle 
across  the  lake,  using  90-ft.  piles.  When  filling  was  begun  the 
weight  of  material  forced  the  trestle  out  of  line,  and  in  fact  tore 
it  to  pieces  in  two  or  three  places.  New  piles  were  driven  with 
the  same  result,  and  this  happened  five  or  six  times. 

Two  scows  were  then  built,  and  60-ft.  timbers  were  provided 
for  stringers  to  carry  the  construction  track.  The  scows  were 
so  placed  that  one  set  of  timbers  spanned  from  the  bank  to  the 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1123 

first  scow  and  another  set  reached  from  scow  to  scow.  The  fill- 
ing was  dumped  at  the  head  of  the  bank,  the  empty  cars  being 
pushed  ahead  on  the  outer  span.  When  the  new  embankment 
reached  the  scow  the  inner  span  and  that  scow  were  moved 
ahead.  The  scheme  has  worked  very  successfully. 

Constructing  a  Fill  with  a  Floating  Trestle.  A  novel  method 
of  constructing  a  fill  across  Patterson  Lake  on  the  Northern 
Pacific  Ry.  between  Tacoma  and  Tenino,  Wash.,  is  described  in 
Engineering  News,  Mar.  25,  1915.  The  width  of  the  lake  meas- 
ured along  the  center  line  was  1,350  ft.  Originally  it  was  in- 
tended by  the  contractors  to  make  the  fill  across  by  dumping 
from  a  trestle,  using  three-pile  bents  with  piles  approximately 
80  ft.  long.  Near  the  center  of  the  lake  they  drove  four  test 
piles,  115  ft.  long,  and  at  this  point  it  was  necessary  to  cap  the 
piles  above  the  water  and  place  frame  bents  on  them  in  order 
to  get  the  necessary  elevation  for  dumping.  For  this  construc- 
tion four -pile  bents  and  four-post  bents  were  used. 

The  soft  mud  of  the  lake  bottom  heaved  as  the  fill  was  de- 
posited, throwing  the  fill  out  of  line  and  lifting  the  piles  bodily 
so  that  the  trestle  collapsed,  and  the  mud  rose  above  the  surface 
of  the  water  for  a  considerable  area.  The  trestle  was  then  held 
in  place  on  log  floats  and  these  were  later  replaced  by  pontoons 
carrying  a  trestle  of  framed  bents,  as  shown  in  Fig.  16.  Slop- 
ing aprons  extending  from  the  trestle  to  the  sides  of  the  pontoon 
to  deliver  the  material  to  the  sides.  This  floating  trestle  was 
kept  ahead  of  the  end  of  the  fill,  being  connected  to  it  by  a  60-ft. 
span  of  trussed  timber  stringers. 

One  steam  shovel,  loading  into  12-yd.  standard-gage  air  dump 
cars,  started  filling  at  one  end  on  Feb.  25,  1913.  On  June  11 
another  shovel  with  4-yd.  narrow-gage  dump  cars  replaced  this 
machine,  and  the  former  shovel  was  moved  to  the  other  end.  The 
material  was  mainly  gravel  and  sand.  For  a  single-track  fill 
761,000  cu.  yd.  were  required.  Afterwards,  72,000  cu.  yd.  were 
added  to  widen  this  road  to  double-track.  This  additional  work 
was  completed  June  25,  1914. 

Cost  of  Widening  Embankments.  Engineering  News,  Oct.  27, 
1904,  gives  an  abstract  of  a  committee  report  presented  at  the  an- 
nual meeting  of  the  Roadmasters  and  Maintenance  of  Way  As- 
sociation, 1904,  from  which  the  diagrams  here  given  are  taken. 
The  assumption  is  that  material  for  embankment  is  to  be  ob- 
tained by  ditching  and  widening  cuts.  The  diagram,  Fig.  17, 
can  be  used  to  study  the  relative  costs  of  different  methods  of 
doing  this  work.  The  second,  Fig.  18,  can  be  used  to  advantage 
only  in  determining  whether  it  is  cheaper  to  make  a  long  haul 
from  the  point  where  ditching  is  being  done,  than  to  waste  the 


1124 


HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS 


1125 


material    obtained    from    ditching    and   obtain    the    material    for 
widening  banks  from  a  more  convenient  location. 

By  examining  the  diagram  in  Fig.  17  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
cheapest  method  of  ditching  where  the  material  is  to  be  used 
in  widening  embankments,  and  where  such  work  is  not  done  by 
simply  casting  across  one  track,  is  by  a  machine  ditcher,  pro- 
vided the  machine,  is  so  designed  that  it  can  load  and  dump  5 
cu.  yd.  in  not  to  exceed  2^  min.,  exclusive  of  running  time,  and 
can  be  operated  by  three  men  besides  the  train  crew,  and  if  the 


Fig.   17.     Diagram  of  Costs  of  Railway  Ditching  by  Various 
Methods,  Haul  up  to  7,500  Ft. 

conditions  are  such  that  such  a  machine  can  be  used  up  to  a 
haul  of  some  1,200  or  1,300  ft.  in  very  fair  digging,  or  up  to 
some  1,900  ft.  in  bad,  wet  digging.  From  this  point  on,  a 
properly  designed  machine  ditcher,  so  arranged  that  it  can  load 
a  full  train  of  material,  used  in  conjunction  with  a  plow  and 
cable  or  other  method  for  quick  unloading,  can  be  worked  most 
economically.  In  both  these  cases  of  machine  ditchers,  it  is  as- 
sumed that  the  machines  will  be  used  enough  each  year  to  bring 
the  cost  for  interest  ,and  depreciation  down  to  the  estimate  given 
in  the  appendix,  the  number  of  yards  handled  having  to  be 
greater  than  estimated  in  case  a  more  expensive  machine  is  used 
than  estimated  on. 


1126 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


In  case  a  machine  ditcher  is  not  available,  a  study  of  the 
diagram  will  show  the  relative  cost  per  yard  by  various  methods, 
provided  the  traffic  is  such  that  the  actual  working  time  of  work 
train  is  only  about  6  hr.  out  of  10  hr.  the  men  are  assumed  to 
work  each  day. 

Team  Work.  On  light  work  banks  can  be  widened  very  eco- 
nomically with  teams  and  scrapers.  This  method  can  also  be 
used  to  widen  the  base  of  heavy  embankments,  the  filling  being 
afterwards  completed  by  work  train  or  other  means.  The  filling 
being  compacted  by  the  movements  of  the  teams  over  it  is  less 
liable  to  settlement  and  unites  closer  to  the  old  bank  than  by 
other  methods.  Work  of  this  kind  is  usually  let  by  contract,  the 
price  being  from  14  to  25  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 


4      5      6~7 
Miles        of 


9      »     II     IB     13  •  14  '  6 
Haul 


Fig.    18.     Diagram   of   Cost   of   Railway   Ditching  by   Various 
Methods.     Hauls  up  to  15  Miles. 

Casting.  The  cost  of  ditching  by  casting  may  in  fair  digging 
be  taken  at  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  where  one  cast  will  place  the  ma- 
terial in  a  suitable  final  location.  If  necessary  to  use  one  plat- 
form by  which  the  material  can  be  raised  6  ft.  with  the  first  and 
4  ft.  with  the  last  handling,  in  order  to  place  it  far  enough  from 
the  edge  of  the  cut,  the  cost  for  such  material  will  be  increased 
about  6  ct.  per  yd.,  or  to  a  total  of  16  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  A  descrip- 
tion of  a  simple  portable  platform  is  given  under  the  heading 
"  Work  Train  and  Hand  Loading."  In  both  of  these  cases  the 
material  cannot  ordinarily  be  used  to  advantage  in  widening 
embankments. 

Wheelbarrows.  By  this  method  the  material  excavated  may 
be  used  to  widen  embankments,  if  conditions  are  favorable,  and 
the  cost  is  practically  a  constant  to  which  a  uniform  addition 
is  made  varying  directly  with  the  length  of  haul.  For  fair  dig- 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1127 

ging  it  will  be  noted  that  casting  is  cheaper  than  any  wheel- 
barrow work,  and  that  casting  with  one  platform  is  about  the 
same  cost  as  wheeling  125  ft.  with  wheelbarrows.  If  the  ma- 
terial is  merely  to  be  carried  across  three  or  more  tracks,  where 
the  traffic  is  so  heavy  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  lay  gangways 
across  the  tracks,  on  account  of  safety,  very  fair  results  can  be 
obtained  by  constructing  boxes  with  two  handles,  similar  to  the 
handles  on  push  or  hand  cars,  on  each  end,  and  have  two  men 
carry  each  box  across.  This  method,  however,  is  more  expensive 
than  wheeling. 

Push  Cars.  As  it  is  necessary  to  protect  push  car  work  by 
flagmen,  the  greatest  economy  by  this  method  will  be  obtained 
by  working  as  many  men  with  two  flagmen  as  can  be  worked  to 
advantage.  This  is  indicated  by  the  three  dotted  lines  showing 
4,  10  and  16  men  actually  ditching  under  the  protection  of  two 
flagmen.  It  is  here  assumed  that  20%  of  the  time  is  lost  on 
account  of  the  traffic,  but  that  this  20%  covers  the  time  spent  in 
trimming  up  the  cut.  On  the  diagram,  the  three  dotted  lines  in- 
dicate cost  per  yard  if  the  men  shovel  the  material  off  the  car; 
while  the  three  full  lines  indicate  the  cost  if  the  car  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  material  can  be  dumped,  by  placing  an  entirely 
separate  box,  open  at  one  side,  on  the  bed  of  the  car,  or  some 
other  suitable  method.  By  such  an  arrangement,  the  cost  per 
yard  can  be  reduced  some  3  to  4^  ct.  over  shoveling  the  material 
off  the  cars. 

Work  Trains  and  Hand  Loading.  The  diagram  is  plainly 
marked  showing  the  method  covered  by  each  line,  and  it  is  only 
necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  where  only  60  cu. 
yd.  are  handled  per  trip,  the  lines  are  dotted  lines,  and  full  lines 
are  used  where  120  cu.  yd.  are  handled  per  trip.  In  all  cases  with 
work  train  (except  one)  it  is  assumed  that  all  the  men  em- 
ployed go  with  the  train  to  unload,  and  for  this  reason  the  cost, 
with  50  men,  handling  120  yd.  per  train,  becomes  less  than  with 
100  men  under  the  same  conditions,  after  a  haul  of  about  2,600 
ft.,  or  }£  mile  has  been  reached.  If,  however,  the  work  is  prop- 
erly handled  the  whole  number  of  men  employed  (where  such 
large  numbers  are  used)  are  not  sent  with  the  train,  but  are  kept 
at  work  at  the  ends  of  the  cut  ditching  with  wheelbarrows,  or 
possibly  casting  the  material,  where  such  can  be  done  by  the  use 
of  a  platform,  while  part  of  the  men  unload.  The  cost  will  thus 
be  reduced  considerably,  it  being  possible,  by  proper  arrange- 
ments, to  reduce  the  cost  to  almost  what  machine  ditchers  will 
accomplish. 

A  portable  platform  for  carrying  on  the  work  trains  for  use 
in  cases  where  material  can  be  thrown  out  of  the  cuts  by  two 


1128  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

castings,  consists  of  two  posts  2x6  in.,  12  ft.  long,  with  two 
horizontal  pieces  2x6  in.,  10  ft.  long,  running  into  the  bank  to 
support  the  platform  of  five  boards  1  x  12  in.,  5  ft.  long.  The 
posts  and  horizontal  supports  are  bored  at  intervals  to  permit 
adjustment  of  the  height  of  platform.  In  a  deep  cut,  a  second 
scaffold  may  be  placed  above  the  first.  This  device  was  first 
furnished  section  foremen  on  the  Southern  Railway  by  Mr.  W. 
A.  Ford,  Supervisor,  but  was  found  to  be  of  such  value  as  a  time 
saver  when  trains  were  late,  that  ditching  trains  were  equipped 
with  them.  One  man  on  the  scaffold  can  handle  about  as  much 
dirt  as  two  men  can  handle  in  the  ditch. 

On  this  diagram  the  question  of  using  two  or  more  work  trains 
with  a  gang  of  say  100  men  loading,  the  unloading  being  done  at 
a  distant  point  by  plow  and  cable,  has  not  been  considered,  as 
work  of  such  character  would  vary  to  such  an  extent  with  the 
local  conditions,  that  it  would  necessarily  have  to  be  considered 
specially  for  each  individual  case.  It  may  be  mentioned,  how- 
ever, that  100  men  could  load  1,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  already 
loosened  and  placed  conveniently  for  loading,  in  four  hours'  actual 
working  time  and  at  that  rate  the  total  cost  for  one  train 
amounting  to  say  $22  per  day,  would  be  but  2.2  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  keep  such  a  gang  busy,  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  trains  should  be  used,  if  conditions,  such  as  traffic,  side 
track  facilities,  etc.,  .will  permit.  The  whole  question  with  work 
trains,  therefore,  resolves  itself  into  equalizing  the  number  and 
disposition  of  men  employed,  with  the  train  service  in  such  a 
way  that  one  will  not  overbalance  the  other,  and  both  will  be  in 
accordance  with  the  requirements  in  regard  to  length  of  haul, 
traffic  conditions,  etc. 

Machine  Ditchers.  These  may  be  divided  info  two  general 
classes :  ( 1 )  Ditchers  which  load  a  scoop  on  one  or  both  sides 
and  then  run  to  the  end  of  the  cut  to  dump  the  material,  and 
(2)  those  which  load  a  full  train  of  material  and  unload  by 
plow  or  by  hand.  The  first  kind  can  be  used  to  advantage  only 
where  the  haul  is  comparatively  short,  while  the  second  class  is 
economical  for  a  long  haul. 

The  requirements  of  a  suitable  machine  ditcher  of  either  class 
are  that  it  shall  be  able  to  cut  the  full  depth  necessary,  and  close 
up  to  the  ends  of  the  ties  in  order  to  obtain  a  standard  section ; 
that  it  shall  be  quickly  handled  with  the  least  number  of  men 
practicable;  that  it  shall  have  the  .fewest  possible  parts  likely 
to  get  out  of  order,  and  that  it  shall  be  capable  of  sloping  the 
banks  in  fair  shape  either  by  a  slope  board  or  dipper  under  con- 
trol of  the  engineman,  the  slope  board  probably  being  desirable 
even  with  the  dipper.  With  either  class  of  machine,  the  dipper 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS 


1129 


or  scoop  should  be  as  large  as  can  be  handled  to  advantage  in 
order  to  reduce  the  cost  per  yard,  machines  of  first  class  having 
very  long  scoops,  while  those  of  the  second  class  have  dippers 
somewhat  similar  to  a  steam  shovel  dipper  of  about  %  to  1  cu. 
yd.  capacity.  As  in  the  case  of  steam  shovel  work,  the  engine- 
man  or  the  man  in  charge  of  handling  the  scoop  or  dipper, 
should  be  thoroughly  competent,  as  the  cost  per  yard  of  ma- 
terial will  be  greatly  increased  if  the  shovel  work  is  handled 
slowly. 


0  E      3-45678 

Miles  Haul. 

Fig.  19.  Diagram  of  Estimated  Time  for  Work  Train  to  Make 
Round  Trip  to  and  from  Place  of  Unloading;  Exclusive  of  Time 
Consumed  in  Unloading. 

Filling  and  Tamping  a  Viaduct  Embankment.  Engineering 
News,  Nov.  5,  1914,  gives  the  following: 

The  New  York  Connecting  R.  R.  is  carried  over  a  part  of 
Astoria,  L.  •!.,  N.  Y.,  by  a  viaduct  constructed  of  earth  filled 
and  tamped  between  concrete  retaining  walls.  These  walls  are 
held  together  by  steel  tie  rods.  These  rods  are  encased  in  con- 
crete as  rapidly  as  the  earth  fill  reaches  them,  which  delays  the 
work  of  filling  and  tamping  somewhat. 

The  filling  material  is  composed  of  sand,  gravel  and  loam,  ex- 
cavated at  Sunnyside  yards  by  a  2J£-cu.  yd.  steam  shovel,  and 
hauled  3.5  miles  in  11 -car  trains  by  18-ton  dinkeys  to  the  via- 
duct. Cars  hold  3.8  yd.  each,  and  250  to  300  cars  or  about 


1130  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

1,045  cu.  yd.  are  handled  per  day.  The  dumping  track  is  car- 
ried by  timber  trusses  resting  on  the  concrete  retaining  walls. 
The  steam  shovel  crew  is  composed  of  a  steam  shovel  runner,  a 
craneman,  fireman,  and  6  pitmen.  Each  of  the  5  trains  is  manned 
by  an  engineman  and  brakeman.  The  dumping  is  done  by  a  fore- 
man and  5  laborers. 

The  earth  after  being  dumped  is  spread  in  12-in.  layers  and 
tamped  with  pneumatic  tampers.  These  tampers  are  manufac- 
tured by  the  Ingersoll-Rand  Co.  and  are  of  the  "  crown  "  model. 
Air  for  their  operation  is  supplied  by  a  compressor  rated  at  946 
cu.  ft.  of  free  air  per  min.,  100  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  pressure,  driven 
by  a  150-hp.  motor.  Air  is  distributed  through  3-in.  and  2-in. 
pipe  to  distances  of  1,400  and  2,100  ft.  each  way  from  the  com- 
pressor. The  average  number  of  men  employed  in  spreading  and 
tamping  is  45  laborers,  2  foremen,  and  6  tampers.  Two  machin- 
ists are  employed  for  ensuring  the  smooth  operation  of  the 
tampers,  20  of  which  are  on  hand.  With  this  crew  of  51  men 
about  20  cu.  yd.  per  man-day  are  spread  and  tamped. 

The  author  would  suggest  that  it  would  have  been  cheaper 
to  spread  the  earth  with  a  dragline  scraper  and  puddle  it  with 
water. 

Cost  of  Transporting  Men,  Tools  and  Supplies  on  Railroads  for 
Grading.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  8,  1908,  gives  the 
following : 

In  carrying  on  construction  work  it  is  the  custom  of  railroads 
to  charge  the  construction  certain  rates  of  fares  on  the  men  em- 
ployed, and  freight  on  tools  and  supplies.  This  charge  against 
the  new  work  is  credited  to  the  operating  department. 

The  following  figures  have  been  used  by  H.  P.  Gillette  in  esti- 
mating the  cost  of  railroad  construction.  The  figures  of  work 
done,  and  men,  horses  and  tools  and  supplies  needed  are  based 
on  large  jobs  of  construction,  and  are  safe  averages.  The  fares 
for  men  and  the  freight  rates  are  those  ordinarily  charged  by 
railroads  to  themselves  and  to  one  another. 

One  horse  plus  1^  men  readily  excavate  and  move  15  cu.  yd.  of 
earth  per  day.  Hence  allow  SCO  cu.  yd.  per  month  per  horse  and 
250  cu.  yd.  per  month  per  man. 

One  man  requires  transportation  at  1  ct.  per  mile,  and  freight 
on  200  Ib.  of  bedding,  cooking  utensils,  tents,  small  tools,  -etc. 
Hence  for  100  miles  transportation  each  way,  or  200  miles  round 
trip,  we  have 

200  pasenger  miles  at  1  ct $2.00 

1/10  ton  bedding,  etc.,  200  miles  at  %  ct.  per  ton  mile..        .10 

Total     $2.10 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1131 

Since  one  man  will  excavate  250  cu.  yd.  per  month,  it  costs 
$2.10  divided  by  250,  or  0.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  if  the  job  lasts  only 
one  month ;  but  if  the  job  lasts  four  months  it  costs  0.8  ct.  di- 
vided by  four,  or  0.2  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  because  in  that  time  a  man 
will  move  four  times  250  cu.  yd.,  or  1,000  cu.  yd.,  and  will  only 
require  transportation  once  at  a  cost  of  $2.10.  Other  months 
are  in  proportion.  For  any  other  haul  than  100  miles  multiply 
accordingly. 

Each  horse  requires  the  following  equipment: 

Lb. 

%  wheel  scraper,  at  500  Ib 250 

%  wagon,   at  2,000  Ib 1,000 

Tents,   harness,   etc 250 

Total ' 1,500 

Allowing  1C  horses  per  car  of  24,000  Ibs.,  each  horse  stands  for 
freight  equivalent  to  1,500  Ib.,  hence: 

Lb. 

Equipment  for  each  horse  1,500 

Weight  of  horse   1,500 

Total,  1%  tons  or  3,000 

For  each  100  miles  of  haul  we  have,  therefore,  200  miles  round 
trip;  hence  200  miles  X  1}£  tone  X  0.4  ct.=  $1.20. 

Since  each  horse  moves  360  cu.  yd.  per  month,  we  have  $1.20 
-^-  360,  or  0.3  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  if  the  job  lasts  only  one  month. 
But  if  the  job  lasts  four  months  we  have  14  °f  0.3  ct.,  or  0.075  ct. 
per  cu.  yd.  Other  lengths  of  time  and  other  hauls  are  in  pro- 
portion. 

Each  horse  consumes  l/£  ton  of  food  per  month;  hence  if  food 
is  hauled  100  miles  we  have  %  ton  X  100  miles  X  0.4  ct.=  20  ct. 

Since  the  horse  moves  360  cu.  yd.  per  month,  we  have  20  ct.-=- 
360,  or  0.05  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  each  100  miles  of  haul. 

Summing  up,  we  have  the  following  costs : 

•  Cost  per  cu.  yd.  for  transportation 

100    miles    and    return. 

Duration  Men  Horses  Food  Total 

of  Work                                   Ct.               Ct.  Ct.  Ct. 

1  mo 0.80               0.30  0.05  1.15 

4  mo 0.20               0.08  0.05  0.33 

6  mo 0.13               0.05  0.05  0.23 

8  mo 0.10               0.04  0.05  0.19 

12  mo 0.07              0.03  0.05  0.15 

Note  —  If  the  haul  is  300  miles,  multiply  by  3.  If  the  haul 
is  500  miles,  multiply  by  5.  If  the  haul  is  1,000  miles,  mul- 
tiply by  10. 

The  above  is  for  work  done  by  wheel  scrapers  and  wagons  and 
carts,  but  for  steam  shovel  work  the  following  would  be  the  ap- 
proximate cost  for  transportation: 


1132      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Tons 

1    shovel    70 

60  dump   cars    120 

Rail     ;.      65 

Cross  ties    (6.  in.  x  6  in.  x  6  ft.)    75  ' 

Three  small  locomotives    35 

Pumps,   drills,   etc .. .      35 

Total 400 

400  tons  X  100  miles  X  0.4  ct.  =  $160. 

Such  a  shovel  as  this  will  average  at  least  20,000  cu.  yd.  per 
month,  hence  we  have  $160  -=-  20,000,  or  0.8  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for 
transporting  the  shovel  100  miles.  This  is  equivalent  to  1.6  ct. 
for  transporting  the  shovel  the  round  trip  of  200  miles,  when  the 
job  lasts  only  one  month.  For  four  months  the  cost  would  be 
%  of  1.6  -ct.,  or  0.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Other  months  would  be  cor- 
respondingly in  proportion. 

Such  a  shovel  does  not  consume  more  than  60  tons  of  fuel  and 
supplies  per  month;  hence  we  have  60  tons  X  100  miles  X  0.4  ct. 
=  $24.  Since  with  this  60  tons  of  fuel  there  are  20,000  cu.  yd. 
excavated,  we  have  $24  -f-  20,000,  or  0.12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  With 
such  a  shovel  there  will  never  be  more  than  40  men  engaged  in 
operating  the  shovel,  operating  the  dump  cars  and  trains,  as  well 
as  in  making  temporary  roadways  and  repairing  equipment ;  hence 
each  of  these  40  men  averages  500  cu.  yd.  per  month,  which  is 
double  the  output  where  men  are  working  with  wheel  scrapers, 
carts,  etc.,  as  above  given;  therefore  the  cost  of  transporting  men 
per  cu.  yd.  on  shovel  work  is  approximately  one-half  the  amount 
given  in  the  previous  table. 

Summarizing  we  have  the  following: 

Cost  per  cu.   yd.  for  transportation 

100   miles  and    return. 

Duration                               Shovel  Men  Fuel  Total 

of  Work                                 Ct.  Ct.  Ct. ,  Ct. 

1  mo 1.60  0.40  0.12  2.12 

4  mo 0.40  0.10  0.1*2  0.62 

6  mo 0.26  0.07  0.12  0.45 

12  mo 0.13  0.03  •  0.12  0.28 

The  above  is  for  a  haul  of  100  miles,  and  for  any  other  hauls 
multiply  according  to  the  length  of  haul. 

If  the  workmen  are  of  a  restless  disposition,  and  remain  only 
a  short  time  on  the  job  before  quitting,  the  cost  of  their  transpor- 
tation varies  not  with  the  length  of  the  job  but  with  the  average 
time  they  remain  on  it.  When  they  quit,  of  course  their  return 
fare  is  not  paid. 

Cost  of  Railway  Grading  by  Steam  Shovel.  D.  A.  Wallace, 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  27,  1910,  gives  a  description 
of  the  methods  and  costs  of  steam  shovel  work,  loading  slag, 
earth  and  sand  into  cars  for  railway  ballasting  and  grading. 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1133 

Slag  for  Ballasting.  This  slag  was  loaded  by  a  45-ton  shovel 
working  against  a  20-ft.  face,  into  cars  placed  on  a  spur  track 
on  a  3%  grade.  The  grade  permitted  the  spotting  of  cars  by 
hand  while  the  engine  was  unloading  the  loaded  cars.  The  great- 
est haul  was  4  miles.  There  was  no  delay  to  the  slag  train  due 
to  meeting  revenue  trains.  The  slag  was  in  alternate  vitrified 
and  spongy  layers.  The  use  of  the  light  shovel  necessitated  some 
use  of  powder  but  not  more  than  the  ground  gang  could  drill  the 
necessary  holes  for  and  handle.  Holes  were  drilled  on  an  average 
9  ft.  horizontally  into  the  face  3  ft.  from  the  ground  line  and 
about  10  ft.  centers.  Rodgers  ballast  cars  were  used.  The  size  of 
the  slag  permitted  easy  unloading.  The  train  crew  with  the  help 
of  one  of  the  gang  did  the  unloading  and  sweeping  off.  The  wages 
were  as  follows: 

Engineman,    per    month    $125.00 

Craneman,    per   month 90.00 

Fireman,    per  month    60.00 

Foreman,   per  month   65.00 

Ground  hands,  per  day   1.25 

The  daily  expense  was  as  follows: 

•  "f 

Engineman $4.80 

Craneman     3.46 

Fireman     2.31 

Foreman      2.50 

6  ground  men    7.50 

2  tons  coal  at  $2   4.00 

Waste  and  oil   0.50 

Dynamite     0.93 

Work  train 25.00 


Total  per  day   $51.00 

The  slag  cost  $2  per  car  load  of  40  cu.  yd.  or  5  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
Including  this,  the  cost  of  loading,  hauling  and  unloading  was  as 
follows  per  cubic  yard: 

6  cars,  240  cu.  yd $0.262 

7  cars,  280  cu.  yd 0.232 

8  cars,  320  cu.  yd 0.209 

9  cars,  360  cu.  yd 0.191 

12  cars,  480  cu.  yd 0.156 

Earth  for  Grade  Raising.  Loose  earth  was  loaded  into  Hart 
convertible  cars  spotted  on  the  main  line.  The  shovel  was  cut  in 
on  both  sides  of  the  main  line  and  cuts  were  widened.  A  12-ft. 
face  was  worked.  The  dirt  was  unloaded  by  the  railway  com- 
pany in  widening  fills  or  grade  raising,  as  was  most  convenient, 
depending  on  the  progress  of  the  gangs  and  the  time  of  revenue 
trains.  The  contractor  was  paid  7  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  pit  measure  for 
dirt  loaded  on  cars.  The  following  costs  were  for  loading  alone. 
The  shovel  used  was  a  70-ton  Giant  with  a  2-cu.  yd.  dipper.  The 
wages  paid  were  as  follows: 


1134  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Engineman,   per  month   $150.00 

Craneman,   per  month    90.00 

Foreman,  per  day   2.00 

Groundmen,   per  day   (6  worked)    1.50 

Watchman,    per   day    1.85 

About  1^  gal.  of  cylinder  oil  at  40  ct.  per  gallon  were  used  per 
day  and  2  gal.  of  black  oil  at  10  ct.  per  gallon.  The  daily  ex- 
penses were  as  follows: 

Engineman    $  6.00 

Craneman     3.60 

Fireman     2.00 

Watchman 1.85 

Ground  hands    9.00 


Total   labor    $22.45 

Cylinder    oil    $0.60 

Black    oil    0  20 

Waste     0.10 

1   ton   coal 1.50 


Total  per  day   ...:.... $24.85 

The  shovel  loaded  45  cars  of  24  cu.  yd.  per  car  or  600  cu.  yd. 
per  day. 

Sand  for  Ballast.  Two  sand  pits  were  opened  up,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  main  line,  and  the  lead  track  to  each  pit  was  used  as 
a  loading  track.  A  60-ton  Marion  shovel  was  cut  into  one  pit  and 
a  45-ton  Vulcan  shovel  into  the  other  pit.  Three  work  trains 
were  used  for  spotting  cars,  hauling  and  unloading.  Each  crew 
handled  different  parts  of  the  work  depending  .on  the  arrival  of 
the  unloading  trains  and  the  speed  of  loading.  One  crew  usually 
spotted  cars  for  both  shovels.  This  was  done  very  easily  because 
of  the  frequent  moves  of  the  shovels  due  to  the  shallow  face  of 
the  cut.  The  sand  was  a  white  sand  containing  about  20%  loam. 
It  made  a  very  satisfactory  ballast  for  light  traffic.  Hart  con- 
vertible cars  were  used  and  were  unloaded  by  a  Lidgerwood  plow 
on  new  track.  A  large  amount  of  time  was  lost  due  to  the  slow 
running  necessitated  by  the  very  rough  track. 

The  60-ton  Marion  shovel,  working  21  days  in  July,  loaded 
1,075  cars  with  29,008  cu.  yd. 

The  number  of  days  worked  was  22  or  223  hours,  during  which 
time  there  were  91  hr.  45  min.  delays  distributed  as  follows: 

Cause.  Hr. 

Moving  shovel    23.9 

Waiting  for  cars   53.2 

Closing  car   doors    4.6 

Coal   and   water    5.8 

Derailments     3.3 

Shovel  repairs   0.9 

Total    .  .    91.7 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1135 

The  45-ton  Vulcan  shovel  working  7  days  in  July  loaded  235 
cars  with  7,570  cu.  yd. 

The  number  of  days  worked  was  7,  or  70  hr.,  during  which  time 
the  delays  amounted  to  49  hr.  43  min.  distributed  as  follows: 

Cause.  Hr. 

Moving  shovel    7.1 

Waiting  for  cars   28.3 

Tank   repairs 7.0 

Shovel    repairs    7.0 

Derailments     0.3 


Total 49.7 

The  total  yardage  loaded  by  both  shovels  was  36,578  cu.  yd. 
The  cost  of  loading,  transporting  and  placing  this  yardage  in  the 
track  was  as  follows  per  cu.  yd. 

Loading     $0.040 

Transporting     0.074 

Surfacing    0.231 

Fuel  and  supplies    0.064 

Rental   equipment    -. .  0.069 

Supervision      0.025 

Total    $0.503 

The  face  worked  averaged  8  ft.  and  the  haul  was  10  miles. 

In  August  the  two  shovels  worked  more  nearly  the  same  amount 
of  time.  The  total  working  time  of  the  60-ton  shovel  was  26  days 
or  310  hours,  during  which  time  there  were  the  following  delays: 

60-Ton  Marion 

Hr. 

Moving  shovel    43.0 

Waiting  for  cars    82.5 

Waiting    for   laborers    29.0 

Waiting  on  track  work  6.4 

Miscellaneous     10.0 


Total    .. 170.9 

45-Ton  Vulcan 

Moving    shovel    ; 35.0 

Waiting  for  cars   45.5 

Waiting  for  laborers   20.0 

Waiting  on  track  work   15.0 

Waiting  for  power   20.0 

Repairing   shovel    27.0 

Miscellaneous     12.0 

Total     174.5 

Summarizing  the  work  of  the  two  shovels  we  have: 

60-Ton  45-Ton 

No.   cars  loaded    1,268  1,046 

No.   cu.  yd.  loaded    33,486  30,710 

Av.  cu.  yd.  per  day  1,272  1,121 

Av.  cars  per  day  48  4/5  40 

Av.  cu.  yd.  per  car  26^  28% 


1136  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  total  yardage  for  the  month  for  both  shovels  was  63,196 
cu.  yd.  The  cost  of  loading,  transporting  and  placing  this  yard- 
age in  the  track  was  as  follows: 

Loading     '.  $0.019 

Transporting     0.046 

Surfacing 0.150 

Fuel  and  supplies 0.075 

Rental    equipment    • 0.054 

Supervision    0.019 

Total $0.363 

Cost  of  Raising  a  Railway  Embankment.  Work  on  the  St. 
Louis  and  San  Francisco  R.  R.  through  the  Alabopolya  Swamp 
in  La.  is  described  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  13,  1910. 

The  material  in  the  embankment  was  the  black  gumbo  com- 
monly encountered  in  Southern  Louisiana  swamps.  The  work 
described  consisted  of  raising  the  embankment  and  filling  in  the 
temporary  trestling.  The  conditions  were  difficult. 

The  track  was  laid  following  closely  behind  the  trestle  gang, 
and  frequent  use  of  the  track  by  the  bridge  material  train  put  the 
track  in  very  poor  condition.  A  great  portion  of  the  embankment 
built. by  "  station  work"  was  partially  washed  out  by  high  water, 
leaving  holes  4  ft.  deep  for  15  or  20  ft.  of  track.  The  temporary 
trestles  stood  12  or  18  in.  higher  than  the  approaches.  This  con- 
dition was  due  to  the  excessive  settlement  of  the  swamp  soil  and 
also  to  Ijeavy  rains.  The  worst  holes  were  cribbed  up  with  ties 
and  tree  branches,  but  even  then  a  great  amount  of  delay  was 
caused  the  unloading  trains  by  derailment  and  trains  breaking  in 
two  in  attempting  to  get  over  the  bad  places.  It  was  necessary 
to  unload  dirt  at  these  places  before  the  track  could  be  surfaced, 
as  the  gumbo  would  not  hold  a  surface  under  one  trainload  of 
dirt.  In  many  instances  cars  were  unloaded  standing  on  track  18 
in.  out  of  level  and  3  ft.  out  of  surface  in  a  distance  of  10  ft. 
along  the  rail. 

Hart  convertible  cars  were  used  and  were  unloaded  by  a  Lidger- 
wood  plow.  Before  dirt  was  unloaded  on  the  fills  it  was  necessary 
to  jack  the  track  up  out  of  the  gumbo.  It  was  impossible  to  move 
the  track  with  No.  6  Barrett  jacks  after  the  dirt  was  unloaded. 
In  many  instances  it  was  found  necessary  to  strip  out  the  track 
before"  it  could  be  lifted  from  the  gumbo  with  12  No.  6  Barret 
jacks,  resting  on  boards,  per  rail  length.  The  grade  on  embank- 
ment was  raised  not  less  than  12  in.  at  any  point. 

The  unloading  was  planned  so  that  when  the  first  gangs  were 
unable  to  get  the  track  in  shape  ahead  of  the  unloading  or  when 
they  were  not  able  to  care  for  the  dirt  as  fast  as  it  came,  the  un- 
loading was  done  on  the  trestles,  and  as  they  were  being  filled 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1137 

a  gang  was  kept  busy  tamping  the  dirt  in  under  the  caps  and 
stringers.  Following  a  rain,  the  dirt  packed  hard  and  the  cars 
and  stringers  were  removed  by  the  Lidgerwood  and  cable. 

The  shovel  pits  from  which  the  dirt  for  filling  -was  got,  aver- 
aged a  15-ft.  face  and  1,600  ft.  in  length.  The  dirt  was  a  sandy 
clay  compacting  very  quickly  in  embankment.  The  pit  was  opened 
up  along  one  side  of  the  main  line  and  track  laid  behind  the 
shovel  in  the  first  cut  and  used  as  a  loading  track  for  the  next 
cut  of  the  shovel.  More  difficulty  than  usual  was  experienced 
in  keeping  the  pit  properly  drained.  Good  drainage  was  very 
necessary  to  take  care  of  the  frequent  and  heavy  rains  common  to 
the  country.  Three  trains  were  used,  1  loading  train,  which 
handled  the  water  cars  for  the  shovel,  1  swing  train  which  made 
the  run  of  12  miles  to  the  front  in  40  minutes  and  1  unloading 
train.  The  unloading  was  started  12  miles  from  the  pit.  A  sid- 
ing and  water  tank  were  located  there  affording  water  to  the 
swing  and  unloading  trains.  About  25  minutes  were  generally 
consumed  there  in  switching  empties  and  locals. 

The  work  recorded  was  done  from  Sept.  12  to  Oct.  16,  1907. 
The  daily  expenses  were  as  follows: 

Loading,  Transporting  and  Unloading: 

1  teamster  at  $150  per  mo $    5.00 

3  conductors  at  $100  per  mo 10.00 

3  brakemen  at  $75  per  mo 7.50 

3  brakemen  at  $60  per  mo 6.00 

3  enginemen  at  $100  per  mo 10.00 

3  firemen  at  $75  per  mo.   7.50 

3  engine  watchmen  at  $60  per  mo 6.00 

1  hostler  at  $75  per  mo 2.50 

1  hostler  helper  at  $1.80  per  day   1.80 

1  steamshovel  engineman  at  $150  per  mo 5.00 

1  steamshovel  craneman  at  $90  per  mo 3.00 

1  steamshovel  fireman  at  $75  per  mo 2.50 

steamshovel  watchman  at  $60  per  mo 2.00 

machinist  at  $0.35  per  hour  3.50 

machinist  helper  at  $1.80  per  day  1.80 

blacksmith  at  $0.35  per  hour  3.50 

blacksmith  helper  at  $0.20  per  hour  2.00 

car  repairer  at  $0.25  per  hour  2.50 

1  car  repairer  at  $0.275  per  hour    2.25 

1  carpenter  at  $0.275  per  hour   2.75 

1  pumper  at  $60  per  mo 2.00 

1  Lidgerwood  engineer  at  $90  per  mo 3.00 

6  pit  men  at  $2  per  day  12.00 

6  cablemen  at  $2  per  day 12.00 

Total   wages    $116.10 

20  tons  coal  at  $4  $  80.00 

Supplies     2.56 

jce     1.00 

Water  at  50  ct.  per  tank  from  city  2.00 

10  gal.  gasoline  at  10  ct 

Total   supplies    $  86.56 


1138  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

1  steam  shovel  rent $  10.00 

3  engines  rent  at  $1.53  per  day    16.59 

62  cars  rent  at  50  ct.  per  day 31.00 

1  water  car  rent  at  50  ct.  per  day  0.50 

1  spreader  rent  at  $2  per  day   2.00 

1  Lidgerwood  rent  at  $5  per  day  .  5.00 

Total  plant  rental  $65.09 

Add  10%  super,  and  5%  misc $40.15 

Grand    total $307.90 

Note. —  The  5%  misc.  includes  overtime,  etc. 

'.'  -i  '-u  'il  i'H{  .•'•'     J-.jjY,      f.,ijsl;     flt.llJ     V.mi:j<IliJ;     91oM       .1 

A  total  of  2,060  cars,  or  60,180  cu.  yd.,  were  handled  in  30 
working  days,  2  of  which  were  spent  in  moving.  This  is  at  the 
rate  of  2,000  cu.  yd.  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  15.4  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Comparative  Costs  with  Flat  Cars  and'Large  Dump  Cars.  John 
W.  King,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  17,  1911,  describes 
the  building  of  a  95-ft.  fill,  %  mile  long,  for  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  across  the  Papio  Valley.  The  earth  was  hauled  from  a 
cut  a  little  over  2  miles  away,  of  almost  the  same  depth  as  the 
fill,  but  considerably  shorter.  To  construct  this  fill  a  timber 
trestle  was  erected  to  the  full  height  for  the  entire  length,  the 
bents  being  set  upon  piles  driven  about  20  ft.  into  the  soft  gumbo 
to  clay.  Trains  were  brought  over  a  temporary  track,  backed  out 
on  the  trestle  and  there  discharged,  filling  the  trestle  to  the  height 
of  about  30  ft.,  500  ft.  in  advance  of  a  second  layer,  20  ft.  high, 
which  was  followed  by  a  final  layer,  15  ft.  high.  The  stepping  off 
of  the  fill  in  this  way  was  supposed  to  impose  the  load  upon  the 
soil  gradually,  its  weight  squeezing  'the  water  out  of  the  soft 
soil,  allowing  it  to  solidify  before  applying  a  greater  load.  The 
weight  of  the  trestle  and  equipment  were  presumably  carried  by 
the  piles.  The  fill  had  been  raised  this  way  until  the  last  layer 
had  been  nearly  finished,  when  without  warning  the  valley  floor 
upheaved,  and  the  earth  fill  settled  down  in  places  many  feet. 
The  trestle  was  thrown  badly  out  of  line  and  level  and  con- 
demned as  unsafe  for  further  use.  Soundings  had  been  taken  by 
the  railroad  company  and  the  contractor  had  accepted  the  work 
with  full  knowledge  of  the  borings.  He  considered  the  subsoil 
sufficiently  strong  to  support  the  superimposed  load,  with  the 
feeling  that  a  slip,  should  one  occur,  would  be  but  surface  dis- 
lodgment.  The  slip  that  did  occur  (shown  in  Fig.  1),  however, 
had  a  much  more  far  reaching  effect,  that  might  have  been 
avoided  had  the  contractor  realized  the  situation  and  provided 
for  this  contingency  in  the  beginning.  Previous  to  the  upheaval 
the  contractor  had  been  working  a  plant  consisting  of  the  fol- 
lowing : 

2    (70-ton)    shovels 

48  ( 30-ton )  flat  cars 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1139 

2  (60-ton)   road  locos.,  separate  tender,  switching  type 

3  (30-ton)  saddle  tank  dinkeys 
1  'Lidgerwood  unloader  plow* 

I  hoisting  engine. 

This  plant,  working  double  shift,  20  hr.  per  day,  excavated 
5,890  cu.  yd.,  place  measure.  The  cost  of  direct  operation  per 
cu.  yd.  not  including  plant  or  overhead  expenses,  but  only  the  di- 
rect labor,  was  about  5.56  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  trestle  the  old  plant  was  removed  from  the  work  and  a  new 
plant  substituted.  This  consisted  of  the  following: 

1  (90-ton)   shovel 

8  Lawson  33-yd.  dump  cars 

2  road  locomotives,  as  before. 

From  actual  timing  on  the  trestle,  4  of  these  Lawson  cars  were 
dumped,  replaced,  and  started  on  the  return*  to  the  gravel  pit 
within  5  min.,  or  at  the  rate  of  1.25  "min.  per  car,  which  for  a  5- 
car  train  would  require  6.25  min.  at  the  dump. 

With  the  new  plant  eleven  units,  working  double  shift  of  20  hr. 
per  day,  excavated  4,800  cu.  yd.  place  measure,  at  a  cost  for  di- 
rect operation  of  3.45  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Thus  1 1  plant  units  with  the 
new  method,  as  against  57  by  the  former  methods,  using  but  40 
men  instead  of  100,  did  the  work  for  62%  of  what  it  had  for- 
merly cost. 

Manner  of  Filling  a  75-Ft.  Trestle.  When  the  Spokane,  Port- 
land and  Seattle  Railroad  was  built  in  1907,  Sprague  Gulch  was 
crossed  on  a  trestle  in  order  to  expedite  the  work.  This  trestle  is 
4,869  ft.  long  with  a  maximum  height  from  base  of  rail  to  surface 
of  water  of  101  ft.,  and  average  height  of  over  75  ft.  It  is  com- 
posed of  317  six-post  bents,  56  of  which  rest  on  piles. 

The  advantageous  location  of  a  borrow  pit  made  it  possible  to 
fill  this  trestle  at  a  less  cost  than  that  of  replacement  with  a 
steel  structure.  Advantage  was  taken  of  the  sloping  bank  on  the 
east  side  of  the  gulch  to  open  borrow  pits  on  each  side  of  the 
track  at  levels  of  the  various  lifts,  thus  avoiding  crossing  under 
the  trestle  and  eliminating  uphill  haul.  Borrow  pits  totaling  180 
acres  were  purchased,  the  material  obtained  being  glacial  drift  of 
gravel  and  boulders. 

The  contractor  provided  two  complete  outfits,  consisting  of  two 
70-ton  Bucyrus  shovels,  with  8  dinkey  engines  and  116  four-^ard 
cars,  to  handle  the  work,  and  to  comply  with  the  specifications, 
which  required  that  the  fills  on  each  side  of  the  main  trestle  be 
brought  up  together  to  avoid  unequal  pressures  tending  to  force 
the  structure  out  of  line,  it  was  decided  to  build  the  fill  in  three 
lifts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20,  the  first  one  approximately  35  ft.  high 
and  the  other  two  30  ft,  each.  It  was  planned  to  carry  these  lifts 


1140 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


across  the  entire  length  of  the  fill,  making  the  first  lift  across  the 
bottom  of  the  gulch  about  1  ,800  ft.  long.  However,  the  contractor 
found  such  good  materia  IE  uncovering  his  first  cut  that  he 
raised  his  grade  gradually  as  he  extended  the  fill  across  the  gulch 
and  made  a  .first  lift  entirely  across  the  bottom. 

The  specifications  also  required  that  the  contractor  build  his 
construction  trestles  as  close  to  the  main  trestle  as  practicable,  and 
fill  out  from  these  so  that  if  there  should  be  any  tendency  for 
the  ground  to  rise  beyond  the  slope,  it  would  not  interfere  with  the 
alignment  of  the  high  trestle.  The  wisdom  of  this  provision  be- 
came evident  when  such  a  movement  appeared  at  one  point  with- 
out any  damage  to  the  trestle.  At  this  point  the  ground  raised 
5  ft.  for  a  strip  about  140  ft.  long  by  50  ft.  wide,  about  two 
months  after  the  work  started.  Since  that  time  no  further  move- 
ment has  been  noted. 

From  the  section  shown  it  will  be  noted  that  different  layers 


Fig.  20.     Manner  of  Filling  High  Trestle. 

are  sloped  slightly  in  towards  the  center,  so  that  should  there 
be  any  tendency  for  the  material  in  the  bank  to  slide  it  will 
move  towards  the  center  and  compact.  As  fast  as  the  fill  is 
completed  as  far  as  it  can  be  reached  from  the  trestle,  the 
tracks  are  thrown  on  the  fill  and  banks  widened  out  to  the 
slope  stakes  before  a  second  lift  is  started.  When  the  first  lift 
was  entirely  completed  the  shovels  were  moved  up  the  slope 
of  the  borrow  pit  to  the  level  of  the  second  lift,  this  change  caus- 
ing an  interruption  to  the  work  of  but  five  hours. 

Work  was  started  on  March  15,  and  the  first  lift  completed  on 
August  23.  Up  to  October  31,  1,116,505  cu.  yd.  of  material  had 
been  moved.  This  amounts  to  65*200  cu.  yd.  per  month  per  shovel. 
The  contractor's  force  averaged  about  150  men. 

For  filling  the  third  lift  the  contractor  changed  from  narrow 
gage  to  standard  gage  equipment,  unloading  from  the  main  line 
under  control  of  a  regular  train  dispatcher. 

Drag  and  Wheel  Scraper  Work  in  North  Carolina.     The  meth- 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1141 

ods  and  costs  of  constructing  24  miles  of  the  Watauga  and  Yad- 
kin  Valley  R.  R.  in  North  Carolina  are  given  by  H.  C.  Landon  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.  1,  1914.  Approximately  24 
miles  were  graded  by  company  forces.  The  yardage  removed  was 
475,052  of  which  99,688  cu.  yd.  were  rock.  The  labor  cost,  in- 
cluding explosives,  was  approximately  12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  earth 
and  36  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  rock.  The  powder  used  amounted  to 
213,250  Ib.  and  the  dynamite  to  24,000  Ib.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  powder  threw  off  the  grade,  so  that  no  further  handling  was 
necessary,  at  least  80,000  cu.  yd.  An  additional  large  yardage 
of  material  was  shaken  up  to  be  loaded  by  wheelers  or  loaded 
into  the  carts  or  cars.  The  methods  and  costs  of  the  rock  exca- 
vation are  described  in  my  "  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation." 

Almost  all  the  work  was  done  by  company  forces  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  chief  engineer.  One  small  six-mile  section  was  con- 
structed by  contract.  Mr.  Landon  says  that  it  was  believed  by 
the  organization  that  the  road  could  be  built  with  greater  speed 
by  company  forces  than  by  contract  and  with  less  annoyance,  as 
it  was  known  that  numerous  changes  of  alignment  would  neces- 
sarily be  made.  He  states  that  it  is  probable  that  the  greater 
portion  of  the  balance  of  the  line  would  be  constructed  by  contract. 

The  first  30  miles  of  line  was,  in  general,  light  work.  There 
were  some  heavy  cuts  and  fills  but  it  was  not  practicable,  on  ac- 
count of  poor  roads  and  lack  of  bridges,  to  entertain  any  steam 
shovel  proposition,  and  generally  the  cut  and  fills  were  too  light 
to  make  steam  shovel  operation  economical.  Labor  was  very 
scarce  and  it  was  planned  to  do  the  work  with  the  aid  of  teams, 
machines  and  powder  as  far  as  practicable. 

After  a  careful  study  of  the  profile  it  was  decided  to  purchase 
the  following  equipment: 

.  I  r>V\,*j(C 

12  (1%-cu.  yd.)  Troy  wagons  at  $112.50  $1,350.00 

24  drag  scrapers  at  $5.56   133.44 

36  No.  21/2  wheel  scrapers  at  $36.75  1,323.00 

1  elevating   grader    920.00 

4  (2,500-lb.)    wagons   at  $55.00   220.00 

8  (16-ft.  x  24-ft.)   tents  at  $38.63 309.04 

2  (32y2-ft.  x  65-ft.)  mule  tents  at  $149.30   298.60 

2  Ingersoll  rock  drills  at  $312.50  625.00 

1  (le-hp.)   boiler  on  wheels,   2nd  hand   300.00 

10  (1-yd.)   dump  carts  with  harness  at  $46.00   460.00 

4  (2-yd.)   dump  cars  with  harness  at  $30.00   120.00 

100  steel  wheelbarrows,  3  and  4  cu.  ft.  at  $3.00 300.00 

12  doz.  round  point  D  handle  shovels  at  $5.25  ......  63.00 

4  blacksmith  outfits,  including  a  forge,  anvil,   and 

other  tools  at  $40.00   160.00 

12  doz.  picks  with  handles  at  $4.00   48.00 

Total  cost  of  equipment  $6,630.08 

The  dump  wagons  and  grader  were  used  only  about  two  months, 
and  did  fair  work  in  the  territory  where  they  were  employed. 


1142  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

They  were  not  used  for  a  longer  period  on  account  of  the  inability 
to  get  sufficient  mules  and  teams  to  operate  them. 

When  the  company  started  work  they  were  advised  that  all  the 
teams  that  would  be  required  could  be  secured  in -the  community, 
but  although  $3  per  day,  or  50  ct.  more  than  the  ruling  price,  was 
paid,  only  15  to  18  teams,  and  they  not  of  the  best,  could  be  se- 
cured. It  was  then  decided  to  purchase  mules,  and  45  teams  were 
bought.  The  average  weight  of  these  animals  was  over  1,255 
Ib.  These  teams  were  in  almost  continual  daily  service  from 
August  1,  1912,  to  June,  1913.  Only  two  mules  were  lost  and  it 
is  estimated  that  there  was  not  over  5%  lost  time  from  the  mules 
in  service.  The  cost  of  feeding  the  mules  averaged  95  ct.  per 
team  per  day.  Hay  averaged  $25  per  ton  and  oats  57.5  ct.  per 
bushel  delivered  at  the  camp.  The  teams  were  well  fed  and  were 
taken  care  of  by  a  competent  stable  boss  which  accounts  for  the 
small  percentage  of  loss  in  mules  and  in  time. 

Organization  of  Forces.  The  organizations  of  the  various  forces 
were  fixed  and  were  called  "  standard "  and  were  only  varied 
when  it  was  shown  that  the  needs  of  the  work  demanded  it. 

The  "  standard  "  wheel  scraper  force  was  as  follows  for  hauls 
not  exceeding  300  ft.  Six  wheel-scrapers  with  teams  and  drivers, 
two  teams,  two  plows,  one  snatch  team,  one  man  dumping,  one 
loader,  one  wheeler,  one  water  boy  when  required  and  one  fore- 
man. When  the  haul  increased,  the  number  of  wheel  scrapers  was 
increased  in  order  to  keep  the  snatch  team  and  other  laborers 
busy.  This  was  very  closely  watched  by  the  foremen  of  the 
various  gangs  in  order  to  keep  up  their  record,  as  every  dumper 
was  supplied  with  a  counter  and  the  day's  work  reported.  In 
this  way  a  very  close  estimate  could  be  made  of  the  yardage 
moved. 

Drag  Scraper  Work.  The  "  standard  "  drag  scraper  force  con- 
sisted of  six  scrapers  with  teams  and  drivers,  two  teams  to  plow, 
one  dumper,  one  loader,  one  foreman,  and  one  water  boy. 

The  drag  scraper  work  and  the  wheel  scraper  work  were  watched 
with  great  care  to  determine  the  economical  haul.  The  drag 
scraper  is  efficient  for  very  short  hauls.  Observation  of  the 
various  hauls  up  to  200  ft.  fully  demonstrated  the  fact  that  for 
a  distance  of  over  100  ft.  the  drag  scraper  was  an  expensive  im- 
plement. Under  100  ft.  it  would  do  efficient  work.  Wheel 
scrapers  ordinarily  could  be  used  where  the  drags  could  be  used, 
and  had  the  advantage  of  making  about  the  same  speed  with  about 
five  times  the  load.  As  a  general  rule  only  a  few  drags  should 
be  used  on  work  of  this  kind.  Their  advantage  is  in  their  cheap- 
ness, and  for  a  small  amount  of  work  for  short  hauls  the  drag 
scraper  is  desirable.  A  gang  of  wheel-barrow  men  properly  han- 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1143 

died  will  do  work  about  as  cheaply  as  a  drag,  and  in  some  in- 
stances at  less  expense. 

Assuming  the  haul  for  drag  scraper  to  be  100  ft.,  a  lively  mule 
team  to  a  scraper  will  not  make  over  1.3  miles  per  hr.  on  account 
of  the  frequent  turns  in  loading,  or  about  6,900  ft.  per  hour. 
This  is  at  the  rate  of  3.45  cu.  yd.  per  hour  or  34.5  cu.  yd.  per 
10-hr,  day  per  team.  With  a  "  standard "  drag  scraper  force, 
and  teams  at  $3  per  day,  8  drags  will  handle  27.6  cu.  yd.  each 
per  10-hr,  day  at  a  total  labor  cost  of  $37.50  or  nearly  14  ct.  per 
cu.  yd.  For  a  haul  of  from  50  to  75  ft.  the  cost  will  not  exceed 
12  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  About  75  ft.  should  be  the  maximum  haul  with 
drag  scrapers.  Six  drag  scrapers  with  a  shorter  haul  were  there- 
fore established  as  the  maximum  to  be  used  with  the  minimum 
haul.  Actual  observation  of  a  110-ft.  haul  with  country  teams 
indicated  that  under  the  'best  conditions  only  25.5  trips  were  made 
per  hr.,  or  a  speed  of  83  ft.  per  min.  The  company  teams,  which 
were  all  well  fed  Missouri  mules,  made  as  high  as  120  ft.  per  min. 
with  drag  scrapers  on  a  haul  of  150  ft.  These  results  were  ob- 
tained under  the  best  possible  conditions  where  the  dumper  man 
counted  and  reported  every  load  and  in  addition  the  teams  were 
under  personal  observation  of  the  general  manager. 

A  few  drag  scrapers  on  every  job  of  similar  character  are  a 
good  investment  but  the  number  in  use  should  be  limited.  An 
injudicious  foreman  will  often  use  them  at  the  company's  expense. 

Wheel  Svraper  Work.  The  "standard"  wheel  scraper  forces, 
above  given,  were  modified  as  the  hauls  increased,  the  number  of 
wheelers  increased  to  8  and,  possibly,  with  very  long  hauls,  to  10 
or  even  12.  In  only  one  instance  did  the  haul  with  wheelers  much 
exceed  600  ft.,  and  in  this  instance  the  haul  averaged  1,350  ft.; 
ten  wheelers  only  were  available  but  they  were  able  to  handle  225 
cu.  yd.  at  a  cost  of  23.5  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  figuring  teams  at  $3.50 
per  10-hr,  day,  although  all  the  teams  which  were  actually  used 
cost  only  $3  per  day. 

With  a  haul  of  415  ft.  a  careful  timing  of  the  teams  indicated 
that  they  were  making  4  trips  in  20  min.  An  average  of  twelve 
trips  per  hour  was  made  for  the  entire  day.  The  wheelers  were 
loaded  to  their  capacity  and  therefore  an  average  of  nearly  60 
cu.  yd.  per  wheeler  was  secured.  The  wheeler  force  using  only 
6  wheelers  cost  $30  per  day.  The  labor  cost  in  this  case  did  not 
much  exceed  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 

Wheel-Barrow  Excavation.  The  wheel-barrow,  when  properly 
used,  was  a  most  useful,  necessary,  convenient,  and  economical 
tool.  Three  types  of  barrows  were  purchased:  The  ordinary 
railroad  wooden  barrow,  the  wooden  frame  contractor's  barrow 
with  steel  tray,  and  the  whole  steel  wheel-barrow  with  one-piece 


1144  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

tubular  bent  handles.  Barrows  of  3  and  4  cu.  ft.  capacity  were 
bought;  the  barrow  holding  4  cu.  ft.  in  general  seemed  to  suit  the 
work  and  could  be  handled  about  as  easily  as  the  barrow  holding 
only  3  cu.  ft.  The  ordinary  wooden  barrow  gave  very  poor  serv- 
ice. A  few  of  the  barrows  with  wooden  frames  went  out  of  serv- 
ice, but  the  whole  steel  wheel-barrows  were  practically  as  good  as 
new  after  8  months'  fairly  good  service.  The  barrows  were  painted 
when  out  of  service  any  length  of  time. 

For  side  hill  work  and  for  open  grade  work  the  barrow  gave 
very  efficient  service.  Observations  on  side  hill  work  showed  that 
gangs  of  25  men  handled  dirt  at  the  rate  of  8  wheel-barrows  per 
min.  for  an  hour  with  a  haul  of  21  ft.  This  would  mean  that 
they  moved  over  500  cu.  yd.  in  wheel-barrows  holding  4  cu.  ft. 
Good  runways  were  always  provided  so  that  the  loads  could  be 
moved  with  the  least  possible  waste  of  energy. 

The  gangs  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  efficient  foremen  who 
taught  the  men  how  to  handle  the  dirt  with  the  least  possible 
loss  of  time.  At  all  times  it  was  the  endeavor  to  have  a  "  stand- 
ard gang"  of  not  less  than  25  men  under  each  foreman.  The 
work  varied  as  the  conditions  necessitated.  In  some  cases  much 
drilling  was  required  and  in  others,  none  at  all. 

Dump  Car  and  Cart  Excavation.  Four  small  dump  cars  with 
revolving  bodies  were  found  to  be  convenient  and  useful  in  short 
cuts  and  at  the  approaches  to  the  one  tunnel  that  was  built. 
These  cars  run  on  a  track  of  30-in.  gage  and  had  a  capacity  of  2 
cu.  yd.  The  cars  were  particularly  useful  in  small  cuts  and 
where  the  haul  was  long.  The  revolving  body  would  permit  the 
car  to  be  dumped  in  building  the  fill  ahead  of  it  or  it  could  be 
dumped  on  the  side  to  widen  the  fill  or  waste  the  material. 
Light  rails  not  being  available,  these  cars  were  run  on  a  track 
made  of  4  x  4  oak  timbers.  The  wooden  rails  required  only  a 
few  renewals  during  their  six  months'  service. 

Dump  carts  could  be  used  economically  only  upon  hauls  about 
100  ft.  long,  but  two  of  the  cars  moved  by  mules  could  keep  a 
gang  of  10  to  12  shovellers  continually  busy  where  the  haul  was 
from  600  to  700  ft. 

In  one  cut  alone  it  is  estimated  that  two  of  these  cars  handled 
15,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  and  rock  with  a  maximum  haul  of  650  ft. 
at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  20  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  average  gang,  in- 
cluding drillers,  was  about  14  men  and  a  foreman.  This  number 
of  men  loaded  about  150  cu.  yd.  per  day  at  a  labor  cost  of  about 
$25  per  day.  It  took  nearly  three  months  to  remove  the  cut. 

While  dump  carts  could  be  used  for  the  short  hauls  of  100 
to  125  ft.  efficiently,  yet  they  were  used  to  advantage  where  the 
maximum  haul  was  250  ft.,  provided  the  roadway  was  kept  in 


ROAD  AND  RAILROAD  EMBANKMENTS  1145 

good  order  and  several  carts  were  used  to  keep  a  good  sized  gang 
moving.  In  one  instance  6  carts  were  used  in  completing  a  fill 
and  did  the  work  very  rapidly  where  the  haul  was  approximately 
150  ft.  Six  carts  and  30  laborers  moved  325  cu.  yd.  per  day  at 
an  expense  of  approximately  $47  or  about  15  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  As 
a  general  rule  the  cost  of  handling  earth  and  rock  with  dump 
carts  and  men  was  about  26  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  exclusive  of  the  cost 
of  explosives. 

Methods  of  Using  Explosives  in  Soft  Ground.  In  using  ex- 
plosives it  was  difficult  at  first  to  get  the  desired  results,  as  all 
the  old  time  powder  men  believed  in  the  single  shot  or  two  or 
three  shot  method  rather  than  in  the  large  blast.  Moreover 
the  experienced  men  that  were  employed  had  only  used  explosives 
to  shatter  and  break  up  rock  or  very  hard  soil,  so  that  it  could  be 
handled  by  either  hand  or  steam  shovels,  and  the  old  powder  men 
at  first  tried  to  continue  the  use  of  that  method,  whereas,  it  was 
desired  to  throw  as  much  of  the  earth  and  rock  from  the  cuts  as 
possible  without  resorting  to  further  methods  of  removal. 

In  general,  in  earth  or  soft  rock  where  the  cut  at  the  center 
line  was  over  4  ft.,  the  first  line  of  holes  was  placed  not  more  than 
2  ft.  above  the  center  line.  All  holes  were  driven  to  a  point  2 
ft.  below  grade  and  usually  about  the  same  distance  apart  as  the 
depth  of  hole  to  grade,  except  when  the  depth  was  greater  than 
1-5  ft.  The  maximum  distance  apart  was  15  ft.  If  the  hillside 
was  steep  and  the  lower  side  of  the  road  bed  at  grade,  one  set 
of  holes  was  sufficient.  If  the  cut  under  ordinary  circumstances 
was  a  through  cut  with  a  depth  of  cut  of  2  ft.  or  more  on  the 
lower  side,  then  a  lower  set  of  holes  was  drilled  parallel  to  the 
first  at  the  lower  ditch  line  at  points  midway  between  the  upper 
holes,  so  that  there  would  be  no  question  of  moving  the  material 
out  of  the  way.  This  did  not  materially  increase  the  amount  of 
powder  used  as  1  cu.  yd.  of  soft  rock  and  earth  was  moved  with 
about  2  Ib.  of  powder.  The  soft  rock  usually  was  a  decomposed 
granite  or  Carolina  gneiss  which  was  not  hard  to  drill.  The  gen- 
eral tendency  was  to  use  too  much  powder.  In  putting  down 
holes  in  earth  and  soft  rock  hand  and  ch'urn  drills  were  success- 
fully used. 

Bibliography.  "  Railroad  Construction,"  Walter  Loring  Webb; 
"The  Catskill  Water  Supply  of  New  York  City,"  Lazarus  White; 
"  Railway  Estimates,"  F.  Lavis. 

"Relative  Cost  of  Filling  and  Building  Trestles,"  Trans.  Eng. 
Asso.  of  the  South,  Vol.  12,  1901. 

"  Settlement  of  the  Embankment  Between  Squantum  and  Moon 
Island,  Boston  Main  Drainage  Works,"  Henry  N.  Carter,  Jour. 
ASSQ,  Eny.  Soc.,  Vol.  1 1,  1892. 


1146      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

"  Second  Track  Construction  and  Improvement  of  Line  and 
Grade  from  Madison  to  Bariboo,  Wisconsin,  Chicago  and  North 
Western  Ry.,"  H.  W.  Batten,  Engineering  News,  June  3,  1897; 
"  Method  of  Crossing  Marshy  Ground  on  the  Detroit  and  Milwau- 
kee Ry.  in  1877,"  Eng.  News,  Nov.  21,  1901;  "An  Interesting  Ex- 
ample of  False  Work  Construction,"  J.  F.  Jackson,  Eng.  News, 
March  9,  1893;  "  Haslett  Park  Sink-Hole  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railroad,"  Ry.  and  Eng.  Review,' Dec.  31,  1904;  Long  Fill  Built 
from  Borrow. 


,;<{)>   hv>uj-)h 

i    ji.Ul£.  «K^H 


CHAPTER  XX 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS 

.  .fcxfttinMto'ii  i><!  bif/oifo  >,ir,i  i-ijwfi  '*{)  i!-:ro;i;? 
Design  of  Earth  Dams.     H.  A.  Hageman  in  the  Stone  and  Web- 
ster Journal,  Feb.,  1916,  gives  the  following: 
Earthen  dams  usually  consist  of 

( 1 )  A  bank  of  earth  containing  homogeneous  material  through- 

out, or 

(2)  An  embankment  having  a  central  core  of  masonry,  con- 

crete, or  a  puddle  of  selected  impervious  materials,  or 

(3)  An  embankment  having  a  puddle  or  selected  material  on 

the  water  slope,  or 

(4)  An  embankment  resting  against  an  embankment  of  loose 

rock,  or 

(5)  An  embankment  of  earth,  sand  and  gravel,  sluiced  into 

place  by  flowing  water. 

The  plan  of  construction  adopted  is  dependent  upon  conditions 
at  the  dam  site,  the  materials  available  and  the  design  of  the 
structure. 

Foundation.  The  dam  site  should  be  carefully  selected  and  its 
location  chosen  only  after  the  character  of  the  foundation  has 
been  thoroughly  examined  by  test  borings. 

It  is  important  that  the  dam  be  constructed  on  a  stratum  that 
is  impervious  or  nearly  so,  and  that  suitable  cut:offs  be  provided 
to  prevent  harmful  leakage  through  the  structure. 

The  entire  surface  area  within  the  confine  of  the  dam  should 
have  all  the  undesirable  material  removed  from  the  foundation. 

The  depth  of  the  excavation  is  dependent  on  the  character  of 
the  material  encountered  and  the  judgment  of  the  engineers. 

Any  springs  encountered  should  be  diverted  or  drained. 

Materials.  The  best  results  are  obtained  from  a  mixture  con- 
taining 70  to  80%  gravel,  having  sufficient  variety  of  sizes  and 
the  balance  of  clay  to  completely  fill  the  voids. 

The  use  of  clay  alone  or  in  large  quantities  is  not  recom- 
mended, as  it  swells  when  wet  and  shrinks  in  drying.  The  per- 
centage of  clay  to  be  used  in  the  dam  varies  from  15  to  30%,  the 
amount  being  entirely  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the  material 
mixed  with  it. 

That  portion  of  the  fill  outside  the  puddled  section  should 
consist  of  sand,  loam  or  fine  gravel,  carefully  selected. 

No  material  which  is  liable  to  disintegrate  or  which  is  soluble 
in  water  should  be  used. 

It  is  desirable  that  a  mechanical  analysis  should  be  made  of 
the  materials  in  the  foundation  of  the  dam  and  those  of  which 

1147 


1148  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

it  is  to  be  constructed ;  also  that  the  rates  of  percolation  of  water 
through  the  materials  should  be  determined. 
Reference  is  given  to  the  experiments  of 

1892  Report  of  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health. 
North  Dike  of  the  Wachusett  Reservoir,  Clinton,  Mass.,  by 

F.  P.   Stearns. 

Trans.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XLVIII,  pp.  259-277. 

Eng.  News,  May  8,  1902. 
Cold  Springs  Dam 

Eng.  News,  March  7,  1907. 
The  Bohio  Dam,  Panama,  by  G.  S.  Morison 

Trans.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XLVIII,  with  discussion,  by  F.  P. 
Stearns  and  others. 

•-;     ';!;;;• 

Design.  The  design  of  earthen  dams  should  not  be  based  upon 
mathematical  calculations  of  equilibrium  and  safe  pressure,  as  in 
the  case  of  masonry  dams,  but  rather  upon  results  Obtained  from 
experience. 

The  important  factors  to  be  studied  to  determine  the  profile  of 
a  proposed  earthen  dam  are: 

( 1 )  Selection  of  the  dam  site. 

(2)  Character  of  the  foundation. 

(3)  Material  available. 

(4)  Percolation  factor   of   the   material   to  be   used   in   con- 

structing the  dam  and  that  in  the  foundation. 

(5)  Location  and  kind  of  core  wall,  if  necessary. 

(6)  Slope  of  upstream  and  downstream  faces,  including  loca- 

tion and  width  of  berms. 

(7)  Height  of  top  above  high  water. 

(8)  Paving  of  slope  above  high  water. 

(9)  Location  and  class  of  construction  of  spillway,  outlet  and 

waste  pipes,  etc. 

(10)  Placing  of  material.     Hydraulic  or  dry  fin. 

Profile  Dimensions.  The  dimensions  usually  adopted  for  the 
profile  are  as  follows: 

Top  width,  see  formula  below. 
Superelevation  above  high  water,  5  to  25  ft. 
Upstream  slope,  not  less  than  3  to  1. 
Downstream  slope,  not  less  than  2  to  1. 

The  following  formula  has  been  suggested  for  determining  the 
top  width. 

Till 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1149 

W  =  1/5  h  -f  5. 

W  =r  top  width  in  feet. 

h  =  height  of  dam  in  feet. 

The  top  of  the  dam  should  be  beyond  the  reach  of  all  waves  and 
the  following  formula  by  Stephenson  is  commonly  used  for  deter- 
mining the  height: 

4 

X  =  1.5  F-f  (2.5—  V~ 

X  =  Height  in  "feet  above  high  water  elevation. 
F  =  Sweep  of  wind  in  miles  in  the  longest  straight  line  which 
can  be  drawn  on  the  water  surface  of  the  reservoir. 

The  upstream  slope  is  made  natter  than  the  downstream  slope 
for  the  reason  that  the  natural  slope  of  earth  is  less  when  wet 
than  when  dry. 

The  upstream  slope  should  be  paved  with  stone  or  concrete  to 
protect  the  dam  from  wave  action  and  burrowing  animals. 

The  downstream  slope  should  be  paved  or  seeded. 

Core  Wall.  The  subject  of  the  kind  of  core  wall  that  should  be 
provided  for  an  earthen  dam  is  a  much  disputed  question. 

When  ^sufficient  impervious  material  is  obtainable  to  construct 
the  entire  structure,  it  is  obvious  that  a  core  wall  is  unnecessary. 

When  a  core  wall  is  necessary  the  type  to  be  used  should  be 
carefully  considered. 

English  engineers  are  disposed  to  favor  a  puddle  core  wall, 
while  American  engineering  practice  inclines  toward  a  masonry 
core  wall,  although  many  dams  containing  a  puddle  core  wall  have 
been  built  in  this  country. 

The  core  wall  should,  if  of  concrete,  always  be  well  reinforced 
and  constructed  upon  an  impervious  foundation  and  extend  up 
to  the  high  water  elevation.  It  should  be  well  supported  on 
each  side  by  the  embankment,  and  carefully  placed  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  not  to  distort  or  break  the  wall  during  construction. 

Puddle  Core.  The  puddle  core  is  usually  less  expensive  than 
the  masonry  core.  When  properly  constructed  it  is  practically 
watertight  and  settlement  of  the  embankment  does  not  tend  to 
rupture  it.  It  also  makes  a  better  union  with  the  rest  of  the  em- 
bankment than  the  masonry  core. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  material  for  a  puddle  core  is  a  gravel 
containing  just  enough  clay  to  bind  the  parts  together  and  make 
them  water-tight.  When  the  material  jcannot  be  obtained  in 
bulk,  the  component  parts  should  be  uniformly  mixed  dry,  then 
wetted  and  worked  to  make  a  tough,  elastic  mass.  The  material 
should  be  deposited  in  thin  layers  and  well  rolled  when  suffi- 
ciently dry. 


1150  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  dimensions  for  a  puddle  core  wall: 

Top  and  bottom  thickness  should  in  each  included  case  be  a 
matter  of  judgment  with  the  engineer,  whose  decision  with  re- 
spect to  the  dimensions  will  be  governed  by  the  quality  of  the 
material  available  for  the  embankment. 

Modern  engineering  practice  suggests  that  dimensions  less 
than  the  following  should  not  be  used. 

Masonry  Core.  The  chief  objections  to  a  masonry  or  concrete 
core  wall  are  the  danger  of  its  having  to  withstand  the  total  water 
pressure  due  to  percolation  from  the  reservoir  through  the  up- 
stream slope  and  to  the  probability  of  being  cracked  from  temper- 
ature changes  or  from  the  settlement  of  the  embankment. 

Masonry  core  walls  are  usually  from  2.5  to  6  ft.  wide  at  the 
high  water  elevation  and  both  surfaces  are  battered  uniformly 
from  the  top  to  the  natural  ground  surface  and  then  are  vertical 
to  the  foundation. 

The  thickness  at  the  bottom  of  the  batter  should  be  from  one- 
sixth  to  one-eighth  of  the  head  of  water  on  the  dam. 

Placing  the  Embankment.  When  the  material  is  not  placed  by 
the  hydraulic  process,  it  should  be  deposited  in  thin,  level  layers, 
wetted  and  rolled  with  a  heavy  power-driven  roller.  Before 
placing  an  additional  layer  of  material,  the  last  one  should  be 
wetted  and  harrowed  to  insure  bonding  with  the  next  course. 

The  upstream  side  of  the  embankment  should  be  kept  higher 
than  the  downstream  slope  for  drainage  purposes. 

The  conditions  best  suited  for  an  economical  hydraulic  fill  are: 

( 1 )  An  abundance   of  water   at  an   elevation  or  pumped  to 

form  a  sluicing  head. 

(2)  An  ample  deposit  of  the  materials  for  forming  the  dam, 

convenient  to  both  ends  and  at  an  elevation  to  permit 
of  the  grades  necessary  to  carry  the  material. 

It  is  customary  to  deposit  the  coarser  materials  near  the  slopes 
and  the  finer  materials  toward  the  center. 

The  hydraulic  sluicing  method  affords  a  safe  and  satisfactory 
method  of  constructing  an  earthen  dam,  since  it  segregates  the 
puddle  cores  from  all  classes  of  soils  and  assembles  them  into  a 
mass  of  marked  uniformity. 

By  this  method  the  structure  does  not  require  a  core  wall  and 
a  large  proportion  of  the  dam  when  made  from  proper  materials 
becomes  puddle  clay. 

The  process  has  been  used  successfully  in  constructing  many 
important  embankments,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  offers 


AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1151 

a  reasonable  compromise  between  core  walls  of  masonry  and  pud- 
dled clay. 

When  the  materials  which  are  to  be  used  in  constructing  the 
dam  have  been  fully  analyzed  mechanically  and  the  percolation 
factor  is  known,  the  most  impervious  material  is  placed  next  to 
the  water  line,  the  least  impervious  material  being  placed  on  the 
downstream  slope  where  it  will  give  stability  and  drainage. 

Slope  Protection.  The  upstream  slope  above  the  low  water  line 
should  be  protected  by  a  facing  of  rock  paving.  The  stones 
should  be  laid  on  edge  in  a  course  of  gravel.  The  least  dimension 
of  any  stone  should  not  be  less  than  8  in. 

Below  the  water  line  the  slope  should  be  covered  with  loose 
rock.  All  voids  between  the  stones  should  be  filled  with  gravel. 

The  top  of  the  embankment  should  be  paved  or  sodded,  as 
may  be  decided  upon. 

The  downstream  slope  should  be  covered  with  loam,  and 
planted  with  a  quick  growing  grass  seed. 

All  berms  should  have  paved  drains. 

Appurtenances  for  Dams.  The  waste  water  spillway  is  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  dam,  and  its  location  and  construction  should 
be  carefully  considered.  Its  location  is  somewhat  dependable 
upon  local  conditions. 

The  spillway,  together  with  its  abutments  and  wing  walls, 
should,  where  possible,  be  founded  on  rock  and  constructed  en- 
tirely of  masonry  well  anchored  to  the  earth  fill,  with  cut-off 
walls  of  such  dimensions  as  will  preclude  all  possibility  of  water 
passing  under  or  around  it. 

The  design  should  provide  for  a  weir  and  wing  walls  of  such 
dimensions  that  unusual  floods  can  be  easily  discharged  through 
the  overflow  waterway  without  coming  in  contact  with  or  causing 
any  damage  to  the  earth  embankment. 

It  is  important  that  all  conduits,  whether  of  metal  or  masonry, 
that  are  built  into  the  dam,  shall  be  supported  on  an  unyielding 
foundation. 

Masonry  cut-off  walls  should  be  built  around  the  conduits  at 
intervals,  to  prevent  water  leakage  between  the  conduit  and  the 
earth  fill. 

Permeability  of  Concrete  and  Puddle  Walls  in  Earth  Dams 
is  discussed  by  W.  D'Rohan  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan- 
uary 18,  1911.  He  draws  a  comparison  between  conditions  found 
by  a  board  of  engineers  who  were  consulted  as  to  the  safety  of 
the  new  Croton  Dam  and  conditions  found  in  the  north  and  south 
dikes  of  the  Wachusett  dam.  The  proposed  extension  of  the  new 
Croton  Dam  was  to  be  of  earth  with  a  masonry  core  wall  of  over 
180  ft.  in  height.  Under  their  direction,  borings  were  made  in 


1152  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

several  earthen  dams  with  concrete  and  masonry  core  walls  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis,  and  at  such  intervals  as  to  show  that  in 
almost  every  case  there  was  a  continuous  water  plane  extending 
from  the  water  surface  of  the  reservoir  to  the  core  wall,  and  on 
the  downstream  side  to  the  lower  toe  having  a  maximum  in- 
clination of  20%,  thus  showing  that  the  cores  were  not  water  tight 
and  not  effective  in  preventing  water  from  passing  through  the 
dam,  as  the  dams  were  saturated  below  this  plane.  While  this 
seepage  may  be  low  and  have  no  power  to  remove  any  particles  of 
the  dam,  nevertheless,  it  is  a  source  of  danger  and  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  Board  to  substitute  a  masonry  dam  was  imme- 
diately adopted. 

The  puddle  core  built  in  the  north  and  south  dikes  of  the  Wa- 
chusett  dam  consisted  of  6-in.  layers  of  fine  loam  soil,  well  sprin- 
kled and  rolled.  Recent  experiments  to  determine  the  perme- 
ability of  this  type  of  earth  or  loam  core  in  an  earth  dam  have 
been  made  by  means  of  a  series  of  pipes  driven  into  the  embank- 
ments of  the  Wachusett  dikes.  The  results  as  reported  indicate 
that  while  the  plane  of  saturation  on  the  reservoir  side  of  the 
loam  core  was  level  with  the  water  in  the  reservoir,  it  dropped 
immediately  below  this  core  to  a  level  slightly  above  the  base  of 
the  dam.  Weekly  measurements  proved  that  the  amount  of 
water  draining  out  of  the  dike  was  not  in  excess  of  what  might 
be  expected,  as  the  natural  drainage  from  precipitation  on  the 
area  of  the  dike  itself.  No  masonry  or  concrete  core-wall  ever 
built  in  an  earth  dam  can  show  better  results  than  these,  and 
few  can  compare  with  them  in  the  absence  of  percolation  from 
the  reservoir. 

Concrete  Core  Walls  are  used  in  India  as  protection  against 
burrowing  animals  only.  Puddling  clay  is  scarce  and  dams  are 
made  a  homogeneous  whole  to  prevent  percolation.  For  protec- 
tion from  burrowing  animals,  a  G-in.  layer  of  broken  stones  on 
the  lower  slope  has  been  found  sufficient  in  English  and  Indian 
dams. 

The  San  Leandro  Dam.  Burr  Bassell  in  Engineering  Xews, 
Sept.  11,  1902,  gives  the  following: 

The  San  Leandro  dam,  of  the  Oakland  Waterworks,  Calif.,  was 
commenced  in  1874,  and  construction  was  continued  without  in- 
terruption until  the  latter  part  of  1875,  when  a  height  of  115  ft. 
above  the  bed  of  the  creek  had  been  attained. 

A  general  plan  and  a  cross-section  of  the  dam  are  shown  in 
Fig.  1.  The  crest  of  the  dam  is  now  500  ft.  long  and  28  ft.  wide. 
The  original  width  of  the  ravine  at  the  base  was  06  ft.  The 
length  of  the  axis  of  the  base  from  toe  to  toe  of  slopes  is  now 
1,700  ft.  The  toe  of  the  lower  slope  is  121  ft.  below  the  high 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1153 

water  surface  of  the  reservoir.  A  puddle-filled  trench  was  car- 
ried down  30  ft.  beneath  the  original  surface,  reaching  rock, 
except  at  the  east  end,  where  20  to  30  ft.  of  solid  clay  was  pene- 
trated. 

It  was  the  original  intention  of  the  company  to  raise  the  dam 
10  ft.  every  4  or  5  years  until  it  was  50  ft.  higher  than  it  is 
today,  or  to  a  height  of  175  ft.  above  the  bed  of  the  creek,  and 
in  order  to  do  this  safely,  the  base  of  the  dam  was  extended  to 
the  dimensions  shown  by  the  sketches.  All  that  portion  of  the 
dam  within  a  slope  of  1  on  2l/2  at  the  rear  and  1  on  3  at  the  face, 


Fig.  1. 


Plan. 

Plan  and  Cross  Section  of  the  San  Leandro  Earth  Dam. 


is  built  of  choice  material,  carefully  selected  and  put  in  with 
great  care.  The  portion  outside  of  the  1  on  2l/2  slope-line  at  the 
downstream  side  of  the  dam,  was  sluiced  in  from  the  adjacent 
hills  regardless  of  its  character,  and  is  of  ordinary  soil  with  more 
or  less  rock. 

This  process  of  sluicing  was  to  be  carried  on  during  the  winter 
months,  by  gravity  flow,  when  there  was  an  abundance  of  water, 
until  eventually  it  would  fill  the  canyon  below  the  dam.  This 
would  give  an  average  slope  of  1  on  6.7  at  the  rear.  It  was 
thought  that  the  location  was  particularly  favorable  for  this  kind 
of  construction,  the  original  intention  being  to  raise  the  dam 
from  time  to  time,  as  already  stated,  not  only  to  increase  the 
storage  as  the  demand  for  water  increased,  but  to  meet  the  an- 


1154  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

nual  loss  in  capacity  caused  by  the  silting  up  of  the  reservoir 
basin.  I  understand  that  this  deposit  has  averaged  about  1  ft. 
in  depth  per  annum. 

Some  material  was  also  sluiced  in  on  the  front,  or  wet  slope, 
for  the  reason  stated  by  Mr.  Boardman,  as  follows: 

The  rocky  ridge  through  which  the  upper  and  lower  tunnels  are 
driven  is  of  a  broken  formation,  some  of  it  very  hard  and  other 
portions  soft,  more  or  less  broken  and  full  of  seams,  and  we  dis- 
covered water  percolating  through  the  seams  into  the  tunnels.  It 
was  impossible  to  get  at  the  face  of  the  slope,  or  find  the  seams, 
as  the  reservoir  was  full,  and  had  it  been  empty  we  could  not 
have  found  them.  The  only  practical  way  was  to  sluice  in  fine 
clay  on  the  face  of  the  slope,  which,  under  the  action  of  the  water, 
closed  up  the  seams  and  stopped  the  seepage. 

Under  the  main  body  of  the  dam  the  surface  was  stripped  of 
all  sediment,  sand,  gravel  and  vegetable  matter.  Choice  mate- 
rial, carefully  selected,  was  then  brought  in  by  carts  and  wagons 
and  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface  in  layers  about  1  ft.  or 
less  in  thickness.  This  was  sprinkled  with  just  enough  water 
to  make  it  pack  well,  not  enough  to  make  it  like  mud. 

During  construction  a  band  of  horses  was  led  by  a  boy  on 
horseback  over  the  entire  work,  to  compact  the  materials  and  as- 
sist in  making  the  dam  one  homogeneous  mass.  No  rollers  were 
used  on  this  dam. 

The  central  trench  was  cut  30  ft.  below  the  original  creek  bed. 
In  the  bottom  of  this  trench  three  secondary  trenches,  3  ft. 
wide  by  3  ft.  deep,  were  made  and  filled  with  concrete.  These 
concrete  walls  were  carried  up  2  ft.  above  the  general  floor  of  the 
trench  to  break  the  continuity  of  its  surface. 

The  Ashokan  Reservoir.  Engineering  and  Contracting  Oct.  19, 
1910,  gives  the  following: 

The  Ashokan  Reservoir  is  formed  by  a  masonry  dam  with  earth 
wings  across  Esopus  Creek,  and  a  long  earth  dike  across  the  val- 
ley of  the  Beaver  Kill,  in  the  Catskill  Mts.,  N.  Y.  The  extent  of 
these  dams  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

Some  of  the  construction  quantities  involved  were: 

Earth  excavation,   cu.  yds 2,055,000 

Rock   excavation,    cu.   yds 425,000 

Earth  and  rock  embankment,   cu.   yds 7,265,000 

Portland    cement,    bbls 1,100,000 

Concrete  masonry,   cu.   yds 882,000 

Paving  and  riprap,   cu.  yds 105,000 

Metal    work,    tons 914 

Clearing,    acres    200 

Vitrified  drain  tile.  lin.  ft 21,500 

Crushed  stone   (not  in  masonry),   cu.  yds 11,000 

Timber  and  lumber,   bd.  ft .j.^,,,,^^,. ., .  950,000 

Stream  control  of  the   Esopus  and  Beaver  Kill. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1165 


Each  end  of  Olive  Bridge  dam  terminates  in  a  dike  known  here 
as  the  north  and  south  wings.  The  other  dikes  are  the  east  and 
middle  west  dikes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  entire  area  of  the 
surface  which  the  dike  will  cover  is  first  stripped  of  all  surface 
soil  and  vegetable  matter.  A  vertical  trench  is  then  excavated 


Fig.  2.     Map  of  Main  Dams,  Ashokan  Reservoir. 

to  rock.  A  concrete  core  wall  is  then  built  in  the  trench,  the 
average  width  of  which  is  about  10  ft.  at  the  bottom  and  4  ft. 
on  top.  After  the  forms  are  removed  the  space  between  the  con- 
crete and  the  original  earth  is  filled  with  clay  and  tamped  to  the 


E/.6IO. 


&.609 


'top  soil  grossed 


/2'topsoi/ 


>i/ grossed 
24"ctoy*y 


torf* 


core  wall, 
Cut-omt  required 

Fig.  3.     Cross-Section  of  South  Wing,  Olive  Bridge  Dam. 

original  surface  of  the  ground.  At  this  point  the  embankment 
proper  is  started  by  spreading  layers  of  earth  4  ins.  thick  on  the 
water  side  and  6  ins.  thick  on  the  dry  side  of  the  dike.  These 
layers  are  then  rolled  with  12-ton  Monarch  and  Kelley  steam 
rollers.  The  rollers  are  of  special  design,  having  an  unusually 


1156 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


high  horsepower  for  their  weight.     The  embankments  have  slopes 
of   1   on  2  above  water  level  and   1  on  2l/2  below  water.     These 
slopes    are,    however,    covered    with    "  Class    C "    rubble    riprap. 
Above  water  line  the  slope  is  surfaced  with  top  soil  and  grassed. 
Material   was   hauled    to    the    embankments    in   cars    and   was 


Fig.  4.     Earth  Section,  Dividing  Weir  Dam. 

spread  in  layers  1%  times  as  thick  as  the  required  layer  and 
was  then  rolled  down.  Spreading  was  done  largely  by  hand  and 
all  stones  too  large  for  rolling  into  the  layers  was  picked  out 
and  used  for  "  Class  C  "  riprap. 

The  Lahontan  Dam.  This  dam  for  the  Truckee-Carson  Irriga- 
tion Project  is  founded  on  an  unsatisfactory  base.  Water-bearing 
passages  of  small  or  moderate  capacity  are  of  frequent  occurrence 


Gravel  and  silt  mechanically 
mixed  in  equal  parts,  wetted-* 
and  rolled  Jn  4* layers  \ 


r 


24* Stone  rip~rup'on~-}-±"f~** 
iZ  pit-run  gravel 


Seamy  and  fauHed\$~ 
red 'sandstone arJma1}  ft 
stone"grading  to    I  •*• 
day  in  right  hank  )> 
of  river  and  having\ 
numerous  water     \ 
bearing  fissures     ) 


'5'  2O gaffe,  ga/v.  pipe,  slip  joints 
^Core  drill  hole^verage  diam.3$" 
Bored  and  Grouted 


Fig.  5.     Section  Through  Lahontan  Dam. 

in  the  bed  rock.     The  treatment  of  this  foundation  with  grouting 
from  drill  holes  is  described  in  Engineering  News,  Apr.  3,  1913. 

Much  study  was  given  to  the  character  of  structure  which 
could  safely  be  built  on  this  foundation  to  withstand  a  reservoir 
head  of  120  ft.  The  original  proposal  of  a  gravity  masonry  dam 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1157 

was  abandoned,  and  finally  the  embankment  type  with  deep  cut- 
off wall  was  adopted,  as  illustrated  in  cross-section  in  Fig.  5. 

Dams  for  the  Porto  Rico  Irrigation  Service.  These  are  de- 
scribed in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  19,  1910,  and  June 
22,  1910.  From  these  articles  Figs.  6  to  8  are  taken. 


Fig.  6.     Sections  Near  Center  and  End  of  Patillas  Dam. 

f/C*/7XJ 


^m^iii 


fine  and  Impervious 

:^^#bxfas3 
Fig.  7.     Earth  Dam  at  Guyama. 


Off. 


'#45.0 


Fig.  8.     Earth  Dam  at  Villaba. 

The  Patillas  Dam  comprises  some  950,000  cu.  yds.  excavation 
and  fill  for  dam,  spillway,  tunnel,  etc.  The  Caute,  located  near 
Guyama,  requires  196,200  cu.  yds. 

Dams  for  Miami  Valley  Flood  Protection,  Engineering  News, 
Jan.  25,  1917,  describes  in  detail  the  design  of  earth  dams  and 


1158  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

their  appurtenances  which  are  to  be  used  in  protecting  the  Miami 
Valley  in  Ohio  against  floods.  The  engineers  aimed  at  ample 
safety  of  the  structures,  and  definite  knowledge  with  respect  to 
all  conditions  of  service  and  operation.  This  is  shown  by  the 
adopted  dam  section,  Fig.  9. 

Construction  of  an  embankment  either  by  roller  compacting 
(in  layers)  or  by  hydraulic  deposition  was  decided  to  meet  all 
requirements,  without  lining  or  core  wall.  A  cutoff  trench  to 
go  down  30  ft.  or  so,  well  below  the  surface  layers,  will  be  used. 

The  section  adopted  is  distinctly  more  ample  than  that  of  the 
latest  and  strongest  existing  dams  on  tight  or  semi-permeable 
foundations  —  though,  of  course,  not  comparable  with  the  Wa- 
chusett  or  Gatun  type.  It  is  proportioned  for  specially  wide 
base.  The  features  are  frequent  berms,  concaved  sides  and  sym- 
metrical outline;  that  is,  upstream  and  downstream  faces  alike 


Fig.  9.     Typical  Cross  Section  of  Miami  Conservancy  Dams 

(because  these  are  dry  dams).  Compared  with  the  standard 
embankments  of  the  Board  of  Water  Supply  of  New  York  City, 
the  upper  berm  is  nearer  the  top  and  the  slopes  flatten  out  more 
toward  the  bottom,  to  a  maximum  of  4  to  1.  Toe  protection  of 
broken  stone  sloped  10  to  1  may  be  added  if  found  convenient  or 
desirable. 

The  slopes  are  to  be  grassed,  top  soil  being  placed  on  the  em- 
bankment for  this  purpose. 

Slope  drainage  (for  surface  water)  is  accomplished  by  paved 
berm  gutters  and  connecting  gutters  down  the  slopes.  The  chance 
of  deterioration  from  settlement  or  any  other  cause  is  held  to  be 
vanishingly  small  with  gutters,  as  compared  with  buried  pipes. 

The  cutoff  trench  is  indicated  in  Fig.  9,  although  local  condi- 
tions will  determine  its  depth.  It  is  intended  mainly  to  give 
most  intimate  connection  between  the  impervious  dam  core  and 
the  subsoil,  and  thereby  prevent  seepage  along  the  base.  In  all 
cases  the  dams  will  be  built  on  ground  stripped  of  top  soil.  The 
subsoil  contains  very  little  bedded  porous  material,  so  far  as  the 
•borings  and  test  pits  revealed;  in  the  process  of  making  wash 
borings,  the  pipe  lost  its  water  only  rarely.  Geological  indica- 
tions are  that  any  porous  deposits  are  local;  that  is,  have  little 
horizontal  extent.  It  is  also  important  to  recall  that  underwash- 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1159 

ing  of  a  dam  is  a  slow  process,  while  here  the  water  will  never 
stand  behind  the  dam  more  than  a  short  time. 

A  Dam  Built  Partly  of  Cinders.  Harrison  Souder,  in  Proc.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XL,  describes  the  Hinckston  Run  dam,  built  in 
1901  at  Johnstown,  Pa.  Foundation  difficulties,  which  Were 
treated  by  injection  of  grout,  are  the  subject  of  Mr.  Souder's 
paper. 

The  original  Hinckston  Run  project  called  for  an  earth  dam, 
60  ft.  high,  to  retain  some  400,000,000  gals,  of  water,  with  a  depth 
of  45  ft.  at  the  breast.  The  intention  was  to  build  a  dam  with  a 
clay  core,  but,  as  an  unlimited  quantity  of  cinder  from  the  steel 
plant  was  available,  it  was  decided,  after  the  work  was  started, 
to  use  this  as  backing  for  the  dam,  in  place  of  earth,  and  even- 
tually to  fill  the  whole  valley  below  with  this  material,  thus  ren- 
dering the  structure  practically  unbreakable.  In  view  of  this 
and  the  additional  expense  incurred  in  making  the  cut-off  tight, 


before  cinder 
backing  was  decided 


I  Creek  bottom     V  Puddled  clay  floor   ||  ggSfa 

^\EL  1289 


Fig.  10.     Maximum  Cross-Section,  Hinckston  Run  Dam. 

the  proposed  height  of  the  dam  was  increased  to  80  ft.,  and  later 
to  85  ft.,  above  the  original  creek  level.  This  gave  a  total  maxi- 
mum height  above  the  bottom  of  the  core-wall  ditch  of  112.8  ft., 
a  depth  of  water  at  the  breast  of  73 y2  ft.,  and  a  capacity  of 
1,100,000,000  gals.  The  lake  thus  formed  is  1%  miles  long.  The 
water-shed  above  the  dam  is  10.75  sq.  miles. 

The  cross-section  of  the  dam  as  built  is  shown  by  Fig.  10.  The 
lower  inner  slope  is  1  on  2^4,  with  4  ft.  of  puddle  and  24  ins.  of 
cinder  riprap.  The  slope  above  the  berm  is  1  on  1%  with  puddle 
lining  diminishing  to  2  ft.  thick  at  the  top.  The  facing  is  hand- 
laid  stone  paving.  The  puddle  wall  is  16  ft.  thick  at  the  top  of 
the  concrete  core-wall,  and  diminishes  to  4  ft.  at  the  top  of  the 
dam. 

Hydraulic-Fill  Dam  Built  of  Lava.  J.  W.  fewaren,  in  Engi- 
neering Neios,  Mar.  29,  1917,  gives  the  following: 

A  coreless  earth  dam  has  been  built  by  the  Lewiston-Sweet- 
water  Irrigating  Co.,  in  western  Idaho,  where  the  only  available 


1160 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


soil  was  lava  ash  and  weathered  lava.  In  spite  of  the  nature  of 
the  material,  the  maximum  seepage  is  small. 

The  dam  at  present  is  442  ft.  wide  on  the  base,  54  ft.  high,  and 
1,550  ft.  long.  It  is  designed  for  an  ultimate  height  of  $5  ft.  and 
a  crest  length  of  3,600  ft.  Its  present  storage  capacity  is  2,466 
acre-feet;  when  completed,  its  capacity  will  be  6,682  acre-feet. 
The  upstream  face  has  a  slope  of  1  on  3,  while  a  slope  of  1  on  2 
is  given  the  downstream  face.  At  the  point  selected  for  the  dam 
the  profile  of  the  ground  surface  is  rather  uneven;  upstream  a 
fill  of  9  ft.  was  necessary  to  bring  the  prism  to  the  grade  of  the 
axis.  A  puddle  trench,  8  ft.  deep  and  10  ft.  wide,  is  placed  along 
the  axis. 

Construction  began  in  1906.  The  surface  of  the  ground  was 
stripped  and  scarified.  During  the  spring  months  a  dike  along 


HlahWcrter  Mark 
Van.  20, 1903 


ISO  160  140  120  KX>  80  60  40  20    a   20  40  60  80  100  120  140  160  180  200  220  240  260 
Feer 

Fig.  11.     Section  Through  Lewiston-Sweetwater  Lava  Dam. 

the  upstream  toe  (A,  Fig.  11)  was  raised  about  34  ft.  The 
earth  was  placed  in  6-in.  layers  by  wheeled  scrapers,  sprinkled, 
rolled  and  harrowed.  During  the  summer  months  a  similar  dike 
(B)  was  built  along  the  downstream  toe.  The  material  for  this 
dike  was  dumped  dry  from  a  trestle.  So  far  as  possible,  all  ma- 
terial composing  the  dam  prism  has  been  taken  from  borrow  pits 
inside  the  flooded  area,  in  order  to  increase  storage  capacity. 
Puddle  clay  for  sealing  the  toe  was  obtained  from  a  small, deposit 
near  the  north  end. 

While  the  dike  along  the  downstream  toe  was  being  built,  water 
for  the  irrigation  season  of  1906  was  stored  behind  the  upstream 
dike.  During  the  fall  and  winter  of  1906  and  the  spring  of  1907 
the  prism  (0)  between  these  dikes  was  filled  by  a  unique  com- 
bination of  water  settling  and  dump-cars.  Water  from  the  main 
canal  was  conducted  into  the  area  between  the  upstream  and  the 
downstream  dikes.  Earth  was  dumped  into  this  water  from  cars 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1161 

running  on  rails  laid  along  the  top  of  the  upstream  dike,  the 
water  in  the  pond  between  the  dikes  settling  the  earth  firmly 
and  at  minimum  cost. 

Water  was  stored  and  used  for  the  irrigation  season  of  1907; 
and  no  additional  work  was  done  on  the  dam  until  September, 
when  a  second  dike  (D)  was  made  on  the  downstream  toe,  with 
its  base  on  top  of  the  fill  already  in  place.  The  material  was 
dumped  from  cars  on  a  trestle  and  settled  by  water  from  a  iy3-in. 
hose. 

Additional  land  coming  under  irrigation,  a  larger  storage  was 
required.  Financial  conditions  were  unsettled  at  this  time,  and 
completion  of  the  dam  was  out  of  the  question.  As  the  cheapest 
method  of  securing  the  desired  capacity,  a  dike  (E)  was  built  on 
the  upstream  toe,  with  its  base  on  the  fill  already  in  place.  This 
was  built  by  dumping  from  cars  on  a  track  laid  along  the  center 
of  the  fill;  the  earth  was  moved  both  ways  by  scrapers.  This 
work  was  stopped  at  El.  1814,  providing  for  a  total  storage  of 
2,466  acre-feet,  with  water  level  at  El.  1810. 

The  inner  face  of  the  dam  displays  the  effect  of  wave  action, 
each  day's  draw-down  showing  clearly  in  a  little  bench  washed 
out  of  the  fill.  As  the  line  of  saturation  is  rather  flat  and  shifts 
rapidly,  the  maximum  storage  is  not  made  until  the  last  snow 
run-off.  The  first  irrigation  period,  closely  following,  draws  down 
the  water  level  well  below  the  saturation  line.  During  high  water 
in  the  reservoir,  careful  watch  is  kept  on  a  line  of  test  pits  along 
the  downstream  toe  of  the  dike. 

Drainage  at  the  downstream  toe  is  carefully  developed,  and  no 
waterlogging  of  the  prism  occurs.  At  high-water  period  this 
drainage  is  0.033  sec. -ft.  After  the  close  of  the  irrigating  season, 
with  the  water  at  the  level  of  the  outlet  pipe,  drainage  is  only  1 
cu.  ft.  in  29  min.,  indicating  that  in  spite  of  unfavorable  mate- 
rials an  excellent  bond  has  been  made  between  the  dam  and  the 
original  ground. 

A  Reservoir  Embankment  with  Concrete  Slope.  This  work  is 
described  by  J.  C.  Ulrich,  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XXXIX,  and 
abstracted  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  11,  1912.  The 
embankment,  which  is  about  3y2  miles  long,  forms  about  one-third 
the  perimeter  of  the  Prewitt  Reservoir  in  the  South  Platt  River 
Valley  in  Colorado.  It  has  a  maximum  height  of  36  ft.  for  about 
100  ft.,  with  a  height  not  exceeding  25  ft.  for  the  greater  portion 
of  its  length  and  an  average  height  of  20  ft.  See  Fig.  12. 

The  material  on  which  the  embankment  is  founded,  and  of 
which  it  is  constructed,  consists  of  very  fine  sand  mixed  with  a 
small  percentage  of  soil. 

Before  depositing  any  earth  for  the  embankment  proper,  the 


1162          HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

intercepting  trench  was  partly  filled  with  water,  in  which  selected 
material  was  deposited  in  2-ft.  layers.  This  operation  was  re- 
peated three  times  in  the  filling  of  the  trench.  The  water  for 
this  purpose  was  pumped  from  a  series  of  16  wells,  put  .down  just 
outside  of  the  lower  toe  of  the  embankment,  at  intervals  of  about 
1,000  ft.  Sufficient  water  was  thus  furnished  and  used  to  effect, 
not  merely  the  moistening,  but  the  actual  puddling,  of  the  mate- 
rial deposited  in  the  trench. 

The  purpose  of  this  puddled  trench  was  to  break  the  continuity 
of  any  seam  which  there  might  be  between  the  soil  of  the  site  and 
the  material  of  the  superimposed  embankment.  It  was  also  de- 
signed to  cut  off  and  intercept  the  channels  of  any  dog  or  gopher 
holes  which  might  be  in  the  material  underlying  the  embank- 
ment. 

After  the  trench  had  been  filled,  and  the  site  had  been  cleared 
of  all  vegetable  matter  and  plowed  to  a  depth  of  10  ins.,  the  con- 
struction of  the  embankment  proper  was  begun. 


Highest  Wate 


r 

?,....  i  L 

r  Surface  in'Reservoir  '•>-    ^C  «^~--— - 


Fig.  12.     Typical  Section  of  Prewitt  Reservoir  Embankment. 

The  earth  was  deposited  in  layers  not  exceeding  1  ft.  in  thick- 
ness. Each  layer  was  then  thoroughly  wetted,  before  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  next,  with  water  pumped  from  the  wells.  '  Then  it  was 
rolled  with  a  corrugated  roller  weighing  125  Ibs.  per  in.  of  length. 
This  operation  wras  repeated  successively  until  the  full  height  of 
the  embankment  was  reached.  The  wetting  of  this  material  prior 
to  each  rolling  resulted  in  the  actual  wetting  of  the  whole  layer, 
not  the  mere  moistening  of  the  surface.  The  contractors  kept 
records  of  their  pumping  operations,  and  these  disclose  the  fact 
that  the  volume  of  water  pumped  into  the  material  exceeded  that 
of  the  embankment  itself;  in  other  words,  the  volume  of  water 
put  into  the  embankment  exceeded  that  of  the  earth. 

The  water  side  of  the  embankment  is  protected  against  wave 
action  by  a  covering  of  concrete,  4  ins.  thick,  extending  from  its 
foot  to  within  2  ft.  of  its  top,  where  it  joints  an  L-shaped  vertical 
parapet  wall  of  reinforced  concrete. 

At  the  foot  of  the  surface  protection,  and  connected  therewith 
by  reinforcing  rods  of  steel,  there  is  a  reinforced  vertical  "  toe- 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1163 

wall,"  extending  5  ft.  into  the  ground  below  the  edge  of  the  latter. 

The  concrete  slope  is  laid  in  slabs  10  ft.  wide.  Beneath  the 
slabs  and  along  the  joints  are  reinforced  concrete  stringers,  6x12 
ins. 

Small  Earth  Dams  for  Stock  Watering  Eeservoirs.  Many  of 
these  dams  have  been  built  by  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Ry. 
between  its  terminals  and  the  ranges  in  Dakota  and  Wyoming. 
According  to  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  20,  1911,  these 
dams  were  built  of  natural  prairie  soil  with  teams  and  scrapers 
at  an  average  contract  price  of  15  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  Generally 
they  are  not  over  15  or  16  ft.  high,  the  maximum  being  24  ft. 
The  cost  per  acre-ft.  of  water  impounded  ranged  from  $6.82  for 
a  reservoir  holding  186.1  acre-ft.  to  $72.40  for  one  holding  9.3 
acre-ft. 

A  feature  of  these  dams  is  a  wave  fence,  built  the  full  length 


Fig.  13.     Cross  Section  of  Earth  Dam  Showing  Wave  Fence. 

of  the  slope  that  is  reached  by  water  when  the  reservoir  is  full, 
it  is  intended  to  prevent  wave  erosion.  See  Fig.  13.  A  typical 
dam  contains  100  acre-ft.,  has  a  top  length  of  260  ft.,  a  maxi- 
mum height  of  14  ft.,  and  costs  $2,300. 

Determining  the  Percolation  Factor.  A.  M.  McPherson  re- 
commends the  following  method  of  procedure  in  a  paper  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  5,  1911:  A  uniform  sample 
of  the  material  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  the  dam  should 
be  taken.  It  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  so  as  to  resemble  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  material  as  it  would  be  placed  in  the  dam. 
This  material  should  then  be  placed  in  a  tank  which  has  been 
constructed  for  the  purpose.  A  tank  4  ft.  wide,  4  ft.  deep,  and 
22  ft.  long  is  large  enough  to  give  satisfactory  results.  A 
miniature  dam  is  then  constructed  upon  the  profile  which  has 
been  tentatively  decided  upon,  say  3-1  on  the  inside  or  water 
face,  and  2-1  on  the  dry  face.  The  earth  should  be  tamped  in, 
moistened  slightly,  and  made  as  compact  as  possible.  Piec'es  of 
gas  pipe  with  holes  bored  along  their  sides  and  covered  with 
pieces  of  wire  netting,  should  be  sunk  at  intervals  of  about 


1164      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

a  foot,  beginning  at  the  axis  of  the  dam  and  extending  on 
through  the  dry  face.  Water  is  then  admitted  on  the  3-1  side  to 
a  level  proportionate  to  the  heighth  of  the  dam,  and  is  kept  at 
this  mark  until  water  remains  at  a  constant  level  in  the  pipes 
sunk  in  the  lower  side  of  the  dam.  This  will  probably  cover  a 
period  of  several  weeks.  The  depth  of  the  water  in  the  pipes 
is  generally  determined  by  means  of  a  measuring  rod.  Taking 
the  difference  in  depth  of  the  water  in  the  various  pipes  and 
knowing  their  distance  apart,  the  angle  of  saturation  is  easily 
calculated. 

The  angle  of  repose  is  obtained  by  trying  successive  slopes  to 
determine  how  steep  a  slope  the  material  will  stand  when  subject 
to  water.  This  test  should  be  supplemented  by  another.  Have 
the  tank  full  and  suddenly  let  the  water  out  and  note  the  be- 
havior of  the  material.  Often  this  will  show  what  was  sup- 
posedly a  safe  slope  is  too  steep,  as  slips  will  occur  as  the  water 
is  being  let  out  of  the  tank.  It  is  well  after  these  tests  have 
been  made  to  let  the  material  dry  out  and  notice  whether  it  cracks 
or  shrinks  badly.  If  the  material  in  the  miniature  dam  does 
not  answer  satisfactorily  to  all  the  tests  imposed,  it  should  be 
discarded  and  some  other  material  tester,  or  a  mixture  of  the 
material  in  question  and  some  other  should  be  tried. 

Shrinkage  of  Earth  in  a  Dam.  R.  M.  Hosea  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  Apr.  1,  1908,  gives  the  following  data  on  the  con- 
struction of  a  dam  for  the  Sugar  Loaf  Reservoir  in  Colorado: 
The  entire  area  of  the  dam  site  was  overgrown  with  willows  and 
some  trees,  and  in  the  lowest  portion  was  covered  with  1  to  2  ft. 
of  black  muck.  All  of  this  was  moved,  giving  a  firm  clay  founda- 
tion for  the  earth  work.  The  surface  was  benched  and  fur- 
rowed. Borrow  pits  were  laid  out  on  the  inside  of  the  reservoir 
site  over  a  large  area  and  stripped  of  all  vegetable  matter,  ex- 
posing the  clay  sand  mixture,  containing  some  boulders,  beneath 
which  was  a  clay  sheet  four  or  more  ft.  thick.  The  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  reservoir  dike  was  about  200  ft.  on  the  base,  25  ft. 
on  the  top,  with  a  height  of  about  40  ft.  The  inner  slope  was 
3  to  1,  while  the  down  stream  was  2  to  1. 

The  base  was  made  of  moist  clay  and  well  puddled.  Around 
all  pipes  and  masonry  this  clay  was  placed  by  hand  and  tamped. 
The  up  stream  face  was  made  for  a  thickness  of  20  ft.  of  the 
best  clay  obtainable,  the  center  of  the  dike  prism  being  of  se- 
lected material,  while  the  poorest  material  was  all  placed  in  the 
down  stream  face.  The  dam  was  carried  up  in  thin  layers.  The 
whole  was  smoothed,  sprinkled  and  rolled  with  a  heavy  steam 
roller.  The  formation  of  layers  was  carefully  avoided  by  de- 
positing loads  irregularly. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1165 

Elevating  graders  were  tried  for  a  time,  but  the  presence  of 
boulders  made  their  use  inadvisable,  consequently  a  small  steam 
shovel  was  used  to  load  into  wagons,  the  material  being  de- 
posited in  that  manner. 

There  were  95,388  cu.  yds.  of  earth  excavated  for  the  dam 
prism,  while  the  actual  cross  section  of  the  dam  showed  90,200 
cu.  yds.  The  dam  remained  partly  completed  through  one  win- 
ter, which  gave  the  embankment  a  chance  to  become  compacted. 
Throughout  the  entire  work  it  was  sprinkled  and  rolled.  These 
figures  show  a  shrinkage  during  construction  of  5.44%.  Mr. 
Hosea  does  not  state  that  any  tests  have  been  made  to  show 
settlement  of  the  dike  since  the  reservoir  has  been  in  use. 

See  Chapter  I  for  data  on  earth  shrinkage. 

The  Tabeaud  Dam  and  Its  Cost.  The  Tabeaud  Dam  is  de- 
scribed by  Burr  Bassell  in  Engineering  News,  July  10,  1902. 
Mr.  Bassell  is  also  author  of  a  book  on  this  dam. 

The  Tabeaud  Dam  was  built  in  1900  and  1901  by  the  Standard 
Electric  Co.  of  California  as  part  of  a  hydro-electric  development. 


Fig.  14.     Section  of  Tabeaud  Dam. 

It  is  located  about  3  miles  from  Jackson  in  Amador  County  Cali- 
fornia. The  crest  of  this  dam  is  123  ft.  above  the  natural  sur- 
face of  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  lower  slope,  and  120  ft. 
above  rock  vertically  beneath  the  crest.  See  Fig.  14. 

The  dam  has  a  crest  length  of  636  ft.  and  varies  from  50  to 
100  ft.  in  length  at  the  base.  It  is  20  ft.  wide  at  the  top  and 
620  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom.  The  total  volume  of  the  structure  is 
370,350  cu.  yds.,  and  its  weight  is  about  665,000  tons.  The  dam 
was  designed  to  have  a  puddle  heart-wall  for  its  whole  length,  8 
ft  thick  at  the  top  and  increasing  in  thickness  towards  the  bot- 
tom. A  portion  of  this  was  built,  but  it  was  discontinued  after 
it  had  reached  a  height  of  24  ft. 

Foundation  Drainage.  Most  of  the  dam  rests  on  firm  hardpan 
and  the  balance  on  rock.  The  excavation  extended  to  rock  be- 
neath both  the  axis  of  the  dam  and  near  the  foot  of  the  inner 
slope  where  the  puddle  face  wall  abutted  against  the  hillsides. 
Nearly  all  the  bedrock  is  of  slate,  with  a  dip  of  some  40°  up- 
stream and  a  strike  of  15°  with  the  center  line  of  the  dam.  About 
150  ft.  above  the  center  line  a  quartz  vein  crosses  the  valley,  on 


1166 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  line  F  B  T.  Between  this  line  and  the  longitudinal  axis  the 
rock  was  satisfactory,  but  above  the  quartz  vein:  fissures  and 
springs  were  found. 

To  remove  this  spring  water  and  to  intercept  seepage  beneath 
the  whole  length  of  the  dam,  a  system  of  bed  rock  drainage  was 
constructed.  Water  from  the  springs  is  led  to  a  central  point  in 
trenches  in  the  bed  rock.  The  bottoms  of  these  trenches  were 
leved  with  concrete  over  which  was  placed  an  inverted  V-flume, 
Fig.  15.  From  the  central  collecting  point  water  is  lead  through 
a  2-in.  pipe  which  is  covered  with  an  inverted  V-flume  (angle 


. 


Roc* 


Waler  Bearing 

Open  Space 

*.  •  •? 

Interior          Puddle          Trench. 

Fig.  15.     Details  of  Foundation  Drainage. 


'"Pipe 


. 
. 

iron).  This  pipe  carries  it  down  stream  to  the  beginning  of  the 
bed-rock  drain.  The  inverted  flumes  of  angle  iron  were  covered 
with  concrete  which  in  turn  was  covered  with  clay  puddle. 

The  hill  side  drains  were  located  approximately  parallel  with 
and  8  ft.  below  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  dam,  and  were  carried 
to  Elev.  1,250.  The  trench  ranged  in  width  from  5  to  10  ft.  and 
extended  varying  distances  into  the  rock,  according  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  latter.  The  stringers  and  capstones  of  these  drains 
were  carefully  selected  and  laid.  All  crevices  were  then  filled 
with  spalls  and  a  covering  of  1  to  3-in.  broken  stone  from  the 
tunnel  dump  was  put  on  to  a  depth  of  18  ins.  Above  the  stone 
the  trenches  were  refilled  with  choice  thoroughly  puddled  clay. 

Observations  at  a  small  weir  at  the  outlet  of  the  drain  indi- 
cate a  quite  constant  seepage  of  about  13  gals,  per  min.  The 
maximum  discharge  has  been  180  gals,  per  min.  during  a  heavy 
rainstorm, 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        11;67 

Building  the  Embankment.  The  material  for  the  dam  was  all 
obtained  close  at  hand.  The  earth  was  taken  from  borrow  pits 
within  the  reservoir  basin  at  the  sides  of  the  reservoir  and  at  the 
ends  of  the  dam.  Most  of  the  rock-fill  facing  came  from  the  tun- 
nel dump  and  the  balance  from  quarries  in  a  ravine  to  the  south 
of  the  dam.  It  was  hauled  in  carts  and  stick-wagons.  The 
company  built  only  40,000  of  the  370,350  cu.  yds.  of  the  bulk 
of  the  dam.  It  had  a  small  steam  shovel  and  some  cars  on  the 
ground,  but  the  extent  to  which  it  used  these  is  not  stated. 

The  contractor  used  a  larger  steam  shovel,  of  1%  cu.  yds. 
capacity,  for  about  a  month,  but  it  mixed  so  much  stone  with 
the  dirt  that  the  engineer  was  not  satisfied  with  it.  The  con- 
tractor used  fresno  scrapers  to  bring  the  earth  from  the  borrow 
pits  to  a  loading  platform,  or  trap,  consisting  of  a  timber  plat- 
form with  a  hole  about  20  by  40  ins.,  through  which  the  wagons 
were  filled.  With  good  material,  8  of  these  scrapers  could  fill 
25  bottom  dump  wagons  per  hr.,  each  wagon  having  a  capacity 
of  3  cu.  yds.  The  average  haul  for  the  entire  earth  work  was 
one-fourth  mile. 

The  maximum  equipment  of  the  contractor  was  as  follows: 
One  !}£  yd.  steam  shovel ;  37  dump  wagons ;  1 1  rock  wagons  and 
carts;  39  fresno  scrapers;  21  wheel  scrapers;  8  road  and  hill 
side  plows;  3  road  graders;  3  sprinkling  wagons;  2  harrows;  2 
rollers  (5  and  8  ton);  233  men;  416  horses  and  mules.  The 
wheel  scrapers  were  not  used. 

The  stripped  surfaces  were  wet  by  means  of  hose  and  nozzles 
before  the  embankment  was  started.  The  earth  was  dumped  in 
rows,  generally  parallel  with  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  dam 
and  ranged  from  the  axis  toward  the  slopes.  At  the  ends  of 
the  dam  a  few  rows  were  frequently  made  parallel  to  the  inter- 
section of  the  embankment  and  the  hill  side.  The  best  material 
was  placed  at  the  ends  and  on  the  up  stream  half  of  the  dam. 
The  top  surface  was  kept  basin-shaped,  giving  a  slope  of  about  1 
on  25  from  the  sides  to  the  center.  The  puddle  heart-wall  was  dis- 
continued at  elev.  1,160  and  more  attention  given  thereafter  to 
puddle  on  the  inner  face.  This  change  from  the  original  plan 
was  made  by  Mr.  Bassell  soon  after  the  contractor  started  work, 
because  of  the  character  of  material  available,  and  the  excellent 
results  obtained  in  securing  an  homogeneous  earthen  mass,  prac- 
tically impervious.  Besides,  the  central  puddle  wall  would  have 
greatly  interfered  with  the  progress  of  the  work  and  delayed 
the  completion  of  the  dam. 

The  central  section  of  the  embankment,  however,  received  more 
water  than  other  portions  which  were  not  strictly  puddle,  on  ac- 
count of  the  basin  shape  and  manner  of  wetting.  Any  excess  of 


1168  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

water  in  this  portion  would  be  readily  taken  care  of  by  the  cross- 
drains. 

The  contract  specifications  provided  that  the  puddling  material 
should  contain  about  70%  of  clay  and  about  30%  of  gravel  less 
than  2  ins.  in  diameter. 

Rock-pickers  and  carts  followed  the  dumping  wagons,  remov- 
ing all  roots  and  stones  which  would  not  pass  through  a  4-in. 
ring.  The  specifications  provided  that  no  stone  weighing  over  5 
Ibs.  should  be  allowed  in  the  dam,  and  that  "  layers  of  rocky 
material  must  alternate  with  layers  comparatively  free  from 
rock."  All  the  waste  was  dumped  outside  the  slope  line,  after 
which  the  roots  were  burned. 

Six-horse  road-graders  leveled  down  the  rows  of  dirt  and  were 
followed,  in  turn,  by  harrows  and  rollers,  with  sprinklers  in- 
terspersed, as  was  found  necessary.  By  properly  spacing  the  dirt 
loads  and  rows,  layers  of  any  desired  thickness  could  be  secured, 
while  the  graders  made  as  smooth  and  uniformly  thick  a  layer 
as  could  be  asked.  If  the  material  was  dry,  it  was  sprinkled  as 
soon  as  the  graders  had  given  it  a  general  leveling;  otherwise 
there  was  no  sprinkling  until  between  the  harrowing  and  rolling, 
and  some  of  the  time  none  was  necessary  then.  The  previous 
layer,  however,  was  always  sprinkled  before  a  new  one  was  added, 
and  hose  with  nozzles  were  almost  constantly  employed  for 
wetting  down  the  outer  slopes,  the  stripped  hillsides  and  all  points 
which  the  wagons  could  not  reach. 

One  of  the  two  rollers  weighed  5  tons  and  had  a  60-in.  face, 
giving  166  Ibs.  per  lin.  in.;  the  other  one  weighed  8  tons  and 
had  a  40-in.  face,  thus  giving  200  Ibs.  per  in.  The  rollers  were 
not  grooved,  but  the  loaded  wagons  passing  over  the  layers  cut 
the  surface  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  The  loaded  wagons 
weighed  over  6  tons  apiece,  or  750  Ibs.  per  lin.  in.  of  wheel  tread. 
They  were  made  to  travel  where  they  would  do  the  most  good, 
particularly  near  the  edge  of  the  inner  slope  and  along  the  ends 
of  the  embankment  where  it  joined  the  hillside.  Generally  the 
rollers  were  drawn  lengthwise  of  the  dam,  but  they  frequently 
went  crosswise  at  the  ends  and  also  round  and  round  a  portion 
of  the  surface.  The  contract  specifications  stipulated  that  each 
100  cu.  yds.  of  material  should  be  rolled  1  hr.,  or  compressed 
to  an  equivalent  amount  and  that  the  compression  should  be 
sufficient  to  prevent  quaking  when  a  loaded  wagon  passed  over 
the  area. 

The  specifications  provided  that  for  the  first  60  ft.  the  layers 
should  not  exceed  6  ins.,  and  above  that  level  8  ins.  in  thickness. 
The  average  thickness  of  the  finished  layers  under  the  contract 
work  was  as  follows:  April,  4  in.;  May,  3%;  June,  4;  July,  4y2; 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1169 

August,  5;  September,  6;  October,  7;  November  and  December, 
8  ins. 

Tests  of  the  material  used  in  building  the  dam,  made  in  June 
and  Sept.,  1901,  showed  the  following  average  weights  of  1  cu.  ft. 
of  material  under  different  conditions:  Dust  dry  soil,  84  Ibs,; 
fully  saturated,  101.7;  natural  bank,  116.5;  delivered  from  wag- 
ons, moist  and  loose,  76.6;  loose  dirt  from  dam,  shaken  down 
and  measure  struck,  80;  test  pits  in  dam,  133  Ibs.  The  earth 
from  the  test  pits  in  the  dam  contained  38%  of  gravel  and  grit. 
The  natural  soil  had  19%  of  moisture;  33%  of  water  had  to  be 
added  to  it  for  saturation.  Tlie  voids  were  52%  of  the  total. 
The  angle  of  repose  of  the  moist  earth  from  the  bank  was  44°; 
of  dust  dry  dirt,  36%;  of  saturated  dirt,  23%.  The  cuts  at  the 
borrow  had  vertical  sides. 

Cost  of  a  Dam  in  Utah.  An  earth  dam  for  the  mammoth 
Reservois  in  San  Pete  County,  Utah,  is  described  by  J.  C.  Weelon 
in  Engineering  Xews,  Oct.  15,  1914: 

The  dam  is  designed  to  be  125  ft.  in  height,  eventually,  and 
is  built  of  earth  on  both  sides  of  a  concrete  core  wall.  The  core 
has  buttresses  on  both  sides  opposite  each  other,  starting  20  ft. 
wide  at  bed  rock  and  tapering  on  a  batter  to  zero  at  the  top  of 
the  dam,  and  spaced  20  ft.  apart  along  the  wall.  The  dam  is 
being  built  only  so  fast  as  the  irrigation  demands  of  the  farming 
district  require;  it  has  been  six  years  under  construction;  and,  is" 
now  at  the  67 -ft.  level.  The  present  area  of  the  dam  covers  one- 
sixth  of  an  acre. 

The  first  work  on  the  earth  fill  was  carried  to  the  15-ft.  level 
by  dump  wagons,  the  earth  being  rolled  with  a  corrugated  roller 
of  8  tons  weight,  drawn  by  four  horses.  The  next  25  ft.  was 
carried  on  by  water.  A  ditch  carried  water  along  the  brow  of 
the  hillside  150  ft.  higher  than  the  work.  Teams  and  plows 
would  make  furrows  straight  down  the  hill  slope  from  the  ditch 
to  the  work  level  on  the  dam.  A  small  quantity  of  water  re- 
leased from  the  ditch  into  the  furrow  washed  the  entire  furrow 
v.pon  the  dam,  while  the  teams  v,*ere  coming  back  up  the  hill  to 
engage  another  furrow.  The  fice  water  was  carried  off  the 
work  in  an  improvised  culvert  through  a  dike  at  the  extreme  up- 
and  down-stream  faces  of  the  dam,  which  was  carried  a  few 
feet  higher  than  the  puddled  and  thus  impounded  it.  This  method^ 
was  found  objectionable  because  the  heavy  and  coarser  material, 
weighing  2,100  Ibs.  per  cu.  yd.,  dry,  would  repose  next  to  the  hill- 
side, while  the  very  fine  clay,  weighing  1,500  Ibs.  per  cu.  yd., 
dry,  would  carry  in  suspension  to  the  center  of  the  work.  It  was 
found  so  difficult  to  extract  the  water  from  this  fine  clay  that  the 
sluicing  process  was  abandoned  and  rock  and  gravel  were  thrown 


1170 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


into  this  puddled  and  bottomless  mass  from  the  edges  until  men 
and  teams  could  travel  over  it.  The  work  is  being  finished  by 
the  use  of  scrapers  and  wagons.  The  canon  slopes  are  covered 
with  a  soil  of  clay  and  fine  gravel  which  is  of  fine  quality  for 
use  in  the  construction  of  an  earth  dam. 

The  dam  is  being  built  without  any  modern  machinery,  except 
the  smallest  stream  concrete  mixer  made.  A  12-mile  dug-way 
through  a  precipitous  cauon  renders  the  hauling  of  heavy  freight 
very  difficult.  The  roller  was  cast  in  seven  sections  so  that,  with 
the  frame,  eight  loads  could  be  made  of  it. 

The  earth  fill  is  costing  38  cts.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  the  concrete 
$9.37  per  cu.  yd.  The  overhead  charges  are  nominal. 

Use  of  Goats  for  Compacting  Puddle.  Work  on  an  earth  dam 
at  Santa  Fe,  N.  M.,  on  which  goats  were  used  for  compacting 
the  puddle,  is  described  in  Engineering  News,  Apr.  13,  1893. 

This  dam,  85  ft.  high  and  over  1,000  ft.  long,  was  built  across 
the  Rito  de  Santa  Fe.  The  upper  half  of  the  dam  site  was  exca- 
vated to  rock,  and  the  rock  washed  with  water  by  means  of  hose. 


Fig.  16.     Cross  Section  of  Dam  at  Sante  Fe,  N.  M. 


The  general  character  of  the  structure  is  shown  by  Fig.  16. 
The  triple  sheeting  inserted  in  and  carried  above  the  concrete 
trench  and  heart  walls  consists  of  three  thicknesses  of  1-in.  boards, 
nailed  together  horizontally. 

The  upper  half  of  the  dam  is  puddled  in  layers,  a  herd  of  115 
goats  having  been  bought  expressly  for  puddling.  These  goats 
are  in  charge  of  a  herder,  who  keeps  them  in  motion  when  on  the 
dam,  which  is  stated  to  be  from  12  m.  to  1  p.  m.,  and  from  5  to 
6  p.  m.  each  day. 

•  In  commenting  on  this  use  of  goats  in  a  subsequent  issue  of 
Engineering  News,  J.  M.  Howells,  who  was  on  the  work,   says: 

"  It  was  subsequently  found  that  as  the  travel  of  the  goats 
did  not  interfere  with  the  teams,  it  would  be  more  convenient  and 
economical  to  use  a  less  number  of  goats  and  keep  them  at  work 
all  day.  As  a  result  of  our  experience,  we  find  that  115  goats 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1171 

by  constant  use  would  do  well  the  puddling  for  30  wheel  scrapers, 
averaging  about  14  cu.  ft.  per  load  on  about  500  ft.  haul. 

"  The  material  was  first  spread  while  dumping,  next  leveled  in 
a  3-in.  layer  by  dragging  a  beam,  next  sprinkled  with  a  sprinkling 
wagon,  and  then  puddled  by  the  goats.  The  puddling  was 
thoroughly  done  in  this  way,  and  the  surface  left  just  rough 
enough  for  good  joint  with  the  next  layer. 

"  As  goats  in  this  arid  region  are  a  dry  hillside  animal,  I 
feared  such  a  radical  change  in  their  habits  as  keeping  their  feet 
muddy  all  day  would  bring  on  foot  disease.  No  lameness  had  ap- 
peared among  them  up  to  six  weeks  ago,  and  I  have  had  no  word 
of  any  since;  it  seems  likely  their  hardiness  will  carry  them 
through.  , 

"  When  the  goats  were  first  put  to  work  they  tired  easily,  and 
were  able  to  stand  it  but  a  part  of  the  day;  we  learned  this 
was  upon  account  of  the  scanty  range  upon  which  they  had  fed, 
having  to  rely  mostly  upon  browsing  the  juniper  brush.  A  few 
days,  however,  of  feed  on  peas  and  refuse  hay  brought  back  their 
accustomed  good  spirits.  And,  after  their  day's  work  was  over, 
they  would  butt  each  other  around  the  corral  with  the  enjoy- 
ment characteristic  of  this  singularly  precocious  animal." 

A  Mechanical  Flock  of  Goats.  In  the  preceding  paragraph  the 
efficiency  of  the  goat  as  an  earth  compacting  device  is  praised. 
Several  years  ago  a  contractor  engaged  in  road  building  in  Cali- 
fornia learned  that  a  sheep's  feet  can  compact  loose  earth  so  hard 
that  a  pick-pointed  plow  will  loosen  it  with  great  difficulty.  He 
had  just  plowed  up  a  road  when  several  thousand  sheep  walked 
over  the  loosened  soil.  The  compacting  action  of  their  hoofs 
was  so  effective  that  he  said :  "  If  those  sheep  had  only  post- 
poned their  visit  a  few  hours  until  I  had  graded  the  earth,  I 
would  have  gladly  paid  their  owner  -  for  their  work."  Then  it 
suddenly  occurred  to  him  that  although  he  could  not  hire  sheep, 
he  might  invent  a  flock  of  them,  which  he  did.  He  made  a 
roller  with  projecting  lugs,  like  sheep's  feet,  and  used  it  for 
consolidating  subgrades  of  roads  and  streets.  It  is  probably 
the  most  efficient  device  available  for  compacting  earth  in  em- 
bankments. 

This  rolling  tamper,  or  tamping  roller,  is  made  by  W.  A.  Gil- 
lette, South  Pasadena,  Calif.  t  It  is  illustrated  in  Chapter  VI,  and 
its  use  for  reservoir  embankments  is  described  later  in  this  chap- 
ter. 

Earth  Dam  Compacted  by  Irrigation  Flooding.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  July  18,  1917,  describes  the  construction  of  an 
earth  dam  for  Reeves  County  Irrigation  District  No.  1  in  Texas. 
The  dam  contains  180,000  cu.  yds.  of  material  which  was  exca- 


1172 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


vated   from   the   bottom    of   the   reservoir    by   western    elevating 
graders  and  hauled  to  place  in  western  dump  wagons. 

In  the  construction  of  the  dam  the  somewhat  unusual  method 
of  compacting  the  earthwork  by  irrigating  was  employed.  The 
distance  of  the  work  from  the  nearest  source  of  water  supply  made 
it  impracticable  to  follow  the  common  method  of  sprinkling  by 
wagons,  and  large  quantities  of  water  being  necessary  in  the 
work  of  puddling,  as  well  as  for  stock  and  other  purposes,  it  was 
thought  best  to  provide  a  constant  supply.  This  was  provided 
by  means  of  a  small  ditch  nearly  3  miles  long,  diverted  high 
enough  to  carry  water  over  the  top  of  the  completed  dam. 


Fig.  17.     Method  of  Retaining  Water  in  Puddling. 

In  order  to  cut  off  a  gravel  stratum  at  the  dam  site  a  trench 
averaging  40  ft.  wide  at  the  top  and  from  5  ft.  to  15  ft.  wide 
at  the  bottom,  and  10  to  20  ft.  deep  was  excavated  to  rock  or 
clay  foundation.  This  was  filled  with  water  and  good  earth  ma- 
terial "  bulldozed  "  in  from  the  end.  Over  this  puddled  trench  the 
dam,  which  is  47  ft.  high  and  2,500  ft.  long  was  built  in  3-ft. 
lifts.  Each  lift  or  layer  as  completed  was  bordered  and  cross- 
bordered  where  necessary,  and  flooded  with  water  as  shown  in 
Fig.  17.  This  water  was  allowed  to  stand  for  several  days,  the  in- 
tention being  to  permit  the  moisture  to  connect  with  that  of  the 
lift  next  below.  On  testing  out  these  lifts  with  a  post  hole  digger 
after  irrigation,  it  was  found  that  the  earth  was  well  compacted, 
and  a  very  complete  impervious  settlement  obtained  quickly.  This 
pocess  of  settling  and  compacting  the  material  was  continued  to 
the  very  top  of  the  dam. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1173 

Elevating  Graders  on  the  Stanley  Lake  Dam.  M.  E.  Witham, 
in  Engineering  Record,  Dec.  11,  1909,  gives  cost  data  on  the  use 
of  elevating  graders  and  dump  wagons  on  part  of  the  Stanley 
Lake  Dam.  This  dam  is  an  earth  embankment  designed  to  have 
an  ultimate  heighth  of  141  ft.  and  a  maximum  length  of  9,140 
ft.  at  the  crest.  When  the  construction  was  first  started  a  dike 
was  placed  along  the  toe  of  both  slopes  of  the  ultimate  section. 
These  dikes  were  30  ft.  high  at  the  lowest  point  in  the  valley 
across  which  the  dam  is  being  built,  and  were  made  to  a  top 
width  of  30  ft.  during  the  working  season  of  1908.  The  material 
for  the  dikes  was  excavated  by  elevating  grader  machines  from 
borrow  pits  directly  above  and  below  the  site  of  the  dam,  and 
was  delivered  from  these  machines  to  place  by  1%-yd.  dump 
wagons. 

The  material  handled  was  largely  surface  soil  and  clay,  under- 
lain by  a  thin  stratum  of  sand  and  gravel  that  was  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  dikes.  None  of  the  materials  had  to  be  blasted,  but 
it  was  necessary  to  loosen  them  with  a  plow  in  some  cases.  The 
ground  between  the  borrow  pits  and  dikes  was  level  enough  to 
eliminate  difficulty  in  hauling  over  it.  The  dikes  also  were  kept 
in  such  shape  that  no  snatch  teams  were  necessary  to  assist  in 
moving  the  wagons  on  them.  The  grading  was  under  way  in  July, 
August,  September,  October  and  November,  1908,  during  which 
time  the  amount  of  rainfall  was  so  small  that  it  did  not  inter- 
fere materially  with  the  operations.  (A  slide  occurring  on  this 
dam  in  1916  is  described  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.) 

In  computing  the  cost  of  labor  the  wages  paid  were  increased 
50  cts.  per  day  per  man  for  board,  including  Sundays.  Feed 
for  the  horses  and  mules  used  on  the  machines  and  wagons  was 
calculated  at  82  cts.  per  head  per  day,  also  including  Sundays. 
A  mixture  of  corn,  oats  and  bran,  costing  $1.80  per  100  Ib.  was 
used,  10  (100-lb.)  sacks  being  required  each  day  to  feed  128 
horses,  or  48  cts.  per  head.  Alfalfa  at  $11  per  ton  was  used 
for  rough  feed,  one  ton  being  the  average  amount  necessary  to 
feed  128  head  one  day,  or  27  cts.  per  head. 

The  standing  force  which  had  to  be  distributed  over  the  entire 
contract  was  as  follows: 

1  Walking  Boss  at  $125  per  month,   plus  board $5.31 

1  Foreman  at  $100,    plus  board 4.34 

1  Foreman  at  $75,   plus  board 3.38 

1  Timekeeper   at  $75,    plus  board. 3.38 

1  Blacksmith  at  $60,   plus  board 2.81 

1  Blacksmith's  Helper  at  $1.75  per  day 1.75 

2  Coral  Men  at  $45  per  man 4.46 

1  Water  Boy  at  $1.75  per  day 1.75 

Total   per   day $27.18 


1174  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  cost  of  the  2-horse  dump  wagons  per  day  was  figured  as 
follows:  Driver  at  $1.75;  feed  for  two  horses,  $1.64  and  25 
cents  for  depreciation,  making  a  total  of  $3.64.  When  three 
horses  were  used  to  a  wagon  this  was  increased  by  the  cost  of 
feed  for  one  horse  to  $4.46  per  day.  The  working  day  was  10 
hrs.  Three  of  the  elevating  grader  machines  were  used  while 
most  of  the  work  was  in  progress,  one  of  them  being  pulled  by  a 
traction  engine  and  the  other  two  by  horses.  On  one  of  the 
horse-drawn  machines  12  head  of  stock  were  used  and  14  head 
on  the  other.  The  figures  given  are  for  the  12 -horse  machine, 
while  the  added  cost  of  the  14-horse  machine  was  taken  as  the 
expense  feeding  two  more  horses,  or  $1.64  per  day. 

COST  OF  OPERATING  ELEVATING  GRADER  MACHINES 

Machine  Hauled  by  Twelve  Horses  — 

Elevator  man  at  $45  per  month,  plus  board $2.43 

Pilot  man  at  $35  per  month,  plus  board 1.85 

Plowman  at  $45  per  month  and  board 2.23 

Push  man  at  $30  per  month  and  board 1.65 

Dumper  at  $2  per  day 2.00 

Feed  for  12  head  of  stock 9.84 

Depreciation     1.50 


Cost  per  day  of  Twelve-Horse  Machine $21.34 

Machine  Hauled  by  Traction  Engine  — 

Engineer  at  $100  per  month  and  board $4.27 

Fireman  at  $60  per  month  and  board 2.74 

Pilot  at  $35  per  month  and  board 1.78 

Plowman  at  $45  per  month  and  board 2.16 

Dumper  at  $2  per  day 2.00 

Fuel   1%  tons  at  $3 4.50 

Hauling  water,   with   two  horses 3.44 

Hauling   coal,    half   day 1.72 

Lubricating    oil    and    depreciation ( 3.50 

Cost  per  day  of  Traction  Engine  Machine $26.11 

During  the  month  of  August  the  cost  with  the  traction  machine 
was  13.3  cts.  per  cu.  yd.;  the  cost  with  the  14-horse  machine  was 
13.5  cts.;  and  with  the  12-horse  machine  12.6  cts.  Similar  data 
recorded  during  the  month  of  September  gave  the  cost  for  the 
traction-engine  machine  as  14.1  cts;  for  the  14-horse  machine, 
12.4  cts.,  and  for  the  12-horse  machine,  12.5  cts.  During  that 
month  practically  no  time  was  lost,  and  the  conditions  obtained 
were  generally  the  same  as  in  August.  In  October  the  weather 
was  such  from  the  the  seventeeth  to  the  twenty-fourth,  inclusive, 
that  the  machines  were  not  in  use.  During  this  month  the  14- 
horse  machine  was  operated  at  a  cost  of  12.33  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  On 
the  other  horse-drawn  machine  12  head  of  stock  were  used  for  the 
first  week,  then  that  machine  was  drawn  by  the  traction  for  three 
days,  after  which  the  engine  was  laid  up  and  14  head  of  stock 
used  for  the  time  during  the  balance  of  the  month  when  condi- 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1175 

tions  permitted  work  to  be  done.  The  cost  with  this  machine 
for  October  under  these  conditions  was  13.03  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

During  all  of  November  only  two  grader  machines  were  oper- 
ated, each  of  them  being  hauled  by  14  head  of  stock.  Both  ma- 
chines were  used  14  days,  work  being  interrupted  for  six  days 
at  the  middle  of  the  month  and  operations  ceasing  on  Nov.  27. 
The  average  haul  was  somewhat  less  during  this  month,  but  other 
conditions  were  about  the  same  as  those  above  given.  The  cost 
with  one  machine  was  12.7  cts.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  with  the  other 
machine  13.07  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

Early  in  November  850  cu.  yds.  of  material  were  placed  in 
a  small  dike  by  means  of  Fresno  and  slip  scrapers.  The  haul  in 
this  case  averaged  about  100  ft.  and  the  materials  were  much  the 
same  as  those  moved  by  means  of  the  grading  machines  and 
wagons.  This  work  cost  only  6  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

In  comparing  the  cost  of  the  operation  of  the  different  grading 
machines  it  should  be  noted  that  the  traction  engine  did  not  work 
to  advantage.  The  disadvantage  of  the  engine  was  due  princi- 
pally to  two  reasons:  First,  the  alkali  nature  of  the  surface 
waters  used  in  the  boiler  occasioned  delays,  and  trouble  on  ac- 
count of  foaming  and  scale.  In  the  second  place,  moist  and 
slippery  ground  handicaps  the  operation  of  a  traction-drawn 
grader  more  than  those  of  one  drawn  by  stock.  Over  the  period  of 
this  cost  analysis  several  wet  days  consequently  rendered  condi- 
tions rather  hard  on  the  engine  drawn  machine. 

The  actual  average  working  time  per  hour  for  the  elevating 
grader  machines  was  about  45  mins.  For  a  haul  of  500  ft.  seven 
wagons  to  a  machine  were  found  to  give  the  greatest  efficiency. 
For  each  100  ft.  of  haul  it  was  considered  that  one  wagon  should 
be  added.  As  a  general  rule  one  wagon  was  considered  to  haul 
1*4  cu.  yds.  as  measured  in  the  embankment. 

It  is  evident  that,  interest,  administration,  camp  equipment 
and  similar  overhead  expenses  are  not  included  in  the  costs. 

Embankment  for  an  Oil-Storage  Reservoir.  E.  D.  Cole,  in 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  Nov.  24,  1915,  gives  the  following: 

The  general  dimensions  of  the  reservoir  are  as  follows:  In- 
side diameter,  bottom  462  ft.,  top  528  ft. ;  depth  22  ft. ;  width  of 
top  of  embankment,  11  ft.;  inside  slope  1%  to  1;  outside  slope 
iy2  to  1;  thickness  of  concrete  lining,  bottom  3  ins.,  top  2%  ins. 

Earthwork.  The  formation  at  the  site  was  a  light  sandy  clay, 
and  this  was  easily  handled  by  the  Fresno  and  wheel  scrapers 
used  throughout  the  work.  After  the  site  was  cleared  of  all 
brush  and  grass,  the  foundation  under  the  embankment  was  thor- 
oughly plowed  and  wet  down  before  the  fill  was  started.  Water 
for  moistening  the  material  was  supplied  through  a  2-in.  pipe 


1176  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

line  laid  around  the  site,  just  outside  the  outer  line  of  slope 
stakes,  with  hose  connections  approximately  100  ft.  apart.  A  2-in. 
line  was  also  run  to  the  center  of  the  reservoir  to  supply  water 
to  the  portion  of  the  site  which  could  not  be  reached  from  the 
outside  line.  To  avoid  being  in  the  way  of  the  scraper  teams, 
this  pipe  line  was  laid  through  one  of  the  three  12-in.  outlet  pipes 
that  were  placed  in  position  under  the  fill  at  the  beginning  of 
the  work.  A  narrow  trench  was  dug  from  the  inner  end  of  this 
outlet  pipe  to  the  center  of  the  reservoir,  and  the  2-in.  line  was 
laid,  in  it.  This  line  was  lowered  from  time  to  time  as  the  work 
progressed,  and  was  kept  far  enough  below  the  surface  of  the 
excavation  to  be  clear  of  the  plow  and  scraper  teams.  Wetting 
down  the  excavation  material  was  a  help  in  several  ways,  as  it 
not  only  made  a  more  compact  bank,  but  kept  the  dust  down  and 
made  the  earth  ride  better  in  the  scrapers.  This  may  seem  in- 
consistent, inasmuch  as  the  work  was  done  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son, but  can  be  readily  understood  on  taking  into  consideration 
the  fact  that  only  6  working  days  were  lost  during  the  winter 
on  account  of  wet  weather.  The  embankment  was  built  up  in 
thin  layers,  about  3  ins.  thick,  laid  parallel  to  the  floor  of  the 
reservoir,  and  well  compacted.  In  addition  to  the  tramping  of 
the  scraper  teams,  the  fill  was  compacted  by  two  petrolitic  roll- 
ing tampers  (see  Chapter  VI  for  illustration)  which  were  driven 
continually  around  the  top  of  the  embankment. 

To  insure  a  compact  and  uniform  backing  for  the  concrete 
lining,  on  the  inner  slope  below  the  natural  ground  surface,  the 
excavation  was  started  2  ft.  (measured  normal  to  the  slope) 
inside  the  inner  line  of  slope  stakes.  This  necessarily  increased 
the  quantity  of  excavation,  and  left  the  embankment  short  on 
the  inner  slope  by  this  quantity.  After  the  completion  of  the 
main  portion  of  the  embankment,  a  lining  of  selected  material, 
3  ft.  thick  (measured  normal  to  the  slope),  was  built  up  against 
the  inner  slope,  from  subgrade  (1  ft.  below  floor  grade)  to  the 
top  of  the  finished  fill.  This  extra  foot  of  material  was  put  on 
to  insure  a  compact  surface  at  the  grade  line  of  the  inner  slope, 
but  was  afterward  removed,  as  will  be  described  later.-  The 
refill  is  an  important  part  of  the  construction  because  it  would 
cut  off  any  layers  of  sand  or  loose  material  that  might  be  en- 
countered in  that  portion  of  the  inner  slope  which  lies  below  the 
ground  surface.  On  some  previous  work  it  was  found  necessary 
to  excavate  and  refill  portions  of  the  natural  embankment,  below 
the  ground  surface,  after  the  fill  had  been  completed  and  trimmed 
to  grade;  this  work  caused  considerable  delay  and  added  expense. 
One  concrete-lined  reservoir  in  this  field  partly  failed,  due  to 
neglect  of  this  part  of  the  work,  necessitating  heavy  expense  in 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        117.7 

emptying  the  reservoir,  besides  the  loss  of  a  considerable  quantity 
of  oil  and  the  cost  of  patching  the  lining. 

On  the  first  reservoir,  in  which  a  refill  was  put  in,  the  lining 
of  selected  material  was  started  with  Fresno  scrapers,  but  these 
were  soon  abandoned  in  favor  of  wheel  scrapers,  on  account  of 
the  difficulty  in  keeping  them  from  sliding  over  the  edge,  and 
also  because  the  wheel  scrapers  would  build  up  a  bench  of  the 
required  width,  and  it  was  impossible  to  keep  within  the  limits 
with  the  Fresnos.  Apparently,  the  wheel  scrapers  build  up  a 
more  compact  lining. 

Trimming  Slopes.  On  the  completion  of  the  main  embankment 
and  the  refill,  the  excess  material  on  the  inner  slope,  which 
ranged  in  thickness  from  1  ft.  at  the  top  to  2  ft.  at  the  bottom, 
was  trimmed  off  leaving  the  slope  smooth  and  true  to  grade.  For 
this  work  of  trimming  the  slope,  a  novel  and  ( the  writer  be- 
lieves) original  method  was  used.  Grade  stakes  were  set  on 
radial  lines,  both  at  the  top  and  inner  toe  of  the  slope,  approx- 
imately every  10  ft.  around  the  circumference  of  the  reservoir. 
Men  with  mattocks  and  slope-level  boards  then  dug  narrow 
trenches,  1  ft.  wide  and  true  to  grade,  from  the  top  grade  stake 
to  the  stake  at  the  toe  of  the  slope.  Then  2  by  4-in.  timbers,  38 
ft.  long,  each  faced  with  a  narrow  strip  of  strap  iron,  were  placed 
in  the  bottom  of  each  trench  to  act  as  guides  for  a  trimming  ma- 
chine which  was  used  to  finish  that  portion  of  the  slope  between 
the  hand-dug  trenches.  Before  using  the  planer,  however,  all 
excess  material  above  the  top  of  the  2  by  4-in.  timbers  was  scraped 
off  the  slope  with  a  specially  made  Mormon  or  Buck  scraper 
which  was  dragged  up  and  down  the  slope,  power  being  furnished 
by  a  double-drum  hoisting  engine  at  the  center  of  the  reservoir. 
The  back-up  line  from  the  engine  passed  through  a  12-in.  snatch- 
block  supported  at  the  top  of  the  slope  on  a  portable  wooden 
truss  designed  for  that  purpose.  This  wooden  truss  was  anchored 
against  over-turning  by  two  heavy  chains  fastened  to  iron  stakes 
driven  into  the  top  of  the  embankment.  As  each  succeeding  sec- 
tion of  the  slope  was  finished,  the  wooden  truss  was  moved  along 
the  top  of  the  bank  with  a  team  of  horses. 

After  the  bulk  of  the  material  above  the  top  of  the  2x4-in. 
timbers  had  been  removed,  a  slope-trimming  machine,  designed 
and  built  by  Mr.  C.  O.  Zeller  and  the  writer,  was  substituted  for 
the  Mormon  scraper  and  used  to  plane  off  the  remaining  thin 
layer  of  earth  and  bring  the  slope  to  grade  or  flush  with  the 
bottom  of  the  guides.  Fig.  18  shows  the  trimming  machine, 
which  consists  of  a  rectangular  frame  11  ft.  long  and  6  ft.  wide, 
built  up  of  6-in.  steel  channels  bolted  together  and  carrying  two 
cutting  blades.  The  cutting  blades  are  of  %x!2-in.  flat  rolled 


1178  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH 'EXCAVATION 

steel,  and  are  set  at  an  angle  with  the  frame  of  1  to  2i/2.  The 
blades  are  also  set  at  a  slight  angle  longitudinally  with  each 
other,  and  the  cutting  edge  projects  down  2  ins.  below  the  bottom 
of  the  frame.  The  planer  is  dragged  back  and  forth  on  the  slope 
until  the  ends  of  the  frame  ride  on  the  top  of  the  guides,  and  that 
particular  section  is  shaved  off  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the 
guides,  or  down  to  grade.  In  this  way  nearly  nine-tenths  of  the 
slope  were  finished  by  machine  and  at  one-half  the  cost  of  doing 
the  work  by  hand. 


nV- 


Fig.  18.     Slope-Trimming  Machine. 


Concrete-lined  reservoirs  of  this  type  cost,  complete,  from  9y2 
to  10  cts.  per  bbl.  of  capacity,  depending  on  the  location  and 
other  governing  conditions.  This  cost  may  be  distributed  ap- 
proximately as  follows: 

Cost  of  earthwork   $0.03  per  bbl.  of  capacity 

Cost   of   roof    0.03  per  bbl.  of  capacity 

Cost  of  concrete  lining  0.04  per  bbl.  of  capacity 

Rolling  Puddle  on  Reservoir  Embankment  Slope.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Apr.  10,  1907,  gives  the  following:  Fig.  19 
shows  the  method  adopted  for  compacting  an  18-in.  layer  of 
puddle  on  the  slope  of  a  reservoir  embankment.  The  embank- 
ment was  for  a  settling  basin  forming  a  portion  of  the  water 
purification  works  at  Columbus,  O.  These  works  occupy  a  rec- 
tangular tract  500x700  ft.  in  area  and  the  spoil  and  the  materials 
for  construction  were  largely  handled  by  two  Lidgerwood  travel- 
ing cableways  of  760  ft.  span.  One  of  these  cableways  was  turned 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1170 

to  the  novel  duty  of  operating  the  roller  on  the  embankment  slope. 
The  settling  basin  was  lined  with  18  ins.  of  2  parts  gravel  and  1 
part  clay  puddle  mixed  in  a  Drake  continuous  mixer.  The 
puddle  was  deposited  in  6-in.  layers,  each  of  which  was  allowed 
to  dry  and  was  thoroughly  rolled  before  the  next  layer  was  placed. 
For  rolling  the  puddle  on  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir  a  5-ton 
grooved  roller  made  by  the  Kelly-Spring^  eld  Co.,  was  used.  The 
embankment  slopes  were,  however,  too  steep  to  permit  a  steam 
roller  being  operated  and,  therefore,  use  was  made  for  this  task  of 
a  home-made  roller  operated  by  one  of  the  cableways.  The  roller 


Fig.  19.     Method  of  Rolling  Reservoir  Embankment. 

was  made  from  two  40-in.  diameter  fly  wheels  set  close  end  to 
end  on  a  common  shaft  and  filled  inside  with  concrete.  This 
roller  weighed  1,350  Ibs.  and  was  readily  operated  laterally  up 
and  down  the  slope  or  longitudinally  up  the  slope.  The  whole 
arrangement  proved  very  successful. 

A  roller,  weighing  5  tons  and  drawn  by  a  portable  hoisting 
engine,  was  used  for  rolling  slopes  of  reservoirs  at  Denver,  Colo. 
(Transactions,  American  Society  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  27.)  This 
machine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  20. 

Self-Loading  Wagon  for  Building  Reservoir  Embankment. 
Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  31,  1916,  gives  the  following: 
In  building  embankment  for  the  Hiland  Avenue  Reservoir  at 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  a  novel  device  described  by  Emile  Low  was 
employed.  This  "  home-made  "  machine  consisted  of  a  large  box, 
supported  by  two  pairs  of  wheels,  and  drawn  by  three  horses. 
This  box  held  about  1  cu.  yd.  At  the  front  end  there  was  a  slat 


1180  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Fig.  20.     Roller  for  Rolling  Slopes. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1181 

*' 

elevator,  operated  by  cogs  and  pinions.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
elevator  there  was  a  scoop-shaped  plow.  The  material  was  loos- 
ened by  this  plow  and  then  forced  upon  the  elevator  and  carried 
into  the  box.  When  the  latter  was  full,  the  scoop  or  plow  was 
raised  and  the  whole  machine  was  hauled  to  the  embankment. 
The  bottom  of  this  box  consisted  of  a  number  of  hinged  slats, 
which,  when  turned,  allowed  the  material  to  drop  out  gradually, 
forming  a  layer  of  about  4  ins.  Ths  machine  proved  an  ideal 
one  for  building  the  embankment,  first  on  account  of  the  thin  and 
even  layers  deposited,  and,  second,  on  account  of  the  consolidation 
of  the  layers  by  the  passage  of  the  heavy  loads  over  it.  Not- 
withstanding this,  rolling  with  the  prescribed  heavy  grooved  roller 
was  never  omitted,  although  it  seemed  at  times  to  be  a  senseless 
requirement. 

Cost  of  Embankments  and  Puddle  for  a  Settling  Basin.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  June  25,  1913,  gives  the  following 
relative  to  a  settling  basin  for  the  Minneapolis  filter  plant:  For 
building  the  embankment  a  selected  clayey  material  was  obtained 
from  two  borrow  pits  in  the  immediate  vicinity  and  was  hauled 
by  means  of  common  dump  wagons  of  1*4  cu.  yds.  capacity,  or 
No.  2  wheel  scrapers,  as  the  length  of  haul  demanded.  This  was 
spread  in  6-in.  layers,  was  well  sprinkled  and  rolled  by  means  of 
a  14-ton  steam  roller. 

On  the  side  of  the  raised  embankment  of  the  settling  basin 
next  to  the  water  a  puddle  wall  of  selected  clayey  material  4  ft. 
thick  was  built.  This  puddle  was  placed  in  horizontal  layers 
from  1  in.  to  2  ins.  thick.  It  was  well  sprinkled  with  water  and 
tamped  with  wooden  tampers  until  the  whole  was  of  the  proper 
consistency  and  was  then  allowed  to  dry.  Embankments  and 
puddle  wall  were  kept  as  near  the  same  elevation  as  possible  at 
all  times.  After  placing  the  puddle  wall  and  the  embankments 
were  at  or  near  their  proper  heights,  a  layer  of  crushed  limestone 
14  ins.  thick  measured  normal  to  the  slope  was  placed  thereon. 
On  top  of  this,  for  a  part  of  the  slope  distance,  a  6-in.  layer  of 
1:2:4  concrete  was  laid  in  10-ft.  strips  with  an  asphalt  joint 
between  them.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  embankments  were 
covered  with  sandstone  paving  stones  taken  from  the  north  basin 
which  were  of  no  further  use  there.  All  inside  slopes  have  a  slope 
of  1  :  2,  and  all  outside  slopes  I  to  1%. 

Labor  Cost  Data  on  Settling  Basin  for  1911.  Earth  Fill.  The 
earth  fill  was  well  sprinkled  with  water  and  was  rolled  in  6-in. 
layers  with  a  14-ton  steam  roller.  The  average  unit  cost  on 
16,212  cu.  yds.  of  fill  was  48.5  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  The  average  haul 
was  1,200  ft.  Amount  hand-tamped,  1,100  cu.  yds. 

Puddle  Wall. — Earth  hand  tamped  in  iy2  to  2-in.  layers.    Water 


1182  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

pumped  with  hand  pump.     The  average  unit  cost  on  836  cu.  yds. 
was  89.2  cts. 

Laborers  were  paid  $2.25  per  day;  and  teams  $4.72  per  day. 

Labor  Cost  Data  on  Settling  Basin  in  1912,  Earthwork. — Ex- 
cavation: 321  cu.  yds.  of  earth  were  excavated  from  trenches  by 
hand  at  an  average  cost  of  78.4  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  This  cost  includes 
the  sheeting  and  staging.  Of  the  321  cu.  yds.  excavated,  236 
cu.  yds.  was  dry  work,  shoveled  three  times,  40  cu.  yds.  was  wet 
clay  handled  four  times,  and  45  cu.  yds.  was  wet  clay  handled 
twice,  at  average  costs  of  80  cts.,  $1,  and  40  cts.  per  cu.  yd.,  re- 
spectively. Backfill:  747  cu.  yds.  were  backfilled  by  hand  and 
scraper  at  an  average  cost  of  34.7  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  The  ground 
was  wet  and  partly  frozen.  This  figure  includes  the  hauling  of 
93  cu.  yds.  900  ft.  Fill:  The  fill  of  10,773  cu.  yds.  was  well 
sprinkled  and  rolled  in  layers  of  6  ins.  with  a  14-ton  roller. 
Average  cost,  49.8  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

Puddle  Wall. — The  1,529  cu.  yds.  of  puddle  were  tamped  by 
hand  in  1%  to  2-in.  layers  at  an  average  cost  of  75.7  cts.  per  cu. 
yd.  The  water  needed  was  pumped  by  hand. 

Laborers  were  paid  $2.40  per  day,  and  teams  $5.00  per  day. 

Labor  Cost  Data  on  Filters  and  Filter  House  in  1912.  Earth- 
work.— Excavation:  2,409  cu.  yds.  of  clay  was  excavated  with 
pick  and  shovel  at  average  cost  of  65.2  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  Some  of 
this  clay  was  handled  three  times.  The  cost  includes  a  small 
amount  of  sheeting.  Fill:  6,494  cu.  yds.  of  fill  was  made  at  an 
average  cost  of  44%  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  Sandy  soil  was  used  and 
was  tamped  by  hand  under  pipes.  The  average  haul  of  material 
was  800  ft. 

Earth  Dam  at  Springfield,  Mass.  Charles  R.  Gow  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  Jan.  18,  1911,  gives  the  following:  A  dam 
for  the  Springfield  (Mass.)  Waterworks  was  740  ft.  long  at  the 
crest  and  its  maximum  height  above  the  natural  ground  was  35 
ft.  Its  maximum  width  at  ground  level  was  165  ft.  The  slopes 
were  carried  1  on  2  and  a  roadway  16  ft.  wide  surmounted  its  top. 
A  cut-off  trench  was  carried  to  rock  for  the  entire  length,  in 
which  was  built  a  concrete  cut-off  wall  3  ft.  thick,  extending  up: 
ward  from  the  ledge  to  a  little  above  the  natural  surface.  Sur- 
rounding this  cut-off  wall  and  extending  upward  through  the 
middle  portion  of  the  cross-section  is  a  clay  core  built  with  the 
material  secured  from  the  borrow  pit. 

As  practically  all  of  the  excavated  material  was  to  be  utilized 
in  fills*  either  in  the  earth  dam  or  in  grading  over  and  around 
the  completed  filters,  no  satisfactory  system  of  car  transportation 
for  the  excavated  material  was  deemed  available.  Two-horse 
teams  hauling  bottom-dump  wagons  were  used  throughout  the 
work,  and  the  excavated  material  was  deposited  without  further 


DESIGN  AND-CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1183. 

rehandling  in  its  final  position.  The  elevation  of  filter  subgrade 
was  455,  while  that  of  the  finished  dam  was  495,  necessitating  a 
final  maximum  uphill  haul  of  40  ft. 

Snatching  the  Wagons  Uphill.  A  short,  steep  road  was  se- 
lected up  the  side  hill  at  the  westerly  end  of  the  dam  and  an  18- 
in.  gage  railway  track  laid  in  a  straight  line  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top  of  this  road.  A  hoisting  engine  was  installed  at  the  top 
of  this  track  and  a  weighted  car,  consisting  of  a  small  steel  tank 
filled  with  concrete  and  mounted  on  four  wheels,  was  operated  up 
and  down  the  track  by  this  engine  with  a  cable.  The  top  of  this 
car  was  just  high  enough  to  catch  the  rear  axle  of  the  wagons. 
In  operation  the  teams  drove  on  to  and  over  the  track  near  its 


Fig.  21.     Settling  Basin  Dam,  Springfield,  Mass. 

lower  end  and  headed  uphill  with  the  wheels  astride  the  track, 
the  car  at  this  time  being  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  railway. 
The  car  was  then  started  up  the  track,  catching  against  the  rear 
axle  of  the  wagon,  and  practically  boosted  the  load  uphill,  the 
horses  being  only  required  to  keep  the  pole  headed  in  the  proper 
direction.  At  the  top  of  th*e  track  the  team  swung  oft"  downhill 
toward  the  fill,  and  the  car  ran  back  by  gravity  to  await  the  next 
load.  The  grade  of  this  road  was  about  18%  and  its  length  about 
150  ft.  The  teams  could  be  handled  on  it  at  the  rate  of  one  per 
minute. 

General  Excavation.  The  item  of  General  Excavation  included 
all  excavation  for  the  filters,  for  the  aerator  and  various  building 
foundations,  for  stripping  at  the  site  of  the  dike,  and  in  general 
all  cases  of  earth  excavation  required  under  the  contract  in  which 
the  depth  of  the  excavation  was  less  than  its  breadth.  The  total 
amount  of  yardage  included  under  this  item  was  56,147  cu.  yds., 
of  which  45,081  cu.  yds.  were  handled  by  steam  shovel  and  11,066 
by  hand  loading. 

The  excavation  for  the  filters  was  handled  for  the  most  part  by 
;a  steam  shovel,  while  all  other  General  Excavation,  including  a 
small  amount  in  the  filters,  was  excavated  and  loaded  by  hand 


1184  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

labor.  The  cost  records  were  so  kept  as  to  only  designate  be- 
tween these  two  methods. 

Thew  Shovel  Work.  A  No.  1  Thew  steam  shovel  with  a  I1/! -yd. 
dipper  was  selected  for  excavating  the  filter  beds  because  a  large 
part  of  the  work  consisted  in  very  light  cuts.  It  worked  well 
on  the  first  two  filters,  maintaining  an  output  of  from  300  to  500 
cu.  yds.  per  day. 

When  excavation  for  the  third  filter  was  reached,  many  large 
boulders  were  encountered,  and  from  that  point  onward  their 
occurrence  became  general.  The  work  of  excavation  now  became 
most  tedious  and  expensive.  The  shovel,  although  not  dsigned 
for  such  work,  was  able  to  dislodge  many  of  the  small  boulders  of 
1  cu.  yd.  or  less,  but  a  large  percentage  were  of  such  size  as  to 
require  blasting  before  the  shovel  could  proceed.  The  delays  inci- 
dent to  meeting-these  obstructions  frequently  reduced  the  daily 
average  to  less  than  100  cu.  yds.  In  some  places  boulders  were  so 
thickly  grouped  in  the  ground  that  it  was  necessary  to  resort  to 
hand  excavation  to  clear  around  and  remove  them.  The  gravel 
surrounding  the  boulders  was  cemented  to  such  an  extent  as  almost 
to  resemble  concrete.  Attempts  were  made  to  blast  the  bank 
ahead  of  the  shovel,  but  it  was  impossible  to  drill  into  the  mate- 
rial with  any  degree  of  success.  The  ground  contained  so  large 
a  percentage  of  stone,  both  large  and  small,  that  neither  a  churn 
drill  nor  a  steam  drill  could  be  put  down  without  its  course  being 
deflected.  There  remained  nothing  to  do  but  to  scratch  away  the 
gravel  from  around  the  boulders  and  pry  them  out  with  the  dipper 
or  otherwise  to  blast  them.  Added  to  the  frequent  delays  from 
boulders,  breakdowns  of  the  shovel  due  to  the  excessive  strain 
upon  it  occurred  almost  daily. 

The  cost  of  steam  -  shovel  filter  excavation,  including  that  of 
teaming  it  to  its  disposal  point  was  as  follows  for  45,080  cu.  yds. : 

Delivering   and    installing   shovel $0.011 

Foreman    supervising    excavation 0.037 

Shovel   operation,    labor 0.047 

Coal,    oil,    etc 0.033 


Total    $0.08 

Repairs,    labor 0.007 

Repairs,    materials    0.014 


Total    $0.021 

Depreciation    on    shovel 0.039 

Teaming   excavated  material 0^215 

General   expense,    12.9% 0.052 


Grand  total  per  cu.  yd $0.455 

The  cost  of  installing  the  shovel  includes  the  expense  of  four 
sections  of  oak  platform,  each  section  being  12  ft.  long  by  5  ft. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1185 

wide  and  4  ins.  thick.  Each  section  was  fitted  with  lifting  rings 
so  that  it  could  be  easily  handled  by  the  dipper  of  the  shovel 
and  transferred  from  the  rear  to  front  as  the  shovel  moved  for- 
ward. 

No  dumping  expense  is  charged  in  the  teaming  item,  as  all 
labor  of  that  nature  is  included  in  the  cost  of  the  embankment. 

Hand  Excavation.  Eleven  thousand  and  sixty-six  cu.  yds.  of 
General  Excavation  was  loaded  by  hand  methods.  A  small  amount 
of  loam  stripping  over  the  filter  site  was  done  with  wheel  scrapers. 
Much  of  the  area  to  be  stripped,  however,  was  of  a  marshy  na- 
ture, due  to  the  presence  of  springs  at  the  upper  end  of  the  lot. 
This  rendered  the  soil  so  soft  as  to  prohibit  the  working  of 
horses  over  it.  Other  parts  of  the  lot  were  so  stony  under  the 
surface  as  continually  to  stall  the  scrapers,  and  the  scraper 
method  of  excavation  was  finally  abandoned  and  wagons  and 
shovels  substituted  therefor. 

The  permanent  diversion  of  the  brook  required  about  1,200  cu. 
yds.  of  excavation,  which  was  executed  entirely  by  hand  methods. 
Part  of  this  channel  was  quite  deep  and  required  some  staging 
and  rehandling  for  the  bottom  part. 

Excavation  for  the  office  and  laboratory  building,  for  the  reg- 
ular house  and  for  the  aerator  were  carried  to  depths  of  7,  9 
and  7  ft.  respectively.  The  material  in  this  excavation  was  ce- 
mented sand  and  gravel,  requiring  loosening  with  picks  but  with- 
out the  presence  of  boulders. 

The  removal  of  all  soil  covering  the  area  of  the  dam  site  and 
the  first  4  ft.  in  depth  of  the  cut-off  wall  trench  were  also  han- 
dled by  hand.  Excavation  for  central  drains  in  each  filter  was 
also  done  by  hand  labor  and  was  exceedingly  difficult,  being  com- 
posed mostly  of  small  boulders.  The  following  figures  give  the 
average  cost  of  the  11,066  cu.  yds.  of  hand  work. 

Foreman $0.037 

Picking    and    shoveling    0.521 

Miscellaneous    supplies    0.005- 

Teaming     0.215 


Total $0.784 

General   expense,   12.9% 0.101 

Total  per  cu.  yd 


Trench  Excavation.  Various  pipes  and  drains  in  connection 
with  the  several  parts  of  the  work  required  4,759  cu.  yds.  of  trench 
excavation.  Of  this  account,  653  cu.  yds.  were  in  the  cut-off 
trench  for  the  earth  dam.  In  general,  all  excavations  whose 
depth  exceeded  their  width  were  classed  as  trench  excavation. 
The  excavation  in  the  cut-off  trench  of  the  dam  involved  special. 


1186  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

treatment  and  was  subsequently  handled  and  paid  for  as  a  sep- 
arate proposition. 

'  The  average  cut  of  the  many  pipe  trenches  was  about  7  ft.  and 
their  average  width  at  the  bottom  was  approximately  4%  ft. 
The  specifications  provided  that  the  measurement  for  payment 
should  include  slopes  of  2  vertical  to  1  horizontal,  regardless  of 
whether  more  or  less  was  actually  removed.  The  general  nature 
of  the  material,  however,  was  such  as  to  allow  vertical  banks  in 
all  cases,  mostly  without  boulders.  The  cost  of  this  compact 
cemented  sand  and  gravel  trench  work  was  as  follows  for  4,106 
cu.  yds. : 

Picking  and  shoveling,  inc.  backfilling $0.243 

General  expense,   12.9% • 0.032 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.275 

Blasting  Borrowed  Excavation.  This  item  of  the  work  em- 
braced the  securing  and  delivery  of  such  material  as  was  required 
for  the  fills  in  excess  of  that  supplied  from  General  Excavation. 
It  was  originally  expected  that  Borrowed  Excavation  would  only 
be  necessary  in  supplying  about  16,500  cu.  yds.  of  clayey  mate- 
rial for  the  core  or  middle  portion  of  the  earth  dam.  It  subse- 
quently became  necessary  to  increase  the  amount  of  borrow  to 
30,000  cu.  yds.  on  account  of  the  deficiency  of  material  caused  by 
the  elimination  of  boulders  and  large  stones  from  the  material 
brought  from  General  Excavation. 

Material  conforming  to  the  requirements  of  the  specifications 
for  use  in  the  core  of  the  dam  was  obtained  on  land  belonging  to 
the  city,  at  a  distance  of  approximately  2,500  ft.  from  the  dam 
in  an  uphill  direction.  The  haul  from  this  point  to  the  dam  was, 
therefore,  downhill  to  the  filter  site,  from  which  it  was  necessary 
to  haul  up  grade  as  the  dam  fill  increased. 

The  material  was  a  compact,  clayey  sand,  containing  at  times 
a  moderate  amount  of  gravel.  Its  location  in  a  side  hill  af- 
forded an  excellent  opportunity  for  loading,  and  eventually  a  face 
of  50  ft.  in  height  was  obtained. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  loosen  the  material  by  blasting,  using 
black  powder  in  holes  drilled  some  distance  back  from  the  face. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  water  seeping  through  the  material 
wet  the  holes,  and  even  when  not  troubled  from  water  the  shots 
were  unsatisfactory,  due  mainly  to  the  elastic  nature  of  the 
material. 

An  attempt  was  then  made  to  loosen  a  large  section  of  the  bank 
by  means  of  a  tunnel  driven  into  the  hill  and  exploding  a  mine 
therein.  Again  the  result  was  unsatisfactory,  the  effect  of  the 
shot  manifesting  itself  in  the  shape  of  a  small  crater  while  only 
a  comparatively  small  amount  of  material  was  loosened  in  pro- 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1187 

portion  to  the  amount  of  labor  and  explosives  required.  A  suc- 
cessful method  of  loosening  was  finally  obtained  by  the  use  of 
undercutting  shots.  A  row  of  short  holes  was  churned  in  diag- 
onally downward  along  the  base  of  the  vertical  face  of  the  pit. 
These  holes  were  fired  simultaneously,  using  dynamite  for  the 
purpose.  The  resulting  shot  kicked  out  a  triangular  strip  of  the 
material  from  under  the  face,  while  the  shock  of  the  explosion 
caused  the  overhanging  mass  above  to  crack  and  topple  over, 
thereby  breaking  it  into  a  loose  pile  which  was  easily  shoveled. 
At  times,  after  the  face  had  reached  a  considerable  height,  four 
or  five  holes  loaded  with  10  or  15  sticks  of  dynamite  would  loosen 
and  break  up  from  100  to  150  cu.  yds. 

For  loading  the  material  into  wagons  a  large  guyed  derrick 
was  installed  and  equipped  with  a  1-yd.  orange-peel  bucket  which 
delivered  into  a  hopper  under  which  the  teams  drove  and  received 
their  loads.  This  arrangement  was  very  satisfactory  while  work- 
ing, but  the  frequent  delays  caused  by  minor  breakdowns  and 
repairs  rendered  it  uneconomical. 

Wagon  Hauling.  The  average  length  of  haul  from  the  pit  was 
about  2,500  ft.,  or  a  round  trip  of  5,000  ft.  The  greatest  number 
of  trips  per  team,  made  or  required,  was  20  in  10  hours.  The 
average  for  the  entire  work  was  about  18.  The  wagons  holding 
1%  cu.  yd.  level  measure  were  ordinarily  well  rounded  up  when 
leaving  the  pit,  but  the  average  load,  bank  measure,  was  only 
about  1  cu.  yd. 

The  nature  of  the  material  rendered  it  difficult  to  team  over 
during  or  immediately  after  wet  weather,  and  the  same  was  true 
of  the  highway  over  which  the  teams  were  obliged  to  pass.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  dry  weather,  the  highway  was  deep  with  dust, 
adding  another  unpleasant  feature.  The  cost  of  19,952  cu.  yds. 
of  clay  borrowed  for  the  core  wall  was: 

Blasting: 

Labor    drilling    holes $0.017 

Explosives     0.018 

./.'.:..^...... 

Loading: 

Foreman,    laborers,    etc $0.2022 

Coal,  oil,   plant,  etc 0.0226 

Special  tools  used 0.0014 

Total  cost  of  loading  per  cu.  yd $0.226 

Teaming    to    dam , 0.36 

General    expense,    12.9% 0.08 


Grand  total  per  cu.  yd $0.701 

Since  double  teams   cost   $6   per  day,  the  teaming   charge   of 
).36  gives  an  average  of  17  cu.  yds.  per  team.     It  may  be  added 


1188  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


that  but  few  teams  could  stand  this  work  continuously,  and  fre- 
quent changes  of  teams  were  required  to  rest  the  horses. 

Second  Borrow  Pit.  When  the  filter  excavation  was  completed 
it  was  found  that  additional  material  to  the  extent  of  several 
thousand  yards  would  be  required  to  complete  the  fills. 

A  borrow  pit  was  accordingly  designated  by  the  engineer  lo- 
cated near  the  tunnel  portal  at  the  westerly  end  of  the  work, 
an  average  distance  of  1,400  ft.  from  the  dam  and  1,00  ft.  from 
the  general  fill  over  and  around  the  filters.  The  general  level  of 
the  floor  of  this  pit  was  somewhat  higher  than  that  of  the  fin- 
ished dam,  and  at  a  slight  expense  a  sidehill  road  was  constructed, 
which  permitted  a  practically  level  haul  to  this  point.  The 
steam  shovel  from  the  filter  excavation  was  installed  in  this  pit 
and  worked  under  much  more  favorable  conditions  than  it  had 
met  in  the  filter  excavation.  The  material  first  encountered  was 
of  a  compact,  rough  gravel,  but  this  soon  changed  to  a  sandy 
clay  which  was  used  throughout  the  upper  portion  of  the  dam, 
both  for  core  and  outer  fill.  The  cost  of  gravel  and  clay  excava- 
tion in  this  pit  and  teaming  to  the  fills  was  as  follows  for  16,296 
cu.  yds.: 

Foreman    $0.022 

Loading    teams    0.084 

Coal  and  oil   0.016 


Total  cost  of  loading  per  cu.  yd $0.10 

Moving  shovel  from  filters $0.004 

Repairs  on  shovel   0.082 


Total    $0.086 

Teaming  to  fills    0.21 

Constructing  roads  and  bridges 0.012 

General  expense,   12.9%    t . . .     0.055 


Grand  total  per  cu.  yd $0.485 

The  cost  of  loading  is  somewhat  misleading,  since  it  includes 
the  loading  by  hand  of  all  soil  stripping,  a  total  of  2,330  loads  out 
of  13,843  loads  taken  from  the  pit. 

Spreading  and  polling  the  Embankment.  After  the  area  to  be 
covered  by  the  dam  had  been  grubbed  and  stripped  of  soil,  and 
after  the  cut-off  wall  was  constructed,  material  from  the  borrow 
pit  was  dumped,  spread  by  hand  and  tamped  on  both  sides  of 
the  wall  until  its  level  reached  that  of  the  surrounding  ground. 
From  the  ground  level  the  fill  was  carried  upward  as  indicated  in 
Fig.  21,  material  from  the  filter  excavation  being  dumped  and 
spread  on  the  two  outside  thirds  and  that  of  the  clay  borrow  pit 
on  the  middle  third.  The  several  layers  were  so  deposited  that 
the  clay  and  gravel  lapped  each  other  alternately  at  their  joints, 
giving  a  dovetailed  bond  between  the  core  and  the  main  fill.  The 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS 

specifications  required  that  the  layers  should  be  carried  4  ins. 
thickness.  This  provision,  however,  was  not  rigidly  insisted 
upon,  the  usual  thickness  being  at  least  6  ins.,  and  at  times  even 
heavier  layers  were  permitted  if  in  the  judgment  of  the  engineer 
the  material  was  of  a  nature  to  admit  of  proper  consolidation  by 
rolling.'  This  feature  is  a  most  important  factor  in  reducing 
cost,  and  must,  therefore,  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
cost  figures  herein  given. 

For  a  while  the  spreading  was  accomplished  by  means  of  a  No. 
2  Climax  road  machine  drawn  by  two  horses.  The  teams  dumped 
the  material  in  rows  and  the  machine  following  level  the  rows  to 
the  required  thickness.  When  the  rough  material  was  encountered 
in  the  filter  excavation,  it  became  impracticable  to  use  the  grader, 
as  the  large  stones  were  so  numerous  that  the  machine  was  unable 
to  spread  the  piles  even  when  drawn  by  four  horses.  This  necessi- 
tated recourse  to  hand-leveling  and  the  use  of  a  stone  drag  and 
teams  to  remove  stones  larger  than  6  ins.  in  diameter  which  the 
specifications  directed  should  be  excluded  from  the  fill.  Small 
stones  from  6  to  12  ins.  in  size  were  thrown  down  the  slopes, 
those  on  the  upstream  side  remaining  there  and  constituting  part 
of  the  3-ft.  rock  fill  called  for  on  that  slope,  while  stones  thrown 
out  on  the  downstream  slope  were  collected  and-  teamed  to  the 
crusher  to  be  broken  for  use  in  concrete.  All  large  stones  were 
loaded  on  a  drag  and  rolled  into  the  rock  fill. 

The  specifications  provided  for  the  rolling  of  the  embankment 
with  a  grooved  roller  weighing  not  less  than  1%  tons  per  linear 
foot  of  roll.  This  provision,  of  course,  necessitated  the  use  of  a 
power  roller.  For  a  short  time  a  traction  engine  weighing  about 
10  tons  was  used  for  the  purpose  and  gave  excellent  results  so 
far  as  the  quality  of  rolling  was  concerned.  It  was  out  of  com- 
mission so  often,  however,  due  to  breakdowns  and  defects,  that  a 
new  •  Buffalo-Pitts  tandem  type  of  steam  roller  was  purchased 
and  its  two  rolls  equipped  with  heavy  steel  bands  to  give  them 
the  grooved  effect.  This  roller  was  rated  by  the  makers  at  8 
tons,  but  with  its  boiler  and  tank  filled  and  the  added  weight  of 
the  steel  bands  it  actually  weighed  12  tons.  This  total  weight 
of  the  roller  produced  the  necessary  load  specified  by  the  specifi- 
cations on  each  of  its  two  rolls,  consequently  every  layer  received 
two  rollings  every  time  the  roller  passed,  each  conforming  to  the 
specified  requirements. 

While  awaiting  the  arrival  of  this  roller,  a  horse  roller  weigh- 
ing 2y2  tons,  or  ys  ton  to  the  linear  foot  of  roll,  was  used  and 
was  drawn  by  four  horses.  This  roller  did  not,  of  course,  meet 
the  contract  requirements,  but  a  temporary  concession  was  made 
in  the  matter  by  the  engineer  during  this  interval.  This  same 
horse  roller  was  later  used  near  the  top  of  the  dam  during  a  short 


1190  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

interval  while  the  steam  roller  was  undergoing  repairs.  It  is 
estimated  that  from  8,000  to  10,000  cu.  yds.,  or  about  17%,  of 
this  embankment  was  rolled  with  this  horse  roller. 

Considerable  difficulty  was  encountered  in  rolling  the  clay  core 
after  a  rainstorm,  with  the  heavy  roller.  This  material  when 
once  wet  retained  the  moisture  for  a  long  period,  and  when  sat- 
urated assumed  a  jelly-like  consistency.  On  such  occasions,  lay- 
ers of  gravelly  material  were  spread  over  it  and  rolled  until  the 
clay  squeezed  up  through  it.  Sometimes  several  layers  of  gravel 
were  required  to  stiffen  the  clayey  material  sufficiently. 

As  a  general  thing,  the  teams  passed  over  the  dam  longitudi- 
nally with  their  loads,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  grooving 
action  of  the  wheels,  together  with  the  tamping  action  of  the 
horses'  hoofs,  was  of  great  assistance  in  consolidating  the  fill. 
Very  little  watering  was  required,  as  the  material  from  the  filter 
excavation  was  usually  moist  if  not  wet,  and  it  was  found  diffi- 
cult to  wet  the  clay  without  softening  it  too  much. 

Material  was  measured  in  excavation  and  embankment  and 
11,000  cu.  yds.  of  shrinkage  discovered.  Owing  to  different  classes 
of  fill  for  which  excavation  was  used,  it  was  not  possible  to  say 
how  much  of  the  total  shrinkage  was  due  to  the  compacting  of 
the  embankment;  however,  this  was  estimated  to  have  been  11%. 

The  cost  of  building  this  embankment,  after  delivering  the 
earth,  was  as  follows  for  52,233  cu.  yds.  in  place: 

Labor  and  teams  used  in  spreading  material  and  pick- 
ing  stones    $0.0435 

Labor  making  roads  and  bridges 0.001 

Miscellaneous    supplies    0.0005 


Total  for  spreading  in  layers $0.0450 

Operating  steam  roller „ 0.0098 

Coal,    oil,   etc 0.0055 

Depreciation   and  repairs  on   roller 0.017 

Teams   on  horse   roller 0.0076 

Total  cost  of  rolling  per  cu.  yd $0.0399 

Teams  watering   0.0008 

Foreman    0.0151 

General  expense,    12.9% 0.013 

Grand  total  per  cu.  yd $0.1138 

General  Fill.  The  work  embraced  under  this  item  included  the 
fills  around  and  over  the  filters,  the  grading  and  loaming  of  the 
same  and  all  other  fills  around  the  grounds  which  might  be  made 
under  the  direction  of  the  engineer. 

The  loam  originally  stripped  from  the  filter  site  was  the  only 
earth  rehandled  under  this  item,  representing  perhaps  1,000  cu. 
yds.  The  balance  of  loam  necessary  to  cover  the  various  fills  was 
paid  for  both  as  borrow  and  as  general  fill.  With  the  exception 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1191 

of  the  1,000  cu.  yds.  of  loam  mentioned,  the  expense  charged  to 
this  item  was  limited  to  that  of  dumping,  spreading  and  grad- 
ing material  hauled  from  the  excavations.  The  cost  of  22,520 
cu.  yds.  of  general  fill  was  as  follows: 

Labor  dumping,  spreading  and   grading $0.0618 

Teams  and  labor  rehandling  1,000  cu.  yds.  of  loam....     0.0147 
General   expense,    12.9% 0.01 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.087 

Comment  on  above  figures :  The  total  expense  of  rehandling 
1,000  cu.  yds.  of  loam  is  here  divided  into  the  entire  yardage  of 
the  item.  It  actually  cost  about  $0.33  per  cu.  yd.  of  loam  re- 
handled,  the  average  haul  being  about  500  ft.  each  way. 

Clearing.  Complete  data  on  the  cost  of  clearing  and  grubbing 
for  this  project  will  be  found  in  Gillette's  "  Clearing  and  Grub- 
bing." 

Steam  Shovels  and  Elevating  Graders  on  the  Belle  Fonrche 
Dam.  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Oct.  7,  1908,  gives  the  follow- 
ing unit  costs  for  part  of  the  work  on  the  Belle  Fourche  Dam  that 
was  built  under  contract.  This  dam  is  built  across  Owl  Creek 
about  10  miles  northeast  of  Belle  Fourche,  So.  Dak.  It  is  115  ft. 
high  and  6,200  ft.  along  the  top. 

The  contract  was  let  in  Nov.,  1905.  After  placing  about  one- 
third  of  the  fill,  the  contractor  made  an  assignment  and  the  work 
was  taken  over  by  the  government. 

Borings  and  test  pits  at  the  dam  site  show  that  the  material 
is  homogeneous  and  compact.  An  analysis  of  the  earth  to  be 
used  in  the  dam  was  made,  and  from  this  the  location  of  the 
borrow  pits  determined.  The  material  is  an  adobe  clay,  very 
sticky  and  boggy  when  saturated,  but  bakes  very  hard  when  dry, 
and  it  is  hard  to  plow.  There  are  occasional  layers  of  sand  and 
shale  and  scattering  cobble  stones.  The  clay  is  readily  compacted 
and  is  nearly  impervious  to  water. 

The  dam  is  built  in  6-in.  layers  and  all  stones  larger  than  6  ins. 
in  diameter  are  excluded.  Neither  a  core  or  puddle  wall  is  used 
in  the  embankment  or  dike.  There  are  1,580,000  cu.  yds.  in  the 
finished  embankment. 

Sprinkling.  The  fact  that  Owl  Creek  runs  dry  in  summer  made 
it  necessary  for  the  contractor  to  store  water  for  use  in  compact- 
ing the  earth.  A  reservoir  was  built,  at  his  own  expense,  at  each 
end  of  the  dam.  Into  these  reservoirs  water  was  pumped  from 
the  creek  during  the  rainy  period.  The  rate  of  evaporation  be- 
ing high,  much  more  water  than  actually  needed  for  compacting 
has  had  to  be  stored.  The  sprinkling  was  done  with  hose  con- 
nected on  the  elaborate  system  of  pipes,  laid  on  top  of  the  dam. 
When  there  was  water  in  the  creek  the  water  was  pumped  di- 


1192  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

rectly  into  the  system  of  pipes,  but  when  the  creek  was  dry  the 
reserved  supply  in  the  reservoirs  was  used.  Any  leaks  in  the  pipes 
caused  troublesome  bogs,  as  the  adobe  clay  absorbs  water  quickly. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  dry,  it  pulverized  easily,-  thus  causing 
great  clouds  of  dust  on  windy  days.  Although  the  work  was  not 
interfered  with  on  account  of  rain,  it  had  to  be  suspended  during 
these  wind  storms,  as  neither  man  nor  beast  could  stand  the  dust. 
This  dust  so  affects  horses  and  mules  employed  on  the  reclama- 
tion service  that  many  of  them  get  a  lung  trouble  from  which 
they  quickly  die.  The  aridity  increases  the  cost  of  sprinkling. 

Another  condition  that  affected  the  cost  of  the  work  was  that 
the  surface  water  was  so  bad  for  boilers  that  the  contractor  was 
compelled  to  put  down  two  artesian  wells,  each  1,430  ft.,  to 
supply  water  for  his  steam  shovels,  locomotives,  traction  engines, 
rollers,  etc.  For  about  four  months  in  the  year  the  work  on 
the  earthen  dikes  had  to  be  shut  down,  owing  to  the  cold  weather, 
as  the  material  would  freeze  in  the  embankment.  All  trench 
excavation,  excavation  for  structures,  for  stripping  borrow  and 
gravel  pits,  and  for  trimming  embankments,  were  paid  for  extra. 

Amount  of  Work.  The  costs  below  include  the  cost  of  the 
ivork  done  by  the  contractor  during  the  years  1906  and  1907,  a 
total  of  504,000  cu.  yds.  Two  methods  were  used  in  this  work; 
one  being  steam  shovels  and  trains,  moving  305,000  cu.  yds.; 
while  the  other  was  by  elevating  graders  and  wagons,  excavating 
199,000  cu.  yds.  In  1906  one  steam  shovel  was  used,  while  in 
1907  two  shovels  were  worked. 

Cost  of  Outfit.  The  outfit  and  the  value  of  it  used  on  the  work 
was  as  follows: 

2  (75-ton)    Vulcan   steam   shovels    $22,000 

6  (18-ton)   Davenport  dinkeys,   at  $3,100   18,600 

40  Western  4-yd.  dump  cars,   at  $230    9,200 

2  Standard  Western  graders,  at  $1,200   2,400 

4  (32-hp.  21-ton  traction   engines,   at  $3,500   14,000 

1  (12-ton)   Kelly  Springfield  roller   2,500 

4  Miles  of  track  complete   16,000 

2  (6-horse)   road  machines,    $225    450 

24  (IMryd.)   Aurora  wagons,   $120 2,880 

15  Buck  scrapers,    $17.50    263 

Pumps,    pipe,    camp,    miscellaneous   tools,    etc.    (est.)..  11,707 


Total   plant $100,000 

This  is  the  plant  that  was  on  the  work  at  the  end  of  1907,  but 
not  much  more  than  half  of  it  was  on  the  work  during  1906; 
hence,  if  we  figure  interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  at  '2r/f  per 
month,  we  have  $12,000  for  1906  and  $24,000  for  1907,  or  a  total 
of  $36,000  for  the  two  years. 

Steam  Shovel  Work.  The  method  of  carrying  on  the  steam 
shovel  work  was  as  follows:  Two  75-ton  Vulcan  steam  shovels 
equipped  with  2y2-yd.  dippers  loaded  dirt  into  4-yd.  Western 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1103 

dump  cars.  A  train  of  10  ears  were  pulled  on  3-ft.  gage  tracks 
by  18-ton  Davenport  dinkeys.  Two  dinkeys  pulled  the  trains  for 
each  shovel  and  an  extra  dinkey  spotted  cars.  The  cars  hauled 
3.1  cu.  yds.  place  measurement,  as  determined  by  100,000  loads. 
During  1906,  the  material  was  hauled  an  average  distance  of  1 
mile  against  a  2%  grade,  while  in  1907  the  1-mile  haul  was  all 
down  grade,  the  maximum  grade  being  4%. 

Spreading.  The  tracks  on  the  embankments  were  so  arranged 
that  earth  was  spread  50  ft.  each  way  from  the  track.  The  layers 
were  made  6  ins.  deep.  As  the  dumping  of  the  whole  train  of  10 
cars  at  one  time  would  result  in  the  earth  blocking  the  move- 
ment of  the  cars,  only  alternate  cars  were  dumped,  and  then  the 
train  was  pulled  ahead  a  train  length  and  the  other  five  cars 
dumped.  As  the  cars  when  coupled  measured  13  ft.,  center  to 
center,  this  meant  a  pile  of  earth  containing  3.1  cu.  yds.  every 
26  ft.  Each  pile  spread  made  about  138  sq.  ft.  of  embankment 
6  ins.  thick.  The  idea  of  dumping  alternate  cars  is  excellent  on 
embankments  of  this  character,  or  even  in  widening  railroad  em- 
bankments, as  it  makes  the  spreading  of  the  material  easier. 

At  first  the  attempt  was  made  to  spread  these  piles  of  earth 
with  a  Western  Embankment  Spreader,  but  the  dinkeys  were  not 
powerful  enough  to  handle  the  spreader  against  the  piles  of 
earth.  This  spreader  will  spread  the  earth  about  7  ft.  from  the 
rail,  so,  if  it  had  worked  successfully,  the  area  it  could  cover 
would  have  been  enough  to  spread  out  the  pile  of  earth  to  a 
thickness  of  6  ins. 

Six-horse  road  machines  were  then  tried,  but  they,  too,  proved 
a  failure  when  used  alone.  The  reason  for  this  was  that  the  ma- 
terial when  excavated  by  the  steam  shovel  came  out  at  times  in 
large  clods  or  lumps,  and  these  lumps  tossed  the  machine  around 
as  the  waves  of  the  sea  would  toss  a  small  boat.  Recourse  was 
then  had  to  buck  scrapers  to  do  the  preliminary  spreading.  These 
pulled  by  horses  spread  the  earth  out  roughly  for  a  distance  of 
50  ft.  on  each  side  of  the  track,  the  road  machine  finishing  off  the 
layers.  Three  layers  were  thus  spread  before  the  track  was 
shifted  into  a  new  position,  10  ft.  from  its  old  place. 

The  sprinkling  was  done  from  the  system  of  pipes  run  over  the 
reservoir  dike. 

The  rolling  was  done  by  a  32-hp.,  21-ton  traction  engine  and  a 
12-ton  Kelly  Springfield  road  roller.  The  great  weight  of  the 
engine  no  doubt  was  an  assistance  in  compacting,  but  unless  the 
tread  of  the  driving  wheels  of  the  engine  were  wider  than  the 
standard,  the  area  compacted  by  one  trip  of  the  engine  could 
not  compare  to  that  of  the  roller.  This  would  increase  the  cost 
of  the  rolling  over  using  a  roller  of  the  same  weight. 

Wages.     A  10-hr,  day  was  worked  by  the  contractor,  and,  owing 


1194  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

to  the  great  amount  of  construction  work  going  on  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  at  that  time,  the  labor  was  very  indifferent.  The 
shovel  men  and  train  crews  were  paid  standard  wages,  while  the 
laborers  were  paid  at  the  rate  of  $2.25  to  $2.50  per  day.  Horses 
were  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  $1.15  per  day.  This  cost  covers  the 
care  and  feed  of  the  horse,  likewise  the  interest  and  depreciation 
on  the  animal,  and  explains  why  horses  are  not  listed  under  the 
head  of  outfit.  Coal  cost  delivered  on  the  work  $10.50  per  ton, 
40%  dynamite  by  the  car  load,  12%  cts.,  and  black  blasting  pow- 
der $1.20  per  keg. 

Cost  of  Work.  The  cost  of  the  work,  consisting  of  the  total 
pay  rolls,  the  cost  of  supplies  and  estimated  interest,  depreciation 
and  repairs,  was  as  follows: 

Labor     . .  fc $71,163.44 

Supplies     22,827.08 

Interest,   depreciation  and  repairs   (estimated) 30,000.00 


Total    $123,990.52 

This  cost  includes  superintendence,  camp  expense,  general  ex- 
pense, and,  in  fact,  all  direct  and  indirect  cost  of  doing  the  work. 
The  overhead  charges  were  about  10%  of  the  total  cost.  This  cost 
is  distributed  over  the  unit  costs  given  below. 

The  steam  shovels  excavated  per  day  an  average  of  951  cu.  yds., 
which  is  an  excellent  record  to  maintain  for  so  long  a  period. 
The  cost  of  supplying  the  water  for  engines  and  sprinkling  has 
been  included  in  the  items  given  and  in  the  unit  costs  given  below, 
has  been  properly  distributed.  The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  was  as 
follows : 

Excavation : 

Labor    $0.047 

Supplies 0.027 

Total  excavation  0.074 

Hauling: 

Labor  on  train   $0.037 

Labor   on   track    0.012 

Supplies     0.035 

Total    hauling $0.084 

Spreading: 
Labor $0.118 

Rolling: 

Labor     $0.006 

Supplies     0.007 

Total    spreading    0.013 

Sprinkling : 

Labor    $0.014 

Supplies     0.004 


Total  sprinkling    $0.018 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1195 

Plant: 
Interest,  depreciation  and  repairs   (estimated) $0.098 

Grand  total   $0.405 

Spreading  Earth.  This  is  a  high  cost  for  earth  excavation  of 
this  class,  even  under  the  adverse  conditions  under  which  the  work 
has  been  done.  This  cost  is  among  the  highest  for  earthen  em- 
bankments for  reservoirs  so  far  built  by  the  Reclamation  service. 
The  high  price  of  coal  has  added  to  the  cost  of  loading,  hauling, 
and  compacting,  but  a  glance  at  the  unit  cost  shows  that  the 
spreading  of  the  earth  on  the  embankment  was  too  costly.  One 
of  the  high  officials  of  the  Reclamation  Service  stated  that  the 
contractors  on  this  work  lost  money,  having  been  hampered  by  a 
shortage  of  funds  and  inefficient  superintendents.  The  contract 
price  for  the  embankment  was  28  cts.  per  cu.  yd.  so  about  12  cts. 
per  cu.  yd.  was  lost  on  this  part  of  the  work.  The. spreading  cost 
about  12  cts.  It  should  have  been  evident  to  any  one  that  such  a 
cost  was  ruinous,  as  this  work  on  reservoir  construction  seldom 
costs  more  than  2  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

On  the  upper  Deer  Flat  embankment,  on  the  Payette-Boise 
project,  an  embankment  of  about  1,000,000  cu.  yds.  was  built  with 
cars  and  steam  shovels  and  the  cost  was  less  than  2  cts.  per  yd. 
for  spreading.  Here  the  track  was  moved  away  from  the  earth, 
after  the  'cars  were  dumped,  with  teams  of  heavy  horses,  when 
road  machines  did  the  spreading,  two  machines  spreading  about 
300  cu.  yds.  per  hour.  The  track  lies  flat  on  the  ground,  and  is 
well  spiked  to  6x8  ties.  It  stands  the  rough  usage  very  well. 
The  total  cost  for  this  spreading  work  up  to  1908  was  1.9  cts. 
per  cu.  yd.,  although  in  some  months  the  cost  had  been  as  low 
as  1.4  cts. 

It  is  true  that  at  the  Upper  Deer  Flat  embankment  the  earth 
was  free  from  large  clods,  but  even  if  the  clods  that  hampered 
the  work  at  Belle  Fourche  had  been  broken  up  by  men  with 
sledges  or  mauls,  so  as  to  make  it  possible  for  the  road  machines 
to  do  the  spreading,  the  extra  cost  for  breaking  the  clods  would 
not  have  amounted  to  more  than  a  cent  or  two  per  cu.  yd.,  and 
it  would  have  been  less  than  that  had  they  used  a  spiked  disc 
harrow. 

Elevating  Grader  Work  and  Hauling.  Two  Western  Standard 
elevating  graders  were  used  on  the  work,  propelled  either  by  16 
horses  or  21 -ton  traction  engines.  As  a  rule  the  engine  is  the 
cheaper  method.  These  graders  loaded  Aurora  dump  wagons, 
having  a  capacity  of  iya  cu.  yds.  The  load,  place  measurement, 
actually  carried  was  11  cu.  yds.,  as  derived  from  a  record  of 
100,000  loads.  Three  horses  were  used  on  these  wagons,  24 
wagons  being  used  to  serve  the  two  graders,  the  average  haul 


1196  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

being  about  1,300  ft.  The  use  of  three  horses  to  a  wagon  is  to 
be  commended.  The  extra  cost  is  entirely  in  the  horse,  which  in 
this  case  amounted  to  $1.15  per  day,  and  the  larger  load  carried 
with  the  other  expenses  of  the  work  fixed,  means  that  the  extra 
cost  of  the  horse  is  soon  paid.  With  only  2  horses,  either  the 
load  would  not  have  been  as  large,  the  number  of  trips  would 
have  been  reduced,  or  smaller  and  less  loads  would  have  been 
hauled.  As  it  was,  each  wagon  averaged  about  42  trips  per  day, 
traveling  a  distance  over  the  lead  of  about  10  miles.  Considering 
the  distance  covered  in  following  the  grader  and  in  turning,  no 
doubt  the  total  distance  traveled  per  day  would  equal  15  miles. 

The  elevating  grader,  to  a  great  extent,  pulverizes  the  earth  as 
it  excavates  it,  hence  in  spreading  no  trouble  was  experienced 
with  clods  or  lumps.  This  allowed  the  road  machine  to  do  the 
spreading  without  assistance,  which  confirms  our  statement  that 
some  form  of -clod  breaker  would  have  easily  solved  the  problem 
of  disposing  of  the  clods  that  came  from  the  steam  shovel  work. 
The  sprinkling  and  rolling  was  done  as  described  under  steam 
shovel  work. 

The  wages  paid  for  men  and  horses  are  given  above,  also  the 
cost  of  coal  and  other  supplies. 

The  Cost  of  Grader  Work.  The  total  cost  of  the  elevating 
grader  work  was: 

Labor     $41,530.92 

Supplies    4,468,24 

Interest,  depreciation  and  repairs    (estimated) 6,000.00 


Total     $51,999.12 

This  includes  all  costs,  direct  and  indirect.  ,The  superintend- 
ence and  overhead  charges  were  about  12%  of  the  total.  Each 
grader  loaded  556  cu.  yds.  per  day.  The  road  machine  spread 
about  150  cu.  yds.  per  hour. 

The  cost  per  cu.  yd.  of  the  grader  work  was  as  follows: 

Excavating: 

Labor    $0.047 

Supplies     .     0.012 


Total    excavating    $0.059 

Hauling : 
Labor    $0.126 

Spreading : 
Labor $0.016 

Rolling : 

Labor    $0.008 

Supplies     .     0.008 


Total  rolling ,  , ,  .  , $0.016 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1197 

Sprinkling: 

Labor $0.011 

Supplies 0.003 

Total  sprinkling $0.014 

Plant: 
Interest,   depreciation  and  repairs    (estimated) $0.030 

Grand    total    .;....... $0.261 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  spreading  in  this  case  cost  1.6  cts. 
The  wagons  deposited  the  loads  9  ft.  apart  in  windrows  7  ft. 
apart,  and  the  road  machine  spread  it  from  these  piles.  This  is 
real  spreading,  while  in  the  case  of  the  steam  shovels  the  "  spread- 
ing "  consisted  first  of  rehandling  and  then  spreading.  It  is 
possible  to  spread  earth  very  evenly  with  buck  or  Fresno  scrapers, 
so  that  no  other  work  on  it  is  necessary. 

The  Cold  Springs  Earth  Dam,  Oregon.  D.  C.  Henry  in  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  May  24,  1911,  gives  the  following: 

The  Cold  Spring  Dam  is  part  of  the  works  of  the  Umatilla 
project  of  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service.  The  principal 
dimensions  of  the  dam  are: 

Greatest  height  above  bottom  of  creek  channel,  ft 99 

Height   above  valley  bottom,    ft 88 

Width  of  valley  on  center  line  of  dam,  ft 400 

Length  of  crest  of  dam,  ft 3,800 

Top    width,    ft ' 20 

Length  of  spillway,   ft 330 

Up-stream   slope    3:1 

Down-stream   slope    j. 2:1 

Total  volume  of  dam,   cu.  yds 673,200 

Available  Material  for  Dam  Construction.  There  were  available 
within  reasonable  distance,  the  following  classes  of  material: 
( 1 )  Basaltic  rock,  hard  and  sound,  readily  blasted,  and  quite  suit- 
able for  rip-rap;  (2)  gravel  in  deep  hillside  deposits  on  the  north 
side  of  the  canyon,  %  mile  below  the  dam;  (3)  fine  sandy  loam, 
most  readily  available  in  any  direction,  for  use  in  the  embank- 
ment; (4)  pure  volcanic  ash,  in  occasional  strata  and  in  small 
quantities;  (5)  indurated  clay  deposits,  principally  at  the  north 
end  of  the  dam,  and  limited  in  area;  (6)  sand  and  gravel  in 
deeper  strata  underlying  the  surface  soil,  and  to  some  extent  in- 
durated. 

The  first  three  were  the  only  materials  that  could  be  obtained 
in  large  quantities  without  extensive  stripping.  After  study  and 
experimentation  with  these  materials,  gravel  was  selected.  Sta- 
bility was  secured  by  the  use  of  gravel  throughout  the  entire 
section  of  the  dam;  water  tightness  by  an  admixture  of  fine  sub- 
soil in  the  upstream  portion;  and  perfect  drainage  by  the  use  of 
d  gravel  in  the  downstream  portion. 


1198  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  cut-off  trench  across  the  bottom  of  the  canyon  is  2  ft.  deep 
and  30  ft.  wide  at  its  connection  with  bed  rock.  It  reduces  in 
depth  and  width  up  the  hillsides  until  it  is  6  ft.  deep  and  has  a 
bottom  width  of  10  ft.  at  the  ends  of  the  dam.  To  retard  the 
flow  along  the  plane  of  contact  with  bed  rock  a  thin  cut-oil  wall, 
7  ft.  high,  was  constructed  on  the  center  line  of  the  trench,  across 
the  canyon,  reducing  in  height  up  the  side  hill.  Five  addi- 
tional walls  were  built  on  the  north  hillside  where  the  rock  was 
exposed. 

Provision  was  made  for  drainage  by  a  gravel-filled  trench 
along  the  entire  downstream  toe  of  the  dam  with  tile  drain,  and  a 
network  of  additional  trenches  under  the  high  portion  of  the 
dam,  consisting  of  a  parallel  trench  120  ft.  up  stream  from  the 
water  toe,  with  cross  trenches  every  100  ft. 

Method  of  Construction.  The  design  called  for  the  handling  of 
approximately  490,000  cu.  yds.  of  gravel  from  the  gravel  pit  in 
the  north  canyon  side,  about  y2  mile  below  the  dam,  for  the  ex- 
cavation of  191,000  cu.  yds.  of  loam  or  subsoil,  to  be  obtained 
mostly  from  the  slopes  within  the  reservoir,  and  for  about  36,000 
cu.  yds.  of  rock  pitching,  to  be  placed  on  both  slopes. 

The  gravel  was  excavated  with  a  70-ton,  Model  No.  60,  Marion 
steam  shovel,  with  2%  cu.  yd.  bucket.  The  rolling  stock  con- 
sisted of  fifty  4-yd.  side-dump  cars  and  five  16-ton  American  loco- 
motives running  on  a  3-ft.  gage  track  of  35-lb.  rails.  The  aver- 
age distance  of  gravel  haul  was  2^4  miles  and  the  maximum  grade 
was  1%%.  The  gravel  in  the  pit  rose  to  from  30  to  60  ft.  above 
the  shovel  and  was  in  places  overlain  with  considerable  soil,  ren- 
dering it  necessary  to  watch  the  proportions  of  soil  and  gravel  as 
they  came  on  the  cars  to  the  dump. 

The  shovel  was  served  by  four  gravel  trains  6f  from  9  to  12 
cars  each,  which  handled  on  an  average,  including  moving  and 
delays,  about  1,600  cu.  yds.  per  shift  of  8  hours,  the  output  per 
shift  occasionally  exceeding  2,200  cu.  yds.  The  total  rise  from 
the  steam  shovel  to  the  top  of  the  dumping  trestle  was  65  ft., 
and  the  coal  consumption  per  locomotive,  for  1,149  shifts  of  8 
hours,  averaged  2,400  Ibs.,  coal  being  obtained  from  the  Kem- 
merer  mines  in  Wyoming. 

The  gravel  was  delivered  on  the  dam  by  dumping  from  a  trestle, 
65  ft.  high,  built  across  the  canyon,  with  its  center  line  about  60 
ft.  down  stream  from  and  nearly  parallel  to  the  center  line  of  the 
dam.  The  entire  trestle  came  within  the  100%  of  the  gravel 
section,  and  the  posts  were  left  buried  in  the  gravel,  but  all  brac- 
ing was  removed  as  the  work  progressed. 

The  fine  subsoil  or  loam  was  obtained  from  various  sources  as 
follows : 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1199 

From  surface  layers  overlying  the  gravel  in  the 

gravel  pit  100,000 

From  borrow-pits  on  the  side-hill,  up  stream  from  the 

dam  108,600 

From  the   feed   canal   and   trenches 40,700 

From  the   spillway   channel 17,700 

Tota     cu.   yds 267,000 

The  loam  from  the  gravel  pit  was  handled  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  gravel.  The  loam  from  the  borrow  pits  was  handled  by 
wheel  scrapers  up  to  distances  of  500  ft.  (22,300  cu.  yds.),  and  by 
dump  wagons  loaded  by  an  orange-peel  excavator  for  greater  dis- 
tances up  to  2,000  ft.  (86,300  cu.  yds.).  The  loam  from  other 
sources  was  moved  by  scrapers,  only  that  portion  excavated  from 
trenches,  etc.,  being  used  which  was  found  suitable,  the  remain- 
der being  wasted. 

Spreading  and  Rolling.  The  loam  was  delivered  first,  in  its 
proper  proportions,  and  spread  by  a  road  scraper,  after  which 
gravel  was  spread  over  it,  being  scraped  by  Fresno  scrapers  from 
the  foot  of  the  gravel  dump  near  the  trestle.  The  materials  were 
mixed  at  first  with  disk  harrows  and  subsequently  with  culti- 
vators, the  points  of  which  scraped  over  and  into  the  top  of  the 
previously  mixed  and  rolled  layer,  after  which  the  material  was 
watered  and  rolled,  producing  a  final  layer  of  from  4  to  5  ins. 
compacted  into  a  hard  mass  which  required  picking  to  excavate. 
Constant  watch  was  kept  of  the  thoroughness  of  the  mixing 
process  by  excavating  test  pits.  It  was  found  impossible  to 
secure  complete  mixing  at  all  times.  Unmixed  gravel  was  no- 
where found,  but  in  some  places  fine  streaks  of  loam  had  been 
left  unmixed  with  gravel,  in  spite  of  every  effort  to  avoid  it. 

The  gravel  in  the  100%  gravel  section  was  not  rolled  to  a  large 
extent  and  was  not  watered.  When  the  gravel  dump  had  reached 
the  height  of  the  trestle,  the  track  was  raised  by  grading  up  until 
the  full  height  of  the  dam  was  attained. 

Riprap.  The  rock  for  slope  pitching  was  obtained  from  the 
rocky  basalt  bluff  on  the  north  side  of  the  canyon,  a  short  dis- 
tance below  the  dam.  It  broke  up  in  fragments  from  1  cu.  ft.  in 
volume  down.  A  part  of  it  was  loaded  by  an  orange-peel  exca- 
vator, but  most  was  handled  from  wheelbarrows  into  dump  cars. 
It  was  hauled  by  rail,  dumped  on  the  slopes  from  the  dump  cars 
and  sloped  by  hand.  The  total  required  was  36,000  cu  yds.  The 
construction  of  the  auxiliary  structures  contained  no  elements  of 
special  interest. 

The  work  on  the  installation  of  the  plant  was  commenced  in 
December,  1906.  The  first  gravel  was  dumped  in  May,  1907,  and 
the  dam  was  completed  on  January  1,  1908. 

Shrinkage.     The  design  of  the  dam  calls  roughly  for  one-third 


1200  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  the  mass  100%  gravel,  one-third  50%  gravel,  and  the  remaining 
third  67,  75  and  80%  gravel.  Laboratory  tests  indicated  a 
shrinkage  of  about  10%  for  the  various  mixtures,  and  from  this 
it  was  figured  that  there  would  be  required  400,000  cu.  yds.  of 
gravel  and  191,000  cu.  yds.  of  loam,  or  a  total  of  681,000  cu.  yds., 
to  make  the  637,000  cu.  yds.  of  compacted  dam. 

The  actual  quantity  of  gravel  excavated  corresponds  closely  to 
the  estimate,  but  the  quantity  of  soil  handled  was  76,000  cu.  yds. 
in  excess  of  that  figured.  This  large  excess  must  be  principally 
attributed  to  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  soil  and  gravel  apart  in 
the  gravel  pit,  and  may  be  partly  due  to  the  occurrence  of  vol- 
canic ash  or  dust  in  the  delivered  soil,  which  may  not  have  as- 
sisted in  swelling  the  quantities.  The  proportion  of  loam  in  the 
gravel,  where  it  came  unavoidably  mixed  with  gravel  from  the 
gravel  pit,  may  have  been  underestimated,  and  it  is  quite  probable 
that  much  of  the  gravel,  which  from  all  appearances  contained  no 
soil,  may  have  held  proportions  of  from  ,:>  to  10%.  While  the 
excess  soil  has  added  to  the  cost,  it  can  hardly  be  deemed  injuri- 
ous as  regards  the  drainage  qualities  of  the  gravel  or  its  stability, 
and  it  has  also  added  to  its  mass  weight. 

Cost.  The  total  cost  of  the  dam,  arranged  by  its  principal 
features,  is  shown  in  the  following  tabulation: 

Main   dam    , $364,140 

Auxiliary  structures: 

Inlet  works    16,140 

Outlet   Avorks    19,710 

Spillway     35,010 

$  70,860 
Preliminary   engineering: 5,000 

Total,  49,000  acre-ft.,   at  $8.98  per  acre-ft $440,000 

General  administration,  engineering  and  supervision,  other  than 
preliminary  engineering,  are  included  in  the  above  figures. 

The  principal  details  of  the  cost  of  the  main  dam  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Embankment    (yardage    on    basis    of    excavation    measurement): 
Material  from  gravel  pit:     Gravel,   490,000  cu.  yds.; 
earth,  100,000  cu.  yds.;  total,  590,000  cu.  yds.,  at 
$0.385 $227,020 

Material   from   borrow-pits,    spillway    and   trenches: 
Earth,   86,300  cu.  yds.,    orange-peel  excavator,   36.1 

cts 31.120 

80,700  cu.  yds.   wheel  scraper  at  19.4  cts 15,630 

Rip-rap  — 

From  quarry,  32,500  cu.  yds.  at  $1.46 47,480 

From  trenches,  3,400  cu.  yds.  (charged  to  exca\ation). 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1201 


Excavation  — 


A 

terest 


Earth    from    trenches,    spillway,    etc.,    temporarily    or 

permanently  wasted,  34,400  cu.  yds.  at  $0.293 10,060 

Hardpan  or  loose  rock,  6,600  cu.  yds    at  $137 9020 

Solid  rock,   4,000  cu.  yds.  at  $2.84 11,340 

Concrete  cut-off  walls,  327  cu.  yds.  at  $13.79 4,510 

Drainage,  including  all  work  to  July  1,  1910 7,960 

Total     $364,140 

further  analysis  of  the  two  principal  items  may  be  of  in- 

h« 


Embankment:    Material  from  gravel  pit,   590,000   cu.  yds. 

Steam-shovel    excavation:    Rail    haul,    average    distance    2^4 

miles,   average  rise  65  ft. 

Cts.   per   cubic   yard,   measured  in   excavation: 
Steam    shovel    3.6 

Transportation: 

Railroad    operation     5.5 

Track    maintenance    1.7 

Total    7.2 

Work  on   dam: 

Scraping,   spreading  and  mixing   8.2 

Sprinkling     •. 0.2 

Rolling 0.5 

Water   supply    0.7 

Total     9.6 

Plant    depreciation    10.4 

Plant  maintenance    0.4 

Total     10.8 

General    supplies    1.8 

Camp   shops,    warehouses    1.2 

Cleaning  up,  transfer  of  plant   0.6 

Engineering,    administration   and   general  expenses 3.7 

Grand  total,   cts.   per   cu.   yd 38.5 

Embankment:     Material  from  borrow-pits,   86,300  cu.  yds.   orange-peel  exca- 
vator,   wagon   haul,   500  to  2,000  ft. 

Cts.  per  cubic  yard,  measured  in  excavation: 

Excavation     13.1 

Wagon   haul    6.9 

Sprinkling    0.4 

Rolling    0.7 

Water    supply    ' 0.8 

Plant    depreciation    8.5 

Plant  maintenance   0.4 

Total    8.9 

General    supplies    1.1 

Camp,  shoj>s  and  warehouses  1.2 

Cleaning  up,   transfer  of  plant 0.5 

Engineering,  administration  and  general  expenses 2.5 

Grand  total,   cts.  per  cu.  yd 36.1 


1202  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  cost  of  gravel  and  earth  for  the  main  embankment,  based 
on  bank  measurement,  is  higher  than  the  foregoing  figures  indi- 
cate, by  reason  of  heavy  shrinkage,  and  is  shown  as  follows: 

Material  from  gravel  pit,  590,000  cu.  yds.  at  38.5  cts.. .  $227,020 
Material    from    borrow-pits,    etc.,    167,000    cu.    yds.    at 

28.0    cts.     46,750 

Total,   757,000  cu.  yds.   at  36.2  cts $273,770 

Embankment  measurement,  637,000  cu.  yds.  at  43.0  cts. 

The  prices  paid  for,  labor  per  8-hr,  day  and  fuel  were  as  fol- 
lows 

Common  labor    $1.60  to  $2.40 

Teamsters    2.40  to  2.60 

Teamsters,   with  team 4.50 

Steam-shovel  engine  men 6.20 

Cranesmen 4.00 

Locomotive  engine  men   3.60 

Carpenters $3.60  to  4.00 

Coal,  per  ton,   on  work  ...... 8.63 

Construction  of  the  Kachess  Lake  Dam.  Engineering  News, 
May  15,  1913,  describes  the  construction  of  an  earth  dam  65  ft. 
high  and  1,400*  ft.  long,  built  across  the  Kachess  River  in  Wash- 
ington by  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service.  The  dam  has 
a  top  width  of  20  ft.  The  upstream  slope  is  3  to  1,  the  down- 
stream slope  2  to  1.  To  prevent  percolation  a  wide  cut-off  trench 
about  20  ft.  deep  was  excavated  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the 
dam  and  from  20  to  60  ft.  upstream  from  the  center  line.  In 
the  bottom  of  this  trench  a  narrower  trench  was  excavated  to  a 
depth  of  from  35  to  75  ft.  below  the  original  ground  surface  and 
in  it  a  concrete  core-wall,  2  ft.  thick,  was  built,  extending  up  to 
the  original  surface  of  the  ground.  See  Fig.  22.  , 

Cutoff  Trench.  The  wide  cutoff  trench  was  excavated  with 
teams  and  the  drag-line  excavator.  The  portion  west  of  dam 
conduit  was  done  wholly  with  teams  and  was  pushed  to  permit 
the  starting  of  the  core-wall  trench.  The  higher  portion  of  the 
trench,  east  of  the  dam  conduit,  was  done  by  teams.  When  water 
was  encountered  it  was  left  for  the  excavator.  The  drag-line 
excavator  deposited  the  material  at  the  upstream  toe  of  the  dam, 
making  an  excellent  footing  for  the  riprap,  also  disposing  of  the 
material  with  one  handling. 

Deep  Core-Wall  Trench. — The  excavation  of  the  core-wall  trench 
was  commenced  early  in  July,  1911,  west  of  the  dam  conduit. 
The  upper  few  feet  were  shoveled  into  wheelbarrows  and  wasted. 
Shafts  were  excavated  ahead  of  adjacent  portions  of  the  trench, 
then  the  excavation  was  carried  in  horizontal  benches  about  7  ft. 
high.  One  or  two  men  worked  on  each  bench,  loading  the  material 
into  wheelbarrows,  wheeling  it  along  the  bench  to  the  side  of  the 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1203 

shaft  and  dumping  it  into  a  vertical  chute  that  carried  the  mate- 
rial to  a  wood  bucket  of  %  cu.  yd.  capacity,  heavily  ironed  and 
operated  from  the  head  frame.  When  filled,  the  bucket  was 
hoisted  to  the  head  block,  where  a  simple  device  dumped  the 
muck  into  a  1%-cu.  yd.  car,  in  which  it  was  hauled  by  one  horse 
to  waste  dump.  A  double  drum  hoist  was  used  which  enabled 
two  shafts  to  be  worked  by  one  hoisting  engineer.  This  method 
allowed  a  number  of  men,  working  at  different  levels,  on  plat- 
forms laid  on  trench  bracing,  to  work  from  each  shaft. 

It  was  intended  to  carry  this  trench  to  bed  rock  but  the  entire 
excavation  was  in  such  uniformly  good  material  that  it  was  con- 
sidered unnecessary  to  go  so  deep.  The  maximum  depth  reached 
was  near  the  westerly  end  which  was  carried  to  75  ft.  below  the 
original  ground  surface.  The  material  stood  so  well  that  gen- 
erally the  excavation  could  be  carried  about  10  ft.  without  sheet- 
ing. 

As  the  core-wall  was  to  be  only  2  ft.  thick,  and  it  was  difficult 
to  carry  the  excavation  narrower  than  4  ft.,  the  downstream  side 
was  carried  true  to  line,  so  that  the  sheeting  on  that  side  could 
remain,  and  also  to  give  room  to  remove  the  forms  from  the 
upstream  side. 

Material  for  the  embankment  was  taken  from  a  borrowpit 
1,000  ft.  from  the  east  end  of  the  dam. 

A  second  borrowpit  for  loose  material  was  opened  2,500  ft. 
from  the  east  end  of  the  dam. 

Trestle.  It  was  decided  to  depend  on  rolling  to  consolidate  the 
dam,  carrying  material  from  the  borrowpit  in  cars.  A  trestle  800 
ft.  long,  of  which  300  ft.  averaged  60  ft.  high,  was  built  of  sound 
timber  saved  from  the  clearing.  Sawed  timber  was  used  for  caps 
and  stringers  to  save  time  of  erection.  The  bents  were  20  ft. 
apart,  three  posts  to  a  bent.  The  trestle  was  located  practically 
on  the  center  line  of  the  dam,  with  the  base  of  rail  at  the  "pro- 
posed crest.  It  was  double  tracked  with  30-lb.  steel  rails,  24-in. 
gage.  A  double  track  was  laid  to  the  borrow  pit  for  tight  mate- 
rial and  a  single  track,  with  sufficient  turnouts,  to  the  borrowpit 
for  loose  material.  From  the  west  end  of  trestle  a  single  track 
was  extended  about  300  ft.  on  a  road-bed  made  with  teams  and 
beyond  this  point  the  material  was  hauled  by  teams. 

Steam  Shovel  Work.  While  the  trestle  was  being  constructed, 
the  borrowpits  prepared  and  track  laid,  the  cutoff  and  conduit 
trenches  were  backfilled.  The  hai  i  work  of  filling  in  cramped 
quarters  had  been  done  the  previous  season.  The  steam  shovel 
was  moved  to  a  25-ft.  bank  of  fine  material  just  east  of  the  outlet 
of  the  small  conduit.  Temporary  tracks  were  laid  and  the  filling 
was  done  by  loading  iy2-cu.  yd.  cars  with  steam  shovels  and 
hauling  them  by  teams,  The  trenches  contained  some  water. 


1204  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  material  was  dumped,  then  worked  into  the  water  and  pud- 
dled. When  the  fill  got  sufficiently  dry  to  permit  of  using  teams, 
the  spreading  was  done  with  slips  and  fresnos. 

About  May  1  the  trestle  was  ready  for  use,  the  shovel  was 
moved  to  the  borrowpit  east  of  the  dam  and  the  construction  of 
the  embankment  proper  commenced.  The  pit  had  previously 
been  cleared  and  some  blasting  done.  The  material  from  this  pit 
was  loaded  into  trains  of  15  1%-cu.  yd.  side-dump  cars,  hauled  by 
9-ton  steam  locomotives.  It  was  dumped  from  the  upstream  side 
of  the  trestle,  falling  to  the  ground  below.  At  first  the  material 
fell  inside  the  outer  posts,  but  the  addition  of  a  deflecting  apron 
7  ft.  long,  covered  with  sheet  iron,  caused  it  to  fall  just  outside 
the  posts. 

Spreading  and  Rolling.  Spreading  was  done  with  fresnos  of 
four-horse  size,  but  usually  drawn  by  three  large  horses  or  mules. 
It  was  found  after  the  work  became  systematized  that  one  fresno 
would  distribute  about  115  cu.  yd.  of  the  tight  material  in  eight 
hours.  The  gravel  or  loose  material  was  loaded  by  the  drag-line 
excavator  into  a  specially  constructed  hopper,  of  40-cu.  yd.  ca- 
pacity, mounted  on  skids  for  moving  and  fitted  with  two  chutes 
and  controlling  gates,  which  enabled  two  cars  to  be  loaded  at  a 
time.  It  was  hauled  in  trains  of  twelve  cars,  dumped  from  the 
downstream  side  of  the  trestle  and  spread  with  four-horse  fresnos. 
One  fresno  world  spread  from  150  to  175  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  in  eight 
hours,  the  haul  being  much  shorter  than  for  the  tight  material 
and  the  gravel  more  easily  loaded. 

On  account  of  the  small  working  space  of  the  embankment, 
difficulty  was  at  first  experienced  in  spreading  the  material  as 
fast  as  it  came  in,  but  while  the  capacity  of  the  machines  was 
never  taxed,  a  system  was  soon  devised  whereby  it  was  kept  pretty 
well  cleaned  up.  About  ten  trains  would  be  dumped  in  one  pile, 
then  another  pile  of  ten  train  loads  would  be  made,  near  the  first 
pile,  leaving  only  room  for  a  roadway  between,  then  a  third  pile 
adjacent  to  the  second.  While  the  second  pile  was  being  made, 
the  first  pile  would  be  spread  and  stones  picked  from  the  second 
pile;  then  while  cars  were  dumping  on  the  third  pile,  the  stones 
would  be  picked  from  it  and  the  second  pile  spread.  In  this  way 
there  was  no  waiting  and  no  confusion,  the  roller  working  on 
the  area  previously  spread.  The  tight  material  occupied  the 
upstream  two-thirds  of  the  dam  ( Fig.  22 )  and  the  gravel  in  the 
downstream  third ;  it  was  handled  in  the  same  way  except  that  it 
spread  much  easier,  and  the  piles  did  not  req  ire  plowing,  which 
was  necessary  with  t,he  tight  material,  the  impact  from  falling, 
particularly  in  the  lower  levels  of  the  embankment,  compacting 
this  material  very  tightly. 

The  tight  material  was  spread  in  8-in.  layers  and  all,  stones 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1205 

exceeding  4  in.  picked  out,  loaded  into  one-horse  dump  carts,  and 
placed  on  the  upstream  slope.  A  road  grader  was  on  the  work 
but  the  fresnos  spread  the  material  so  evenly  it  was  not  used. 
The  layer  was  then  sprinkled  by  a  2-in.  hose  with  %-in.  nozzle, 
the  amount  of  water  varying  greatly  and  depending  on  the  weather 
and  the  material.  The  tendency  at  first  was  to  use  too  much 
water,  which  produced  a  kneading  motion  in  front  of  the  roller. 
Carefully  watching  conditions  and  reducing  the  amount  of  water, 
sprinkling  often  with  a  rather  fine  spray,  corrected  this  condi- 
tion. The  rolling  was  done  with  an  ordinary  IG^-ton  traction 
engine.  Extension  rims  on  the  driving  wheels  gave  a  rear  wheel 
base  of  56  in.  Assuming  that  they  carried  two-thirds  of  the 
weight,  the  pressure  per  lin.  in.  was  about  400  Ibs.  This  engine 

r^/H    El.2268.5 


Stripping  Line  ^tvXrrTTr  12"  Drain  Tile  laid 

rt  o/*7c  with'  o&€fi  joints  t*G  N%»^ 

/  »>.  t"--.-.  Maximum  depth  of 
3~v—'       ~~'  core  wall  was  El.  2153 

Fig.  22.     Typical  Section  of  Kachess  Lake  Dam. 

seemed  about  the  right  weight  for  the  materials  and  an  excellent 
embankment  was  obtained. 

It  was  found  that  the  compacted  layer  was  slightly  less  than 
6  in.  in  thickness.  Test  pits  were  p;:t  down  frequently  and  at 
predetermined  points,  in  order  to  have  a  complete  record  of  the 
behavior  of  the  material,  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  proper 
amount  of  water  was  being  used,  and,  in  general,  to  indicate 
whether  there  was  anything  to  be  guarded  against  or  improved. 
No  stratification  was  apparent;  the  only  adverse  criticism  to  be 
made  was  that  certain  layers  that  had  been  exposed  to  rain 
showed  a  little  too  much  water. 

The  gravel  was  spread  in  a  similar  manner  except  that  small 
stones  were  not  so  carefully  picked  out.  The  rolling  was  done  by 
a  grooved  roller  drawn  by  four  horses  and  more  water  was  used 
than  on  the  upper  side.  The  stones  picked  out  were  placed  on 
the  downstream  slope.  The  junction  of  loose  and  tight  material 
was  approximately  at  the  downstream  posts  of  trestle  bents. 

Progress.  To  place  the  large  amount  of  material  in  the  short 
season  available,  the  small  area  of  the  dump  preventing  tbe  crowd- 


1206  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ing  of  the  machines,  the  shovel  and  embankment  work  was  car- 
ried in  two  8-hr,  shifts,  but  as  only  half  as  much  material  was 
required  from  the  excavator  it  only  operated  one  shift.  The  best 
run  of  the  shovel  was  1,105  cu.  yd.  and  of  the  excavator  1,000 
cu.  yd.  in  eight  hours.  The  embankment  was  practically  all 
placed  in  four  months.  All  trestle  bracing  was  taken  out  as  the 
fill  advanced,  nothing  being  left  in  but  the  posts.  When  within 
8  ft.  of  the  top,  the  gravel  portion  was  brought  up  about  6  ft., 
one  track  thrown  on  it,  the  balance  of  the  trestle  removed  and 
the  remainder  of  embankment  completed. 

The  earthwork  yardage  was:  Excavation,  550,000;  embank- 
ment, 182,000;  backfill,  32,000. 

Drainage.  A  very  complete  drainage  system  was  provided  to 
lead  off  harmlessly  any  water  that  may  find  its  way  into  the  dam. 
At  the  downstream  toe  is  a  generous  trench  from  6  to  10  ft.  wide 
at  the  bottom,  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  dam,  backfilled 
with  stone,  which  filling  is  also  carried  some  distance  up  the 
slope.  From  30  to  60  ft.  upstream  from  the  toe  is  a  12-in.  tile 
drain  laid  with  open  joints  in  a  trench  and  surrounded  with  2 
ft.  of  small  stone;  this  drain  has  frequent  outlets  to  the  main 
drain  at  the  toe.  Should  water  succeed  in  passing  through  the 
tight  material,  it  will  drop  in  the  gravel  portion,  which  contains 
practically  no  clay,  and  escape  through  the  drains. 

Constructing  an  Embankment  for  Hill  View  Reservoir,  N.  Y. 
The  construction  of  the  earth  embankment  for  the  Hill  View 
Reservoir,  New  York  City,  is  described  by  A.  W.  Tidd,  in  Engi- 
neering News,  Sept.  9,  1915.  The  soil  formation  was  a  very 
dense,  glacial  drift,  containing  many  stones  and  boulders  but  no 
ledge  rock.  The  material  was  well  graded  from  a  coarse  sand 
down  to  a  very  fine  rock  flour,  excellent  for  a  reservoir  embank- 
ment. The  sides  of  steam  shovel  cuts  stood  perpendicular  for  two 
years  without  change  other  than  the  scaling  off  caused  by  the 
action  of  frost. 

The  embankment  was  constructed  of  carefully  selected  and 
thoroughly  compacted  material,  and  backed  up  by  the  remainder 
of  the  excavated  material,  which  equals  and  in  many  places  ex- 
ceeds in  volume  that  of  the  especially  treated  portion.  The  em- 
bankment on  the  water  side  was  rolled  in  layers  not  thicker  than 
4  in.  when  compacted,  while  in  outer  portion  2-ft.  layers  were 
allowed.  This  outer  portion  was  formed  of  material  unsuitable 
for  the  special  impervious  (4-in.)  embankment. 

The  bonding  of  the  base  of  the  embankment  with  its  foundation 
was  done  with  extreme  care.  All  unsuitable  material  was  exca- 
vated and  removed,  and  from  the  finally  stripped  surface,  small 
boulders  and  all  stumps  and  large  roots  were  removed.  Large 
firmly  embedded  boulders  were  allowed  to  remain  if  there  was 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1207 

room  between  them  sufficient  to  operate  the  10-ton  steam  rollers. 
Trenches  were  either  backfilled  by  hand-ramming  or  sloped  enough 
to  allow  the  roller  to  ride  into  and  across  them.  Earth  was 
placed  around  the  boulders  and  rammed  until  sufficiently  mounded 
to  permit  the  roller  to  ride  up  onto  them.  The  stripped  surface 
under  the  base  of  the  4-in.  embankment  was  thoroughly  scarified, 
usually  with  a  road  plow,  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  ins.,  and  a  thin 
layer  of  embankment  material  was  deposited  and  rolled.  An 
excellent  bond  was  thus  effected  between  the  original  and  the 
fresh  material,  and  this  method  was  used  throughout  the  entire 
construction  of  the  embankment  whenever  work  was  started  on  an 
area  that  had  lain  untouched  for  a  time.  The  4-in.  layers  were 
then  started,  beginning  in  the  lowest  part,  keeping  the  top  of  the 
embankment  practically  level. 

The  dumping  areas  were  restricted,  irregular  in  shape,  discon- 
nected, and  often  obstructed  by  boulders.  As  soon  as  possible, 
3-ft.-gage  track  with  65-  to  70-lb.  rails  were  laid  on  the  embank- 
ment and  the  material  delivered  in  4-yd.,  side-dumping  cars,  in 
10-car  trains,  hauled  by  10  to  15-ton  locomotives.  The  tracks 
were  laid  in  straight  stretches  as  long  as  possible;  and  two  par- 
allel lines  were  used  until  the  embankment  became  too  narrow  to 
accommodate  them. 

Spreading  and  Rolling.  The  trains  were  dumped  in  succession 
along  the  full  length  of  the  track  and  the  material  spread  and 
leveled  with  a  spreader-car  into  a  layer  about  6  ins.  thick.  As 
soon  as  the  spreader-car  had  finished  (usually  in  four  trips)  the 
track  was  pulled  away  a  certain  definite  distance,  lined  up  ex- 
actly parallel  to  the  previous  position,  and  was  ready  for  trains 
again.  The  track  was  pulled  into  position  by  a  track  gang.  The 
amount  of  the  track  throw  was  determined  from  careful  obser- 
vations taken  on  the  compacted  layers,  for  each  layer,  when 
spread,  must  just  connect  with  the  edge  of  the  previously  spread 
layer,  and  when  rolled  must  be  4  ins.  thick.  The  steamshovel 
runners  became  expert  in  loading  the  cars  to  the  limit  and  at 
the  same  time  with  a  very  uniform  volume.  It  was  on  that  uni- 
formity of  volume  that  the  success  of  the  whole  method  depended. 
The  system  worked  admirably.  The  track  throw  was  in  general 
14  ft.  The  spreader-car  was  not  able  to  spread  the  full  width 
even  when  counterweighted,  10  ft.  being  about  its  limit,  so  the 
remainder  was  spread  with  a  4-horse  road  scraper.  A  stone  gang 
worked  continuously  picking  out  and  removing  the  boulders  and 
stones  larger  than  3  in.,  in  order  to  allow  the  roller  to  get  onto 
the  layer  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  Here  again  the  steam 
shovel  runners  cooperated  by  avoiding  the  larger  boulders  when 
loading  for  the  4-in.  embankment. 

Ten-ton  rollers  with  grooved  front  wheel  and  cleated  side  wheels 


1208  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

were  used.  They  were  run  back  and  forth  parallel  to  the  track, 
moving  over  the  width  of  the  side  wheel  about  18  ins.  each  trip, 
thus  making  four  rollings  on  each  layer.  During  hot  weather  the 
material  required  sprinkling  to  insure  proper  bonding  and  thor- 
ough compacting.  The  watering  was  done  by  an  ordinary  street 
sprinkling  cart  drawn  by  horses,  and  the  water  was  applied  to  the 
roller  layer  before  the  new  layer  was  dumped.  A  sprinkling  car 
was  tried,  but  given  up,  as  it  interfered  with  the  regularity  of 
the  train  movements.  Some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  secur- 
ing thorough  compacting  wherever  the  direction  of  track  shifting 
was  reversed.  In  such  cases  it  was  necessary  to  place  two  layers 
one  on  top  of  the  other  before  the  track  was  shifted,  and  in  the 
rush  to  take  care  of  the  material  as  fast  as  it  was  sent  out  from 
the  steam  shovels,  great  vigilance  was  required  to  insure  that 
the  proper  amount  of  rolling  was  given  the  under  layer.  About 
30%  of  the  material  was  brought  on  in  wagons.  All  spreading 
and  leveling  of  the  wagon  dump  was  done  with  4-horse  road 
scrapers,  after  which  it  was  rolled  in  the  usual  manner. 

No  settlement  of  the  4-in.  embankment  was  ever  detected,  and 
from  the  evidence  deduced  from  concrete  structures  built  upon  it 
and  grade  stakes  given,  the  settlement  must  have  been  extremely 
slight,  if  any  at  all. 

Dams  of  Boulder-Filled  Wire  Baskets.  Engineering  News- 
Record,  Apr.  12,  1917,  gives  the  following: 

Hydraulic  mining  operations  are  now  permitted  in  Western 
states  only  when  there  is  some  means  of  preventing  the  earth  and 
rocks  washed  down  by  the  jet  from  continuing  on  into  the  lower 
reaches  of  the  stream.  One  way  of  accomplishing  this  is  to  build 
a  dam  across  the  stream  just  below  the  point  where  operations  are 
under  way.  By  this  means  there  is  formed  a  pool  that  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  providing  a  settling  basin  and  capacity  for 
storing  the  debris. 

The  margin  of  profit  in  such  mining  work  is  low;  and  where 
debris  is  to  be  retained  by  artificial  pondage,  only  a  dam  that  can 
be  built  at  very  low  cost  is  feasible.  Two  dams  have  been  built 
in  California  to  meet  this  requirement.  They  consist  of  units, 
or  baskets,  of  poultry  netting  filled  with  coarse  gravel  and  rock. 
These  units  are  1  x  2  x  8  ft.  in  size  and  are  placed  lengthwise  with 
the  stream.  They  are  built  in  place  and  are  laid  in  the  same  way 
that  shingles  are  placed  on  a  roof,  except  that  they  are  level 
instead  of  sloping.  Each  unit  is  made  to  lap  over  half  of  the 
preceding  course. 

As  each  course  or  layer  is  completed,  sufficient  backfilling  is  put 
in  behind  on  the  upstream  side  to  give  the  structure  a  top  width 
of  10  ft.,  in  addition  to  the  courses  of  netted  units.  The  up- 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1209 

stream  side  of  the  fill  is  kept  at  a  slope  of  1%  to  1,  and  the  down- 
stream slope  ranges  from  2  to  1  down  to  4  to  1. 

In  making  the  units,  common  netting  of  14-gage  wire  in  6-ft. 
widths  is  used.  A  10-ft.  length  of  this  wire  is  cut  from  the  roll 
and  put  in  its  place  on  the  dam  in  a  form  composed  of  the  last 
completed  basket  and  a  2-in.  plank  set  on  edge  and  held  in  place 
by  pins.  Into  the  netting  are  then  poured  very  coarse  gravel 
and  rock  up  to  the  size  of  a  man's  head.  When  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity has  been  deposited,  the  top  is  leveled  off  with  a  straight- 
edge, and  the  selvage  edges  of  the  netting  are  drawn  together  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  strap  iron  with  a  hooked  end.  The  selvage 
edges  are  then  fastened  together  with  wire,  and  the  ends  are 
folded  in  and  similarly  fastened. 

Construction  Costs.  On  one  of  the  dams  of  this  type  constructed 
for  the  Omega  mine  on  Scotchman's  Creek,  California,  the  crew 
consisted  of  six  men.  Two  men  handled  the  netting,  and  four 
men  shoveled  and  wheeled  the  material.  This  crew  laid  20  bas- 
kets per  day,  a  total  of  320  cu.  ft.  They  also  placed  the  back- 
filling for  this  number  of  maskets,  which  brought  up  to  56.3  cu. 
yds.  per  day  the  total  amount  of  material  handled.  At  the 
rate  of  $3  per  day  per  man  the  cost  of  labor  and  material  in  the 
entire  dam  was  48  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

•  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  this  work  requires  practically  no  equip- 
ment, calls  for  no  initial  investment  in  plant,  requires  no  skilled 
labor,  and,  aside  from  inspection  by  state  officials,  only  such  su- 
pervision as  a  foreman  can  give.  The  only  construction  material 
that  has  to  be  shipped  in  is  the  netting. 

The  material  placed  in  the  baskets  is  the  coarsest  obtainable. 
The  backfill  is  made  of  finer  material ;  and  as  the  dam  increases 
in  height  and  the  upstream  face  is  continually  extended,  effort 
is  made  to  use  finer  and  finer  material  so  that  the  seal  will  even- 
tually be  complete  and  the  upstream  face  of  the  dam  as  nearly 
water-tight  as  possible. 

The  fact  that  the  downstream  slope  is  made  of  very  coarse 
material  permits  seepage  to  escape  promptly,  and  thus  internal 
pressure  cannot  occur.  Another  feature  peculiar  to  this  type  of 
construction  is  that  the  height  of  the  dam  need  not  be  prede- 
termined and  the  structure  can  be  continued  indefinitely  so  far 
as  the  design  and  material  are  concerned. 

Although  the  downstream  face  constitutes  a  cataract  form  of 
spillway  over  which  the  stream  can  quite  safely  be  allowed  to 
flow,  the  plan  has  been  to  provide  a  separate  spillway  for  the 
dam  when  no  further  increase  in  height  is  desired. 

The  first  dam  of  this  type  on  the  Pacific  Coast  was  begun  for 
the  Omega  mine  in  1913,  and  has  since  been  raised  by  slow  stages 


1210     HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

as  the  needs  of  the  mine  required.  It  had  43  layers  and  was 
about  43  ft.  high  in  1917.  This  dam  is  founded  upon  an  old  con- 
crete dam  about  50  ft.  in  height,  the  cost  of  enlarging  which  by 
adding  more  concrete  was  prohibitive.  The  second  dam  of  the 
basket  type  was  being  built  on  Nelson  Creek  in  Plumas  County 
and  had  attained  a  height  of  about  26  ft. 

Temporary  Hydraulic  Fill  Dam  Across  Colorado  Eiver.  En- 
gineering Record,  Dec.  25,  1915,  gives  the  following: 

For  not  quite  a  month,  from  Sept.  20  to  Oct.  3,  1915,  the  en- 
tire flow  of  the  Colorado  River  was  diverted  into  the  canal  sys- 
tem of  the  Imperial  Valley  by  a  hydraulic  fill  dam,  about  6 
miles  below  Yuma.  The  unusual  features  of  the  work  were  the 
deposition  of  the  dam-building  material  in  the  running  water  of 
the  stream,  and  the  fact  that  the  material  was  obtained  locally 
in  a  country  notorious  for  the  friable  and  unstable  character  of 
its  soil  —  a  soil  commonly  likened  to  sugar  in  its  action  when  in 
contact  with  running  water.  However,  the  dam-building  mate- 
rial was  not  this  light  alluvium,  brought  down  by  the  ruddy  Col- 
orado, but  heavier  deposits  pumped  from  below  the  present  level 
of  the  stream  bed. 

Water  for  the  irrigation  of  the  valley,  located  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia and  the  northern  part  of  Lower  California  (Mexican  terri- 
tory) is  taken  from  the  Colorado  River  just  above  the  interna- 
tional boundary  line.  This  year  the  flow  of  the  stream  fell  below 
the  7,000  average  minimum,  endangering  the  supply  to  the  valley. 
The  California  Development  Company,  which  owns  the  main  ca- 
nals in  the  valley  and  sells  water  to  the  mutual  distributing  com- 
panies, in  order  to  save  the  crops  determined  to  throw  a  dam 
across  the  stream  just  below  its  heading,  thus  diyerting  the  entire 
flow  into  its  canal,  and  wasting  such  water  into  the  Salton  Sea 
as  might  be  in  excess  of  its  needs.  For  various  reasons  it  was 
not  possible,  or  at  least  not  advisable,  to  put  a  permanent  struc- 
ture across  the  stream.  The  river  is  considered  navigable  by 
the  War  Department,  and  the  cost  of  a  permanent  structure  was 
out  of  the  question  because  of  the  financial  condition  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Development  Company.  Furthermore,  immediate  relief 
was  needed.  It,  therefore,  was  a  problem  of  putting  in  a  tem- 
porary structure,  using  such  materials  as  were  locally  available. 

While  there  is  at  the  heading  a  good  quarry,  furnishing  ample 
rock,  previous  ruling  of  the  War  Department,  requiring  a  rock- 
filled  trestle  across  the  stream  to  be  removed,  barred  such  con- 
struction from  consideration.  Furthermore,  a  dam  of  that  sort 
would  have  been  costly,  for  experience  in  closing  breaks  in  the 
Colorado  has  disclosed  endless  difficulties  in  building  a  pile 
trestle,  the  current  washing  the  soft  alluvium  away  from  the 
piles  with  great  rapidity. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1211 

Attention,  therefore,  was  directed  to  some  type  of  earth  fill 
structure.  Dry-earth  handling  methods  were  barred,  because 
with  them  only  the  light  alluvium  could  be  economically  secured. 
This  is  an  unsuitable  dam-building  material  because  even  the 
slowest  current  carries  it  away.  Hydraulic-carriage  methods  were 
therefore  resorted  to,  and  were  feasible  only  because  beneath 
the  present  stream  bed  a  considerable  amount  of  heavier  materials 
is  to  be  found.  These  consist  of  stones  up  to  6  in.  in  maximum 
size  and,  principally,  of  a  mixture  of  clay,  alluvium  and  gravel, 
which  when  wet  has  considerable  strength,  and  comes  through  a 
10-in.  dredge  discharge  pipe  in  lumps  as  large  as  6  or  8  in.  The 
theory  was  that  these  heavier  materials  discharged  along  the  cen- 
ter line  of  the  dam  would  build  up  a  fairly  good  current-resistive 
core,  the  lighter  materials  being  carried  off  by  the  separating 
action  of  the  water  to  the  upstream  and  downstream  toes.  Much 
of  this  material  would  be  lost,  but  the  larger  particles  and  lumps 
would  not  be  carried  away  by  low  current  velocities.  For  the 
closure,  which  it  was  recognized  would  be  the  difficult  part  of  the 
work,  it  was  planned  to  make  use  of  brush  and  sacks  of  earth. 

Procedure.  With  the  plan  formulated,  a  10-in.  suction  dredge, 
with  a  ladder  and  suction  pipe  long  enough  to  reach  to  a  depth 
of  15  ft.  below  the  present  stream  bed,  was  put  to  work  Aug.  12, 
1915.  The  river  at  this  point  is  about  900  ft.  wide,  and  the  dam 
makes  an  angle  of  about  10°  with  a  line  normal  to  the  stream 
flow,  the  trend  of  the  dam  being  downstream  toward  the  right 
bank.  The  dredge  in  fourteen  days  carried  the  dam  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  12  ins.  above  water  level,  extending  from  the  Arizona 
shore  to  within  250  ft.  of  the  California  shore.  As  the  fill  ros"e, 
light  poles  were  jetted  into  it  and  quantities  of  willow  and  cot- 
tonwood  brush  piled  against  them  to  form  a  fence.  There  were 
two  such  lines,  about  30  ft.  apart,  within  which  space  materials 
were  pumped  to  raise  the  crown  of  the  dam  rapidly.  Three  sub- 
sequent runs  across  the  stream  raised  the  dam  to  an  elevation  of 
5  ft.  above  water  level.  With  the  type  of  construction  described 
there  resulted  a  base  width  of  about  150  ft.  and  a  crown  of  30 
ft.,  the  depth  of  water  being  6  to  7  ft.  When  the  work  was 
started  the  velocity  of  the  current  was  from  2  to  3  ft.  per  second. 
As  the  channel  cross-section  was  decreased  the  velocity  naturally 
increased  and  at  closure  was  about  6  ft. 

Since  the  stream  is  subject  to  rapid  rises  and  it  was  undesir- 
able to  take  more  than  about  5,000  sec.  ft.  through  the  Imperial 
Valley  canals,  arrangements  were  made  during  the  construction  of 
the  dam  to  cut  it  at  two  places.  The  ends  of  the  dam,  on  each 
side  of  the  point  of  final  closures,  were  built  as  abutments,  with 
brush  and  stick  fences  strengthened  with  sacks  of  earth,  the 
lines  being  winged  back  along  the  toes.  The  same  type  of  con- 


1212         HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

struction  was  used  at  another  point  in  the  dam,  thus  making  it 
possible  by  using  light  blasts  to  create  quickly  two  150-ft.  chan- 
nels. 

Making  the  Closure.  Before  beginning  the  final  closure  the 
bottom  was  carefully  lined  with  about  10,000  sacks  filled  with 
heavy  material  pumped  by  the  dredge.  The  closure,  which  was 
made  in  a  velocity  of  about  6  ft.  per  second,  and  at  the  very  last 
instant  in  a  depth  of  water  of  about  22  ft.,  was  effected  with  the 
aid  of  cotton  wood  and  willow -brush  obtained  on  the  river  banks. 
The  brush  consisted  of  young  trees,  6  to  10  in.  in  diameter  at 
the  butt,  and  20  to  30  ft.  long.  These  were  piled  on  a  barge 
moored  upstream  at  the  point  of  closure.  Another  barge  was 
loaded  with  earth- filled  sacks,  while  the  dredge  was  in  operation 
with  its  discharge  line  at  the  closure  point.  Two  1^4-in.  steel 
cables  were  stretched  from  the  California  shore  to  the  end  of  the 
dam  beyond  the  closure  point.  The  procedure  was  to  throw  the 
brush  into  the  stream,  butts  pointing  downstream,  and  so  to  guide 
them  that  the  butts  would  come  to  rest  against  the  cables. 
Bundles  of  brush  weighted  with  sacks  were  thrown  from  the  barge 
and,  with  the  current,  immediately  brought  pressure  to  bear  on 
the  brush,  quickly  bending  the  poles  until  at  the  steel  cables  they 
were  pointed  vertically  upward.  The  strain  on  them  was  relieved 
by  turning  the  discharge  of  the  hydraulic  dredge  onto  them.  In 
this  way  progress  was  slowly  made  across  the  channel.  Closure 
wa*  effected  on  Sept.  20,  when  there  was  a  head  of  about  6  ft.  of 
water  against  the  dam. 

The  structure  remained  intact  from  its  completion  until  Oct.  3, 
when  a  rise  of  the  stream,  telegraphed  ahead  from  Needles,  300 
miles  up  the  river,  made  it  advisable  to  blow  up  the  closure 
section.  This  was  done  by  a  charge  of  dynamite,  During  the 
time  of  complete  closure  the  discharge  went  as  low  as  2,700  sec. 
ft.,  and  on  most  of  the  days  was  about  3,500  sec.  ft.,  all  of  which 
was  needed  in  the  valley.  This  w«,s  an  exceptionally  low  stage  of 
the  river,  particularly  for  a  protracted  period,  though  a  minimum 
of  3,000  sec.  ft.  had  previously  been  recorded. 

Yardage  and  Costs.  Yardage  measurements  of  the  prism  indi- 
cate that  there  were  30,000  cu.  yds.  of  material  in  the  dam, 
though  the  pumping  records,  combined  with  observation  of  the 
percentage  of  material  carried,  indicated  that  40,000  cu.  yds. 
were  pumped.  The  two  figures  are  not  inconsistent,  because  it  is 
known  that  much  of  the  fine  material  was  washed  to  the  toes  and 
these  lost.  The  costs  for  the  pumping  alone  were  as  follows : 

Labor    $578.38 

Fuel   oil    (13,000   gal.) 416.00 

Other   oil,    and   supplies 100.00 

Total     ..  $1,094.38 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1213 

On  the  basis  of  40,000  cu.  yds.  pumped  this  would  give  a  cost  of 
2.7  cts.  per  yd.  The  dredge  was  immediately  upstrea'm  from 
the  dam  side,  so  that  the  length  of  pumping  line  was  in  no  case 
greater  than  300  ft. 

For  the  final  closure  450  cords  of  brush,  at  73  cts.  a  cord; 
21,300  sacks,  at  a  total  cost  of  $1,140,  and  1,000  ft.  of  second- 
hand %-in.  and  U/4-in.  cable,  at  a  cost  of  $100,  were  used.  No 
timber  or  piling  was  bought,  poles  and  brush  being  secured  on  the 
banks. 

The  total  cost  of  the  work  was  as  follows: 

Earthwork    (dredge)     $1,100 

Brush   and  poles    333 

Sacks     ,     1,140 

Wire     32 

Cable   and  clamps    100 

All  labor 2,000 


Total    $4,705 

Add   10%    for   supervision    470 

Grand    total    $5,175 

As  against  this  cost  should  be  set  the  increased  revenue  of 
from  $700  to  $1,200  per  day  from  the  sale  of  the  water. 

Since  low  flows  are  to  be  expected  and  are  likely  annually  to 
embarrass  the  irrigation  district,  the  California  Development 
Company  plans  to  lengthen  the  ladder  on  its  dredge  in  order  to 
get  deeper  than  at  present.  By  so  doing  still  heavier  material 
will  be  secured  and  will  enable  a  structure  stable  under  even 
higher  velocities  than  were  experienced  this  summer  to  be  built. 

It  is  expected  that  the  present  structure  will  in  part  be  carried 
out  by  high  water,  but  that  a  considerable  base  will  be  left  a»  a 
foundation  for  a  similar  structure  next  year,  should  that  prove 
necessary.  The  dredge,  of  course,  has  excavated  a  deep  and  ex- 
tensive hole  which,  it  is  expected,  will  be  filled  with  heavy  mate- 
rial brought  down  in  the  freshets  of  the  next  high-water  season. 

Cost  of  an  Earth  Embankment  and  Gravel  Facing.  The  fol- 
lowing data,  taken  from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Aug.  12, 
1908,  relate  to  the  construction  of  the  WhaleiT  earth  dike  by  the 
U.  S.  Reclamation  Service.  This  dike  is  located  at  the  right 
extremity  of  the  Whalen  concrete  diversion  weir  and  extends  to 
the  bluff  of  the  valley.  This  dike,  together  with  the  concrete 
diversion  weir  abutting  onto  it,  furnishes  a  means  of  diverting 
the  now  of  the  North  Platte  river  into  the  Interstate  Canal,  and 
will  serve  that  purpose  for  the  Fort  Laramie  Canal  when  it  is 
constructed.  The  dike  is  about  1,600  ft.  in  length,  11  ft.  wide  on 
top,  with  an  average  height  of  10  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  2y2  to  1. 

The  embankment  contains  about  35,000  cu.  yds.  of  earth.  The 
earth  for  its  construction  was  taken  from  a  borrowpit,  the  nearer 


1214  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

edge  of  the  borrowpit  being  not  less  than  100  ft.  and  the  outside 
edge  at  'about  500  ft.  The  whole  embankment  is  faced  with  a 
covering  of  gravel,  the  thickness  on  the  top  and  downstream  slope 
being  1  ft.  and  that  on  the  upstream  slope  2  ft.  Practically  the 
entire  embankment  was  covered  with  gravel,  involving  the  placing 
of  about  6,040  cu.  yds.  of  gravel.  The  distance  from  the  gravel 
pit  to  the  south  end  of  the  dike  was  1,700  ft.  on  a  down  grade  of 
approximately  1%  from  the  pit  and  the  total  average  haul  was 
about  2,620  ft.  The  free  haul  under  the  specification  requirements 
was  500  ft. 

The  earth  body  of  the  embankment  was  placed  in  layers  varying 
from  6  to  12  ins.  in  thickness,  and  these  layers  spread  by  hand 
and  thoroughly  compacted  by  the  passage  of  the  scrapers  and 
teams  over  them.  The  material  as  excavated  shrank  about  20% 
through  the  compacting  to  which  it  was  subjected  in  being  placed 
in  the  embankment. 

The  gravel  facing  was  loaded  with  wheel  scrapers  through  a 
trap  into  four-horse  wagons  with  slat  bottoms,  each  holding  about 
21/2  cu.  yds.  The  gravel  was  dumped  from  the  wagons  onto  the 
embankment,  and  spread  on  the  slopes  by  means  of  a  Fresno 
scraper  and  a  hand  shovel.  Foremen  were  paid  from  35  cts.  to 
40  cts.  an  hour;  laborers  from  22%  cts.  to  25  cts.  an  hour.  The 
labor  of  horses  in  the  earth  work  has  been  rated  at  10  cts.  an 
hour,  and  in  the  gravel  work  two-horse  teams  with  drivers  at  from 
40  cts.  to  45  cts.  an  hour;  three-horse  teams  with  drivers,  at  from 
50  cts.  to  55  cts.  an  hour,  and  four-horse  teams  with  drivers  at 
from  60  cts.  to  65  cts.  an  hour. 

The  cost  of  the  35,000  cu.  yds.  earth  body  was  as  follows,  per 
cu.  yd. : 

Labor $0.219 

Plant   depreciation    Oil 

Superintendence     004 

Total $0.234 

The  cost  of  the  6,040  cu.  yds.  of  gravel  facing  was  as  follows, 
per  cu.  yd.: 

Labor    $0.874 

Plant    depreciation    022 

Superintendence     020 


Total    $0.916 

The  grand  total  cost  for  these  two  items  was  as  follows: 

Labor $12,976 

Plant   depreciation    535 

Superintendence     270 


Total    $13,781 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1215 

The  cost  data  above  given  include  30,000  cu.  yds.  of  overhaul 
amounting  to  $450,  which  is  not  separately  considered. 

Placing  Puddle  in  a  Cofferdam  by  Pumping.  William  Martin 
gives  the  following  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Jan.  6,  1909: 

In  building  Davis  Island  Dam,  several  years  ago,  a  cofferdam 
1,085  ft.  long,  containing  5,784  cu.  yds.  of  puddle  material,  was 
built  by  pumping  the  puddle  from  an  island.  The  cofferdam 
consisted  of  two  rows  of  piles,  the  rows  being  15%  ft.  c.  to  c. 
and  the  piles  in  each  row  being  21  ft.  c.  to  c.  The 
piles  were  20  ft.  long,  and  were  driven  8  ft.  Three  rows  of 
wale  pieces  or  stringers  were  bolted  to  the  piles,  12  ft.  apart.  A 
aingle  line  of  vertical  sheeting  plank,  driven  2  ft.  into  the  gravel 
bottom,  rested  against  the  wales.  The  joints  of  the  sheeting  were 
covered  with  1  x  6-in.  strips  to  prevent  leakage  of  the  puddle.  On 
each  side  of  the  sheeting,  at  the  top,  was  spiked  a  2  x  10-in. 
string  piece,  to  form  a  bearing  upon  which  a  plank  deck  was  laid. 

The  plant,  as  finally  developed,  was  as  follows :  Tubular  boiler, 
36  ins.  diam.,  x  16  ft.  long;  engine,  10x10  in.;  piston  pump  — 
steam  cyl.  12x18  in.;  water  cyl.  6l/3  x  18  in.;  centrifugal  pump, 
3-in.  discharge;  pipes,  etc. 

The  centrifugal  pump  for  pumping  the  puddle  was  located  on 
an  island  900  ft.  from  the  cofferdam.  Beneath  the  pump  was  a 
tank  for  mixing  the  puddle,  8  ft.  diameter  and  4  ft.  deep,  sunk 
to  a  sufficient  depth  to  secure  a  fall  of  water  from  a  flume  that 
tapped  the  river. 

The  piston  pump  was  connected  to  the  delivery  pipe  by  a  wye 
connection,  and  was  used  for  priming  the  centrifugal  pump,  and 
keeping  the  sand  from  packing,  and  for  furnishing  water  for  the 
steam  boiler  and  for  the  agitator  hose,  as  hereafter  described. 

The  puddle,  consisting  of  loam  and  sand,  was  obtained  within  a 
radius  of  100  ft.  from  the  pump  by  loosening  with  a  plow  and 
delivering'  close  to  the  tank  with  drag  scrapers.  It  was  then 
shoveled  by  hand  into  the  tank,  a  cost  that  could  have  been 
avoided  had  the  scrapers  dumped  through  a  trap  into  the  tank. 
The  material  was  mixed  with  water  in  the  tank  and  kept  agi- 
tated by  water  from  a  hose  in  the  hands  of  workmen*  to  prevent 
the  earth  from  settling  to  the  bottom.  This  puddle  was  taken  by 
the  feed  pipe  of  the  centrifugal  pump  and  forced  through  the  de- 
livery pipe  to  the  cofferdam,  a  distance  constantly  increasing  as 
the  work  progressed.  The  delivery  pipe  was  laid  on  the  bottom 
of  the  river,  and  then  rose  by  an  easy  ascent  to  about  1  ft.  above 
the  top  of  the  cofferdam. 

The  puddle  occasionally  became  so  thick  as  to  clog  the  delivery 
pipe.  In  order  to  meet  this  difficulty,  the  following  ingenious  plan 
was  devised.  On  the  delivery  pipe  at  the  centrifugal  pump  was 
placed  a  pressure  gage.  Any  clogging  of  the  delivery  pipe  im- 


1216  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

mediately  caused  the  pressure  to  rise,  whereupon  the  engineman 
slackened  the  speed  of  the  centrifugal  and  opened  the  valve  in  the 
wye  connection  to  the  piston  pump.  This  admitted  a  stream  of 
clear  water  at  high  pressure  from  the  piston  pump  and  imme- 
diately cleared  the  congestion  of  puddle  in  the  delivery  pipe.  The 
check  valve  in  the  delivery  pipe  between  the  wye  connection  and 
the  centrifugal  pump  prevented  a  back  flow  into  the  centrifugal 
pump. 

One  of  the  principal  difficulties  in  working  the  centrifugal  pump 
was  the  rapid  wear  of  all  its  parts  that  came  in  contact  with  the 
sand.  The  casing,  which  was  originally  %  in.  thick,  wore  through 
in  10  days,  during  which  time  not  2,500  cu.  yds.  of  puddle  were 
handled.  This  was  replaced  with  a  1-in.  casing  which  was  still 
in  service  after  the  13  days'  use  which  completed  the  job. 

The  stuffing  box  wore  rapidly  until  the  following  ingenious  de- 
vice was  applied:  A  screw  was  cut  in  the  chamber  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  motion  of  the  shaft.  A  pipe  was  put  in  back  of 
the  packing  and  connected  with  the  piston  pump.  Water  was 
forced  through  this  around  the  shaft,  and,  being  under  a  greater 
pressure  than  the  centrifugal  pump,  prevented  the  puddle  material 
from  getting  into  the  stuffing  box.  Water  thus  applied  performed 
a  double  duty,  for  it  acted  as  a  lubrication  and  prevented  the  shaft 
from  heating. 

At  the  discharge  end  of  the  delivery  pipe  the  puddle  material 
was  deposited  in  the  cofferdam  and  flowed  off  for  a  distance  of  a 
few  hundred  feet,  depositing  in  a  hard  and  solid  mass.  The  loam 
being  lighter,  remained  longer  in  suspension  and  settled  out  on 
top  of  the  sand. 

In  23  days  there  were  delivered  5,784  cu.  yds.  of  puddle  mate- 
rial, or  251  cu.  yds.  per  10-hr,  day.  Laborers  received  $1.75  to  $2 
a  day,  and  mechanics  $2.50  to  $2.75.  The  cost  was  as  follows 
per  cu.  yd. : 

Pump    ($145) 3.0 

Repairs,    fittings,    etc.    ($382)    6.0 

Pipe    ($364 6.0 

Total   plant    15.0 

Labor    49  0 

Fuel     4 1.0 

Total,  cts.  per  cu.  yd 65.0 

For  comparative  purposes  it  is  well  to  add  the  following  costs 
of  filling  another  section  of  another  cofferdam  near  by  by  another 
method.  The  other  section  was  1,165  ft.  long,  and  it  cost  $5.69 
per  lin.  ft.  for  puddle  in  place,  or  practically  $1.10  per  cu.  yd. 
of  puddle.  The  method  employed  consisted  in  loading  the  mate- 
rial by  hand  into  cars,  hauling  it  over  a  narrow  gage  track  to 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1217 

the  river,  loading  into  boats  and  transporting  to  the  cofferdam, 
shoveling  by  hand  into  place,  and  compacting  with  water.  Wages 
were  only  $1.25  a  day  for  laborers,  and  $2.25  for  mechanics. 

Embankment  for  the  Yale  Bowl.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
July  19,  1916,  gives  the  following: 

The  construction  of  the  great  amphitheater  for  athletic  games 
at  Yale  University  involved  300,000  cu.  yds.  of  excavation  and 
175,000  cu.  yds.  of  embankment.  The  bowl,  therefore,  differs 
from  most  modern  amphitheaters  in  being  essentially  an  earthwork 
structure.  It  is  built  in  a  level  plain  by  excavating  the  center 
of  the  field  and  using .  the  excavated  material  to  make  an  em- 
bankment around  the  outside,  this  embankment  forming  a  com- 
plete oval  about  the  playing  field.  The  seat  slabs  are  placed  di- 
rectly upon  the  earth,  making  it  a  structure  which  cannot  fall 
down.  The  surface  of  the  playing  field  is  about  27  ft.  below  the 
original  surface  of  the  ground,  while  the  top  of  the  embankment 
is  about  27  ft.  above  the  original  surface  of  the  ground,  the  prom- 
enade around  the  top  being  54  ft.  above  the  playing  field. 

A  wall  4  ft.  high  surrounds  the  field.  Access  to  the  bowl  for 
spectators  is  provided  by  30  tunnels,  each  7  ft.  wide  by  8  ft.  high. 
These  extend  from  the  ground  level  outside  to  about  midway  of 
the  seat  bank,  and  aisles  lead  up  and  down  the  slope  from  the 
inner  ends  of  the  tunnels.  Access  to  the  playing  field  from  the 
outside  is  given  by  two  tunnels,  one  15  ft.  wide  by  10  ft.  high  and 
suited  for  entrance  of  vehicles,  steam  roller,  etc.,  and  the  other  10 
ft.  wide  by  8  ft.  high,  and  suited  only  for  pedestrians,  as  it  con- 
tains stairs,  being  the  only  tunnel  so  constructed.  Access  may 
also  be  had  to  the  playing  field  by  a  flight  of  steps  at  the  foot 
of  each  aisle.  The  outside  dimensions  of  the  main  structure  are 
933  ft.  by  744  and  the  structure  with  its  approaches  covers  an 
area  of  25  acres. 

The  loam  which  covered  the  site  was  first  taken  off  and  placed 
in  separate  piles  of  black  loam  and  yellow  loam.  The  depth  of 
the  black  loam  averaged  about  10  in.  and  of  the  yellow  loam 
about  12  in.  Both  were  of  a  sandy  quality,  particularly  the 
yellow  loam,  some  of  the  latter  being  but  little  better  than  the 
sandy  gravel  beneath  it. 

Dragline  Excavator.  The  gravel  was  placed  in  the  embank- 
ment at  first  partly  by  drag  and  wheel  scrapers,  but  the  main 
dependence  for  the  excavation  was  placed  upon  two  large  dragline 
excavators  operated  from  85-ft.  towers  which  moved  on  elliptical 
tracks  built  closely  around  the  outside  of  the  bowl.  These  tow- 
ers operated  buckets  weighing  about  4,500  Ibs.  and  having  a  ca- 
pacity of  about  2  cu.  yds.  The  buckets  were  hauled  in  toward 
the  tower  by  a  single  cable  attached  to  a  drum  of  the  engine  and 
run  out  by  gravity  on  the  main  cable,  which  was  pulled  up 


1218  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

by  block  and  fall  attached  to  the  head  of  the  tower,  and  held 
taut  until  the  bucket  had  run  out  as  far  as  desired  and  then 
slackened.  The  other  end  of  the  main  cable  was  attached  to  a 
post  which  was  moved  from  time  to  time  so  that  the  bucket  might 
dig  from  the  exact  spot  desired.  Theoretically,  a  post  could  have 
been  located  at  the  center  of  any  section  of  the  track  which  was 
approximately  a  circular  arc,  and  all  of  the  material  within  the 
sector  could  have  been  removed  by  the  bucket,  but  several  practi- 
cal considerations  prevented  this  from  being  carried  out  in  the 
main  part  of  the  excavation,  although  toward  the  end,  when  the 
banks  were  trimmed  by  dragging  special  buckets  up  the  interior 
slope,  this  came  very  near  to  being  the  actual  layout. 

The  maximum  output  of  one  of  the  excavators  was  about  1,500 
cu.  yds.  running  22  hours,  while  the  largest  month's  work  for  the 
two  was  about  45,000  cu.  yds.  Considerable  experimenting  was 
necessary  before  the  exact  design  of  bucket  was  found  which 
would  load  itself  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  and  would  travel  up 
the  slope  without  digging  into  the  bank  which  had  already  been 
built.  The  proper  shape  was  finally  found,  and  the  buckets 
worked  very  well  with  only  an  occasional  accidental  digging  be- 
low grade,  which  usually  took  place  during  the  night,  when  the 
light  and  supervision  were  not  particularly  good.  Quite  a  little 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  digging  through  the  10  ft.  of  sandy 
gravel,  which  was  fairly  compact,  although  the  buckets  were  heavy 
and  equipped  with  strong  teeth.  After  this  was  past,  however, 
the  digging  was  very  good  and  the  machines  worked  easily.  Most 
of  the  excavation  outside  of  the  bowl  as  well  as  a  portion  of  that 
inside  was  made  by  two  Thew  rotary  steam  shovels  with  %-cu.  yd. 
buckets  loading  dump  wagons. 

Embankment.  The  specifications  called  for  the  embankment 
above  the  tops  of  the  tunnels  to  be  rolled  in  6-in.  layers,  and  the 
method  of  operation  was  for  the  drag  buckets  to  make  three  piles 
of  material  between  each  pair  of  tunnels,  the  piles  being  tent- 
shaped  and  usually  about  3  ft.  high,  8  ft.  wide  and  as  long  as 
the  bank  width.  These  piles  were  figured  to  contain  just  enough 
material  to  make  the  6-in.  layer,  being  the  most  practical  way 
in  which  to  regulate  this  depth. 

As  the  towers  moved  along,  they  were  followed  up  by  teams 
with  leveling  boards,  which  leveled  off  the  piles  to  a  fairly  uni- 
form surface,  and  this  was  thoroughly  wet  down  by  water  from 
•lines  of  hose  and  holled  eight  times,  each  point  being  gone  over 
four  times  by  a  grooved  roller  and  four  times  by  a  smooth  roller 
alternately.  The  rollers  weighed  about  800  Ib.  per  lineal  foot  and 
as  a  rule  required  four  horses,  although  occasionally  a  very 
heavy  team  would  be  found  which  could  operate  one  for  a  few 
days  without  assistance.  One  larger  roller,  which  required  six 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS 

horses,  was  used  for  a  time.  Large  quantities  of  water  were 
used.  The  contract  called  for  150  gal.  per  minute,  to  be  run  on 
to  the  bank  night  and  day. 

Below  the  tops  of  the  tunnels,  where  rolling  was  not  practica- 
ble, the  material  was  watered  very  heavily,  and  after  the  fill  had 
got  above  the  tops  of  the  tunnels,  special  efforts  were  made  to 
make  sure  that  the  water  hed  penetrated  to  every  portion  of  the 
embankment  by  damming  off  a  section  at  a  time  and  running 
all  of  the  water  into  this  section,  and  punching  holes  in  the  bank 
about  8  ft.  on  centers  by  means  of  drills  of  water  jets.  In  this 
way  the  whole  embankment  received  a  uniform  treatment,  which 
could  not  have  been  assured  otherwise,  for  the  sand  was  so  porous 
that  the  water  from  a  2-in.  hose  would  disappear  into  the  bank 
within  5  or  6  ft.  from  the  end  of  the  hose,  and  with  operation 
by  the  ordinary  water  boy,  it  was  impossible  to  tell  whether  every 
portion  of  the  embankment  had  been  thoroughly  soaked  or  not. 

When  the  embankment  had  been  carried  nearly  to  its  full 
height,  the  excess  material  on  the  interior  slope  was  dragged 
up  to  the  top  of  the  bank  by  heavy  timber  frames  operated  by 
the  drag  scraper  towers  in  the  same  manner  as  a  bucket,  these 
frames  being  about  10  ft.  square  and  heaving  heavy  iron  plates 
projecting  below  the  front  edge,  acting  much  like  a  leveling  board. 
They  could  be  made  to  trim  just  where  it  was  desired  by  tighten- 
ing up  the  main  cable  so  that  they  could  not  go  below  grade  at  any 
point,  and  they  did  very  good  work  in  shaping  up  the  bank. 
The  final  trimming  was  by  hand. 

The  outer  slope  of  the  embankment  was  trimmed  partly  by  level- 
ing boards  operated  by  power  and  partly  by  hand,  and  was  then 
covered  with  about  10  ins.  of  loam,  into  which  strips  of  turf 
about  8  ft.  on  centers  were  embedded,  running  parallel  to  the  top 
of  the  bank,  with  the  idea  that  they  would  help  to  distribute 
rain  water  and  prevent  it  from  getting  together  in  sufficient 
volume  to  do  much  damage  before  it  struck  another  line  of  turf 
and  was  spread  out  again. 

The  outer  slope  of  the  embankment  is  sloped  approximately  1 
on  2,  except  around  the  portals,  where  it  is  about  1  on  1%. 
These  steep  places  were  turfed  entirely,  but  the  remainder  of  the 
slope  was  seeded  with  a  mixture  of  11%  lb.  of  red  top,  5  Ib. 
of  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  20  lb.  of  white  clover.  This  grew 
rapidly  and  seemed  to  be  very  good  mixture  for  the  purpose,  the 
clover  springing  up  quickly  and  protecting  the  grass  while  it  was 
startling.  In  this  region  clover  generally  dies  out  after  two  or 
three  years,  while  the  red  top  is  the  native  grass  and  will  get  a 
good  start  by  that  time. 

During  the  placing  of  the  loam  and  turf  a  torential  rainstorm 
occurred,  in  which  the  theory  of  the  strips  of  turf  was  thor- 


1220  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

oughly  tested  and  found  to  be  correct.  Small  guilles  formed  be- 
tween the  strips  of  turf,  being  at  most  an  inch  deep  at  the  upper 
end  and  3  ins.  deep  at  the  lower  end  and  close  together,  almost 
as  if  a  very  coarse  rake  had  been  dragged  down  the  slope  from 
one  strip  to  another.  In  no  instance  did  the  water  dip  under- 
neath the  turf,  and  the  gullies  at  the  foot  of  the  bank  were  very 
little  larger  than  those  up  near  the  top.  The  total  amount  of  dirt 
washed  away  was  small,  and  the  only  repair  necessary  was  going 
over  with  a  rake  to  smooth  the  slope  up  once  more. 

Design  of  Hydraulic-Fill  Dams.  The  conditions  of  solidity 
and  imperviousness  required  of  an  earth  dam  can  be  obtained 
with  the  hydraulic  process  as  readily  as  with  the  ordinary  method 
of  placing  earth  by  teams  or  cars  in  layers  and  rolling  and  tamp- 
ing. With  a  breast  of  great  height  the  hydraulic  filled  dam  can 
be  built  easier  and  frequently  cheaper  if  the  proper  methods  are 
used.  Method  and  cost  of  hydraulicking  are  fully  covered  in 
Chapter  XVIII. 

The  theory  upon  which  dydraulic-fill  dams  are  generally  planned 
is  about  as  follows:  That  the  inner  third  of  the  dam  should  be 
composed  of  impervious  material,  or  material  which,  by  drainage 
and  natural  settlement,  should  consolidate  into  a  mass  which  will 
become  impervious  to  water,  and  remain  in  a  moist,  semi-plastic 
condition ;  that  the  outer  half  of  each  of  the  other  thirds  should 
be  coarse,  porous,  open  material,  through  which  water  drainage 
from  the  interior,  will  pass  freely;  while  the  inner  halves  of  the 
outer  zones  should  be  a  mixture  of  the  coarse  and  fine,  or  a  semi- 
porous  material,  in  condition  to  act  as  a  filter  so  as  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  any  of  the  fine  particles  from  the  inner  third,  but 
at  the  same  time  allow  the  slow  percolation  of  water  through  it. 

Such  a  variation  in  sizes  of  materials  is  not  always  obtain- 
able. Then  the  engineer  must  modify  his  design  to  meet  the  con- 
ditions. 

Predicaments  of  this  sort  have  led  to  the  invention  of  the 
hydraulic-fill,  rock-fill  dam.  In  this  kind  of  dam  the  down-stream 
side  of  the  breast  is  built  of  rock,  and  the  rest  of  it  is  hydraulic- 
fill.  The  core  wall  is  generally  the  dividing  line,  but  not  neces- 
sarily so.  Sheets  piles  are  driven  along  the  up-stream  end  of  tiu 
rock-fill,  to  prevent  the  fine  particles  of  earth  from  escaping  from 
the  center  of  the  dam  and  flowing  away  through  the  rock-fill. 

In  depositing  the  sluiced  material  in  the  dam,  care  is  taken 
that  the  earth  is  deposited  on  the  slopes  of  the  breast,  thus  keep- 
ing them  higher  than  the  center,  which  allows  the  water  to  collect 
in  a  pond  at  that  point.  This  serves  several  purposes.  The 
weight  of  water  compacts  the  material  as  well  as  permitting  the 
suspended  particles  to  settle  to  the  bottom,  thus  preventing  the 
wasting  of  any  of  the  earth  excavated.  Then,  too,  the  coarse 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1221 

material  is  deposited  on  the  slopes,  while  the  finer  granules  are 
carried  into  the  center,  thus  making  up  the  plastic  core  that  is 
so  essential.  In  rock-filled  dams  it  is  evident  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  place  a  flume  or  pipe  on  the  up-stream  slope  only,  as  the 
lov/er  slope  is  taken  care  of  by  the  rock. 

The  excess  of  water  is  carried  from  the  pond  in  the  center  by 
flumes,  or  by  syphons,  or  by  connecting  the  waste  culvert  in  the 
bottom  of  the  breast  by  a  small  shaft,  which  is  built  up  in  suc- 
cessive layers,  through  the  dam,  keeping  it  at  such  a  height  as  to 
retain  four  or  five  feet  of  water  in  the  pond.  As  this  water  is 
run  off,  it  can  be  stored,  if  necessary,  for  use  a  second  time. 
In  designing  these  outlets  for  the  water,  when  they  run  through 
the  dam,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  wet  material  has  con- 
siderable crushing  pressure,  and  ample  strength  must  be  given 
to  the  culverts.  In  a  number  of  cases  of  dam  construction  these 
outlets  have  failed. 

Cost  of  Hydraulicking  the  Lake  Francis  Dam.  This  involved 
rebuilding  and  enlarging  an  old  dam  made  with  teams,  part  of 
the  breast  of  the  dam  having  been  washed  away.  This  work 
is  described  by  James  D.  Schuyler  in  Transactions,  American  So- 
ciety of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  LVIII. 

Throughout  the  reconstruction  work  the  minimum  cost  for 
labor  on  any  one  week's  work  averaged  3.8  cts.  per  cu.  yd., 
sluiced  and  deposited  in  the  dam.  The  average  labor  cost  was 
about  15  cts.  per  cu.  yd.,  and  the  total  cost  was  less  than  20  cts. 
per  cu.  yd.,  including  all  power,  materials  and  plant.  In  all 
18,300  cu.  yds.  were  deposited  in  the  dam.  The  record  of  power 
used  in  pumping  showed  that  it  cost  1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for  power. 
Electricity  was  used.  From  the  channel  below  the  spillway  9,150 
cu.  yds.  were  excavated  with  the  monitor  at  a  cost  of  3%  cts. 
per  cu.  yd. 

Hydraulicking  the  Concully  Dam,  Washington.  An  abstract 
of  a  paper  by  D.  C.  Henry,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  LXXIV, 
is  given  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  10,  1911,  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  Concully  Dam  is  part  of  the  Okanogan  project  of  the  U. 
S.  Reclamation  Service.  The  principal  dimensions  of  the  dam  are: 

Greatest  height  above  bottom  creek  channel,  ft 66 

Width  of  valley  on  center  line  of  dam,   ft 815 

Length  of  crest  of  dam,  ft 1,010 

Top   width,    ft 20 

Length  of  spillway,   ft 180 

Up-stream  slope:   upper  portion  2%:1,  lower  portion  3:1 

Down-stream   slope 2:1 

Volume  of  dam,    cu.   yds 351,500 

Matei~ials  Available.  The  following  materials  were  available 
for  dam  construction :  ( 1 )  Fine  sandy  loam  near  the  surface,  in 


1222    HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  valley  bottom,  principally  to  be  found  up  stream  from  the 
dam;  -(2)  gravel  and  sand  from  the  gravel  bar  to  the  east  of 
the  reservoir,  at  a  distance  of  from  2,000  to  5,000  ft.;  (3)  talus 
material  on  the  west  mountain  side,  just  below  the  dam,  consist- 
ing of  sand  and  silt  from  the  disintegration  of  the  granite  rock, 
mixed  with  angular  rock  fragments  of  sizes  from  a  man's  fist 
to  a  cubic  yard. 

The  latter  material  was  selected  as  that  most  suitable  for  the 
dam,  in  connection  with  the  method  of  construction  to  be  fol- 
lowed. 

It  was  considered  desirable  to  place  the  core  section  as  near 
forward  in  the  dam  as  practicable  so  as  to  have  it  backed  by  the 
maximum  quantity  of  more  open  material.  As  a  result,  the  cen- 
tral plane  through  the  core  has  a  downstream  inclination.  It 
was  expected  that  no  difficulty  would  result  from  this  position 
of  the  core,  as  it  wcfuld  be  possible  to  keep  the  down-stream 
dumps  at  a  higher  elevation  than  those  up  stream  and  thus 
maintain  the  central  pond  at  a  point  well  forward  toward  the 
reservoir  side. 

The  core  section  connects  with  the  side-hill  by  cleaning  to 
bedrock  and  excavating  a  rock  trench  in  line  with  the  inclined 
central  core  plain.  A  drainage  trench  was  provided  at  the  down- 
stream toe  of  the  dam,  filled  with  coarse  material,  hydraulicked 
in,  connecting  with  the  old  creek  channel  below  the  dam. 

Construction.  Construction  was  commenced  in  the  summer  of 
1907,  during  which  year  the  following  work  was  done :  ( 1 ) 
Building  3  miles  of  feed-water  flume,  mostly  on  steep  mountain 
sides;  (2)  building  a  dirt  flume,  partly  on  mountain  side,  partly 
on  trestle;  (3)  driving  and  jetting  855  ft.  of  6  by  12-in.  triple 
lap,  tongued  and  grooved,  sheet-piling,  36  ft.  long,  ,for  a  distance 
of  33  ft.  into  valley  bottom;  (4)  excavating  395  ft.  of  8  by  9-ft. 
outlet  tunnel,  partly  lined,  through  the  east  mountain  side,  and 
excavating  a  vertical  shaft;  (5)  partial  excavation  of  the  spill- 
way gap  in  the  ridge  at  the  west  end  of  the  dam. 

During  the  season  of  1908,  97,000  cu.  yds.  of  material  were 
sluiced  from  the  borrowpits,  and  the  spillway  excavation  was 
completed  and  lined  with  concrete.  At  the  end  of  the  season, 
second-stage  flume  trestles  were  erected.  During  the  season  of 
1909,  188,000  cu.  yds.  of  material  were  sluiced  from  the  borrow- 
pits, and  the  permanent  gates  were  installed  in  the  outlet  tunnel. 
During  the  season  of  1910,  the  remaining  64,000  cu.  yds.  of  ma- 
terial were  sluiced,  mostly  from  the  second-stage,  and  partly 
from  the  third-stage  flumes.  The  dam  was  completed  during  Au- 
gust, 1910. 

The  original  supply  flume  had  a  capacity  of  17  sec-ft.  At  the 
end  of  the  1908  season  it  was  decided  to  increase  this  capacity 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1223 

to  26  sec-ft.  Small  storage  reservoirs  were  built  above  the  flume 
intakes  to  permit  of  concentration  of  the  flow  during  the  dry 
season  for  two  shifts  or  one  shift  each  day.  The  large  boulders 
found  in  the  pit  had  to  be  broken  by  blasting,  or  wasted,  to  pre- 
vent them  from  accumulating  in  the  bottom.  For  this  reason 
two  pits  were  kept  in  operation  alternately. 

The  feed- water  was  led  down  the  mountain  side  through  14-in. 
No.  16  steel,  slip- joint  pipes,  one  line  of  pipe  for  each  borrow- 
pit,  and  was  used  partly  by  the  giant,  which  consumed  from  1% 
to  5y2  sec. -ft.,  through  nozzles  changed  from  2  to  3%  ins.  in 
diameter,  as  required.  The  water  was  supplied  under  a  head  of 
129  to  169  ft.  for  the  first  stage,  and  from  114  to  140  ft.  for  the 
second  and  third  stages.  A  flow  of  from  2  to  3  sec.-ft.  was  de- 
livered under  pressure  through  a  4-in.  pipe  at  the  head  of  the  bor- 
rowpit  dirt  flume  near  its  bottom,  serving  as  push-water.  The 
remainder  of  the  available  water  was  used  as  push-water  at  the 
point  where  the  pit  flume  dropped  its  load  into  the  main  dirt 
flume.  A  small  quantity  of  water,  however,  was  allowed  to  enter 
the  pit  at  its  upper  end  on  a  level  with  the  supply  flume,  in  order 
to  cause  the  fine  upper  material  to  slide  in  from  above. 

A  7xl3-in.  screen  was  used  at  the  head  of  the  pit  flume  during 
the  1908  season,  to  exclude  large  rock,  but  its  use  was  discon- 
tinued after  the  water  supply  was  increased. 

The  main  dirt  flume  ran  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  pits  oppo- 
site the  point  on  the  dam  equidistant  from  its  ends,  and  then  pro- 
ceeded on  a  high  trestle  from  the  mountain  side  to  the  dam.  On 
reaching  the  dam,  the  main  flume  connected  on  each  side  with 
two  lateral  flumes  near  the  down-stream  toe  of  the  dam,  and  con- 
tinued to  similar  flumes  close  to  the  up-stream  toe.  When  the 
dam  was  built  up  to  the  elevation  of  the  first  lateral  flumes 
the  main  trestle  was  raised  29  ft.,  and  was  connected  with  a 
new  flume  laid  along  the  mountain  side,  while  the  new  lateral 
flume  trestles  were  built  closer  to  the  center  line  of  the  dam.  In 
the  final  finishing  of  the  dam,  a  single  flume  was  built  on  trestle 
near  the  center  line. 

The  main  dirt  flume  was  built  with  wooden  sides  slightly  in- 
clined outward,  and  with  a  curved  bottom  of  No.  10  mild  steel 
with  a  12-in.  radius.  The  width  at  the  top  was  2  ft.  9  ins.'  and 
the  total  depth  2  ft.  3  ins.  The  velocity  of  the  water  ranged 
from  14  to  18  ft.  per  sec. 

It  soon  became  apparent  that  the  angular  rocks  sliding  on  the 
bottom  caused  serious  wear,  and  when  11,000  cu.  yds.  had  been 
delivered,  many  holes  had  been  worn  within  a  strip  in  the  center 
0  ins.  wide,  the  steel  higher  up  showing  little  wear.  The  flume 
was  then  given  a  flat  wooden  bottom  16  ins.  wide,  and  lined  with 
No.  1Q  mild  steel,  which  stood  the  wear  far  better. 


1224  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

At  the  end  of  the  first  season,  when  it  was  decided  to  increase 
the  water  supply  from  15  to  26  sec. -ft.,  the  dirt  flume  was  rebuilt 
to  rectangular  shape,  with  a  bottom  30  ins.  wide  and  lined  with 
14-in.  high-carbon  steel,  and  27-in.  sides  lined  for  the  lower  6  ins. 
with  No.  10  mild  steel.  The  heavier  and  harder  steel  answered 
the  purpose  satisfactorily,  and  lasted  through  the  delivery  of 
252,000  cu.  yds.  of  material,  showing  serious  wear  only  at  the 
butt  joints. 

The  flumes  had  4%  grades,  except  the  short  borrowpit  flumes, 
which  had  8%  grades,  and  the  third-stage  flumes  for  the  finishing 
of  the  dam,  which  for  part  of  the  distance  back  had  a  3%  grade. 

The  material  was  discharged  from  delivery  points  at  the  dam 
in  two  rows  of  cones,  forming  ridges,  the  principal  ridge  being 
along  the  down-stream  slope.  By  deflecting  screens,  gratings, 
spouts,  and  other  means,  the  coarsest  material  was  discharged, 
as  far  as  possible  outward,  and  the  finer  material  inward,  to- 
ward the  pond  maintained  between  the  two  ridges.  The  surplus 
water  from  the  pond  was  drawn  off  on  the  reservoir  side  through 
flumes  near  the  ends  of  the  dam,  which  were  alternately  raised 
6  ins.  at  a  time,  the  pond  being  maintained  at  a  depth  of  from 
12  to  18  ins. 

The  material  settling  in  the  pond  consisted  of  very  fine  sand 
and  silt,  the  coarser  sand  and  gravel  coming  to  rest  on  the  slop- 
ing sides  of  the  pond,  and  the  large  rock  dropping  vertically  and 
sliding  down  the  cone  slopes.  The  pond  at  first  was  quite  wide, 
but,  as  elevation  was  gained,  it  narrowed  up  to  such  an  extent 
that  in  spite  of  skillful  handling,  the  sloping  coarse  sand  layers 
would  at  times  extend  well  into  the  puddle  section  and  some- 
times clear  across  it.  Such  layers  were  broken  up  by  systematic 
stirring  with  paddles,  but  when  this  tendency  to  stratification  be- 
came more  marked  and  could  not  be  satisfactorily  prevented  or 
counteracted,  it  was  decided  to  introduce  an  artificial  core  with 
puddling  material  from  other  sources.  The  surface  material  in 
the  valley  below  the  dam,  consisting  of  black,  loamy  sand,  was 
well  suited  to  form  a  core.  This  material  was  hauled  in  by 
scrapers  on  an  up-hill  road,  dumped  on  a  platform  and  washed 
into,  the  dam  through  an  8-in.  pipe.  In  order  to  insure  against 
stratification  across  this  core,  two  wooden  diaphragms  were  built 
of  2  by  4-in.  studding  and  1-in.  boards,  which  were  first  given  a 
vertical  position  and  made  to  step  back  in  sections,  so  as  to  have 
their  center  plane  correspond,  as  nearly  as  possible,  with  the  cen- 
ter plane  of  the  general  core,  but  which  were  later  built  in  a  slop- 
ing position.  Thus,  while  the  material  from  the  upper  borrow- 
pits  was  hydraulicked  in  on  the  slopes,  the  core  material  was 
washed  in  through  the  8-in.  pipe  between  diaphragms.  The  ar- 
tificial core  was  started  at  an  elevation  14  ft.  above  the  general 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1225 

base  of  the  clam  in  the  late  spring  of  1909,  and  was  continued 
about  39  ft.  up  to  the  high-water  line.  It  contains  in  the  aggre- 
gate 11,600  cu.  yds.  and,  owing  to  the  long  haul  of  about  1,000 
ft.  011  a  7%  up-grade,  and  also  to  the  necessity  of  using  a  large 
quantity  of  lumber  for  diaphragms,  its  cost  was  quite  high. 

The  coarse  rock,  as  dumped  on  the  outer  slopes,  was  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  serve  as  rip-rap,  but  it  did  not  prove  possible  to  de- 
posit it  to  final  slopes  by  the  use  of  water  alone,  and  after 
hydraulicking  was  completed,  it  required  a  large  amount  of  hand- 
work to  obtain  reasonably  good  slopes. 

As  the  quantity  of  rock  found  in  the  borrowpits  was  larger 
than  had  been  estimated,  the  relative  quantity  of  rock  on  the 
water  slope  became  sufficient  to  justify  the  steepening  of  this 
slope  from  3  to  1,  as  had  been  originally  designed,  to  2%  to  1 


i 

Fig.  23.     Cross  Section  Concully  Dam. 

for  the  upper  26  ft.  of  the  dam,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines 
in  the  central  section  on  Fig.  23. 

The  dam  was  built  with  a  super-elevation  of  1  ft.  across  the 
valley,  equivalent  to  nearly  2%  of  its  height.  In  view  of  the  hard 
pounding  and  washing  which  the  material  received  in  being 
dumped,  and  the  prevalence  of  sand  and  gravel,  this  provision  may 
seem  excessive.  During  the  progress  of  construction,  however, 
it  was  found  that  as  the  load  came  on  the  base,  considerable  settle- 
ment occurred  in  the  trestles,  due  apparently  to  a  compacting 
of  the  line  loamy  sand  in  the  foundation.  The  maximum  settle- 
ment, extending  over  the  last  560  days  of  construction  being  3.9 
ft.  along  the  old  creek  bed.  In  total  volume,  this  settlement 
amounted  to  15,500  cu.  yds.  and  while  it  may  have  ceased  on  the 
completion  of  the  dam,  it  was  deemed  wise  to  finish  to  the  super- 
elevation above  mentioned.  Careful  watch  was  kept  for  possible 
evidence  of  a  swelling  up  of  the  ground  surface  beyond  the  toes 
of  the  dam,  but  none  was  observed. 

The  swell  in  volume  during  the  first  season  was  estimated  at 
12%,  but,  for  the  completed  work,  a  lower  percentage  is  computed, 
as  follows: 


1226         HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Sluiced   from   side-hill   borrow-pits,    cu.   yds... 349,455 

Loss  in  waste  water,  cu.  yds 20,000 


Remaining  in  dam,  pit  measurement,   cu.  yds 329,455 

Volume  of  dam,    cu.   yds 339,900 


Swell,   3.2%    10,445 

The  cost  of  the  reservoir  was  as  follows: 

Clearing  reservoir  site $7,652 

Main  Dam: 

Creek    diversion    965 

Clearing  dam  site    936 

Trenches    1,862 

Sheet-piling    13,982 

Hydraulicking,  339,900  cu.  yds.  at  45.8  cts 155,637 

Peddle  core,  11,600  cu.  yds.  at  $1.97  22,885 

Sloping 8,465 

Miscellaneous - 1,382 


Total  for  main  dam  $208,219 

Outlet   works    23,114 

Spillway     34, 613 

Telephone     2,827 

Real  estate  30,977 

General  investigation  of  dam  sites' 19,028 

Total  cost  of  13,000  acre-ft.   at  $24.95   $324,325 

The  items  in  the  table  include  all  charges  for  administration, 
engineering  and  general  expenses.  The  cost  of  puddle  core  in- 
cludes lumber  for  diaphragms.  The  total  material  in  the  dam  is 
351,500  cu.  yds.,  and  the  combined  cost  of  hydraulicking  and 
puddle  core  is  $178,522,  making  the  average  cost,  on  the  basis  of 
bank  measurement,  50.8  cts.  per  cu.  yd.,  including  lumber  for  core 
and  all  overhead  charges,  but  exclusive  of  the  cost  of  sloping. 

The  details  of  the  cost  of  hyraulicking  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  the  prices  paid  for  labor,  per  8-hr,  day,  being: 

Common    labor    $2.25  @  2.50 

Pitmen     2.75@3.00 

Giant    men    3.00 

Powder    men    3.00 

Carpenters     4.00  @  4.50 

Foremen     5.00 

Plant:  .  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

Feed  supply  dams  and  flumes  5.04 

Dirt  flumes  and  trestles,  exclusive  of  flume  lining 5.94 

Steel  lining    4.40 

Pipes,  giants  and  hose   1.09 

Electric   light  plant 0.37 

Proportionate  share  of  camp  buildings    0.33 

Superintendence    1.49 

Administration,  engineering  and  general  expenses 2.29 

Total   ($71,204) 20.95 

Less  value  of  plant  on  hand 0.62 

Total   plant    20.33 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1227 

Supplies : 

Tools    080 

Rubber  boots  and  clothing  «•«" 

Powder  and  explosives   ••v.v. O'AK 

Proportionate  share  of  camp  buildings   J.Wb 

Superintendence    • n'nR 

Administration,  engineering  and  general  expenses 0.36 

O    AO 

Total   supplies •».... 

Labor: 

Foremen    i'17 

Building  road  to  pit   "-M 

Clearing   borrow-pit    • "•" 

Feed-supply  flume  tenders   j-i* 

Giant  men    oeo 

Pit  men «4fi 

Clearing  pit  of  rock   .......••• £g 

Building  lateral  flume  m  pit   »•& 

Hauling  and  laying  pipe  in  pit  .._.. «•'» 

Dirt  flume  tenders    *•** 

Labor,    steel   lining   •  •••• *••"? 

Spreading  material  and  puddling  in  dam  W.w 

Carpenters  on  dam  and  flumes  , *•» 

Blacksmith °.27 

Operating  light  plant    "•£* 

Transporting  laborers    ••- "•£<> 

Dismantling  plant   "•.;••. noa 

Proportionate  charge  for  camp  buildings   u.^» 

Superintendence    J-^ 

Administration,   engineering  and  general  expenses ^.Uo 

Total   labor    21.99 

Total    cost    hydraulicking    339,900    cu.    yds.,    cts.    per 
cu.    yd 45-80 

Hydraulicking  the  Bear  Creek  Dam.  This  dam  is  part  of  the 
Jordan  River  development  on  Vancouver  Island.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  May,  1912,  and  forms  a  storage  reservoir  for  an  hydro 
electric  plant.  C.  E.  Blee  describes  the  construction  of  the  dam 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  21,  1913. 

Some  of  the  dimensions  are: 

Total    volume    of    dam    (embankment    measurement), 

cu.    yds 148,390 

Length  of  crest  of  dam,   ft :..-. 1,017 

Greatest  height  above  original  ground  surface,  ft 57 

Greatest  height  above  bottom  of  sheet  piling  curtain, 

ft 127 

Top  width  of  dam,  ft 15 

Upstream    slope    of    dam 3  to  1 

Downstream  slope  of  dam  ZVz  to  1 

Capacity    of    spillway,    cu.    ft.    per    sec 5,000 

Distance  of  spillway  entrance  below  crest  of  dam,  ft.  15 

Distance  of  high  water  level  below  crest  of  dam,   ft.  5 

Cut-Off  Trench.  As  soon  as  stripping  had  advanced  far  enough 
to  permit  it,  work  was  started  on  a  cut-o.ff  trench,  extending 
throughout  the  length  of  the  dam  and  parallel  with  the  axis,  the 
center  line  of  the  trench  being  directly  under  the  downstream  edge 
of  the  crest  of  the  dam.  This  trench  (Fig.  25)  was  6  ft.  wide  at 
the  bottom,  and  averaged  about  20  ft.  deep,  with  side  slopes  of 


1228  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

%  to  1.  At  both  ends  of  the  dam  it  was  carried  down  to  bed- 
rock as  far  as  the  practicable  depth  of  the  trench  would  permit, 
the  bedrock  dipping  rather  rapidly  toward  the  center  of  the 
valley.  The  material  excavated  consisted  of  a  semi-cemented 
gravel,  and  heavy  boulders  with  thin  layers  of  sand  at  deeper 
levels.  The  first  lift  of  5  or  6  ft.  was  shoveled  directly  into 
wheelbarrows.  The  greater  part  of  the  remainder  was  removed 
by  a  steam  derrick  with  skips,  a  hand  derrick  also  being  used 
in  some  extent.  The  smaller  material  in  the  section  under  the 
old  stream  bed,  where  considerable  water  was  encountered,  was 
removed  with  a  hydraulic  elevator. 

All  material  excavated  from  the  trench  was  placed  in  the  em- 
bankment, excepting  near  the  ends  where,  due  to  the  narrowness 
of  the  base  of  the  dam,  but  little  of  this  material  could  be  used, 
and  it  was  more  economical  to  waste  it  than  to  haul  it  to  the 
wider  portions.  In  placing  material  of  any  description  by  means 
other  than  sluicing,  care  was  observed  to  keep  it  well  without 
the  limits  of  the  middle  third  of  the  section,  in  order  to  re- 
serve the  central  portion  for  the  puddle  material  deposited  under 
water.  The  material  from  the  trench  excavation  placed  in  the 
embankment  was  largely  used  to  start  the  toe  of  the  slopes 
of  the  dam,  thus  forming  dikes  some  5  ft.  or  more  in  height, 
which  would  serve  to  retain  the  sluicing  pond  and  to  be  other- 
wise useful  at  the  time  of  starting  the  fill  by  sluicing  methods. 

The  total  volume  of  material  removed  from  the  trench  was 
8,675  cu.  yds.  The  direct  labor  cost  of  excavation  when  a  steam 
derrick  was  used  was  approximately  $1.00  per  cu.  yd. 

Borrowpits.  The  main  borrowpit  was  located  on  the  north 
side  of  the  valley,  directly  opposite  the  dam  and  about  400  ft. 
from  the  north  end  of  the  dam  axis.  Test  pits  showed  this  to  be 
the  only  available  deposit  sufficiently  large  to  furnish  the  material 
for  the  embankment.  The  material  was  a  hard-pan  made  up  of 
sand,  gravel,  and  boulders,  mixed  with  clay,  and  overlying  the 
bedrock  in  depths  of  from  8  to  18  ft.  It  was  not  an  economical 
material  to  handle,  as  it  was  necessary  to  break  it  witli  powder; 
it  required  a  heavy  grade  on  the  flumes,  and  a  large  amount 
of  boulders  had  to  be  handled  and  wasted  in  the  pit;  but  it 
was  so  proportioned  that  when  segregated  and  deposited  by 
the  hydraulic  process  it  formed  an  embankment  which,  for  sta- 
bility and  imperviousness,  could  not  be  surpassed. 

Small  borrow-pits  were  opened  on  the  south  side  of  the  valley 
to  be  used  in  finishing  the  south  end  of  the  dam.  The  main  pit 
was  at  an  elevation  of  from  150  to  250  ft.  above  the  valley 
floor,  which  is  equivalent  to  95  and  195  ft.  above  the  crest  of  the 
dam. 

Equipment  for  Sluicing.     A  gravity  supply  of  water  was  ob- 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1229 

tained  from  a  small  tributary  creek  rising  on  the  north  slope 
of  the  valley,  and  entering  Bear  Creek  just  below  the  dam.  A 
crib  dam,  13  ft.  in  height,  was  built  near  the  head  waters  of  this 
creek,  forming  a  storage  reservoir  with  a  capacity  of  approxi- 
mately 1,500,000  cu.  ft.,  which  was  sufficient  to  operate  the  sluic- 
ing five  to  seven  days,  aided  by  the  natural  flow  of  the  creek. 
This  storage  proved  very  useful,  as  the  stream  fluctuated  rapidly 
with  weather  conditions,  running  very  low  in  dry  periods  or  in 
freezing  weather.  The  water  was  diverted  at  a  point  about  half  a 
mile  from  the  dam  site,  and  carried- by  means  of  a  10-in.,  spiral- 
wound  wood-stave  pipe  to  a  head-box  above  the  borrow  pit.  This 
pipe  had  a  capacity  of  approximately  7  cu.  ft.  per  second.  From 
the  head-box  to  the  borrow-pit,  a  distance  of  about  400  ft.,  an  8-in. 
slip-joint  riveted  steel  hydraulic  pipe  —  No.  12  gage  —  was  laid. 
A  gate  was  provided  at  the  head-box  and  two  2-in.  standpipes 
installed  as  air  valves.  Care  was  taken  to  anchor  this  pipe,  espe- 
cially at  all  angle  joints.  A  Y-piece  was  installed  just  above  the 
borrow-pit,  with  one  pipe  leading  down  the  west  side,  and  the 
other  down  the  east  side  of  the  pit.  Both  were  provided  with 
gate  valves  near  the  Y.  The  monitors  were  connected  directly  to 
these  pipes,  which  were  shifted  about  as  the  progress  of  the  work 
required.  The  static  head  at  the  nozzles  ranged  from  125  to  225 
ft.,  giving  discharge  of  from  3  to  6  cu.  ft.  per  sec.  Nozzle  tips 
of  3  and  4-in.  diameter  were  used. 

Pumping  Plant.  A  pumping  plant  was  installed  just  below 
the  dam  near  the  creek,  to  be  used  whenever  the  gravity  supply 
ran  low,  and  so  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  delays  in  sluicing 
operations.  This  was  considered  necessary  as  it  was  impera- 
tive that  the  dam  be  completed  in  time  to  store  water  for  use 
during  the  summer  of  1912.  The  plant  contained  two  three-stage 
centrifugal  pumps,  6-in.  discharge,  1,000  gals,  per  minute  ca- 
pacity, the  pumps  being  driven  by  steam  engines,  equipped  with 
four  50-hp.  boilers.  Wood  cut  near  the  site  was  used  for  fuel. 
When  running  at  full  capacity,  about  25  cords  were  burnt  per 
24  hrs.  This  was  delivered  at  the  plant  at  an  average  total 
cost  of  $3.50  per  cord. 

The  small  borrowpits  south  of  the  dam  were  operated  entirely 
by  water  from  the  pumps. 

For  lighting  the  works,  16  c.  p.,  incandescent  lamps,  were 
strung  on  each  deck  of  the  main  flume  and  laterals,  the  power 
being  generated  by  a  D.  C.  100-amp.  125-volt  dynamo,  operated 
in  connection  with  the  pumping  plant. 

Sluicing  Flume.  A  main  flume  (Fig.  24)  of  three  decks  was 
erected  to  carry  the  sluiced  materials  from  the  borrow-pits  into 
the  dam.  This  flume  extended  the  full  length  of  the  dam,  parallel 
to  the  axis,  and  with  its  center-line  8  ft.  upstream  from  the  up- 


1230 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


stream  edge  of  the  crest.  It  was  so  located  in  order  to  be  clear 
of  the  cut-off  trench,  but  ordinarily  it  is  better  practice  to  keep 
the  flume  within  the  lines  of  the  crest  so  that  as  the  fill  ap- 
proaches the  crest,  any  overflow  from  the  flume  will  not  tend  to 
wash  out  the  newly  formed  slopes. 

A  flume  box  was  carried  on  each  of  the  three  decks.  The  pav- 
ing blocks  used  in  the  bottom  of  the  boxes  were  cut  on  the  site, 
and  it  was  found  economical  to  select  the  best  fir  timber  for  these. 
It  was  necessary  to  replace  these  blocks  after  the  passage  of  about 


EnQ&Contq. 
Fig.  24.     Main  Sluicing  Flume  Bear  Creek  Dam. 

25,000  cu.  yds.  of  borrowpit  material,  and  even  before  this  they 
would  become  so  badly  hollowed  out  and  worn  as  to  interfere 
considerably  with  the  flow  of  the  sluiced  material.  There  was 
but  slight  wear  on  the  sides  of  the  flumes,  the  original  boards 
lasting  throughout  the  work.  A  grade  of  6%  was  used  on  the 
main  flume,  and  this  proved  to  be  as  light  a  grade  as  could  be 
used  with  the  dense  heavy  material  which  was  found  in  the  bor- 
rowpits  here. 

Lateral  flumes,  branching  off  from  the  main  flume,  and  then 
curving  and  extending  along  near  the  face  of  the  slope  and  parallel 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1231 

to  the  axis,  were  erected  to  distribute  the  material  along  the  edges 
of  the  rising  embankment.  Two  types  of  laterals  were  used,  ac- 
cording to  the  construction  of  the  flume-box.  The  longer  and 
more  permanent  laterals  had  a  box  with  flush  or  butt  joints  and 
of  practically  the  same  construction  as  the  main  flume  box,  also 
the  same  grade  —  6% — was  used  on  these.  The  material  was 
dumped  by  means  of  gates  or  openings  in  the  sides  of  the  box, 
and  where  necessary  for  the  placing  of  the  material,  spouts  were 
attached  to  these  openings.  The  box  on  the  other  type  of  lateral 
had  telescopic  or  lap  joints,  and  was  of  lighter  construction 
throughout.  Grades  of  7  and  8%  were  necessary  with  these,  be- 
cause of  the  loss  of  grade  due  to  the  lapping.  The  material 
was  dumped  from  the  telescopic  boxes  by  simply  displacing  them 
at  the  joints  where  desired.  As  the  slopes  approached  the  crest, 
the  material  was  distributed  directly  from  the  main  flume  by 
means  of  spouts. 

Sluicing.  Sluicing  was  started  Sept.  1,  1911,  and  carried  on 
as  nearly  continuously  as  possible  in  day  and  night  shifts  of  12 
hours  each.  Delays  were  encountered  due  to  weather  and  flood 
conditions,  so  that  sluicing  operations  were  maintained  67%  of 
the  total  elapsed  time  after  starting.  However,  the  fill  was 
completed  April  15,  which  was  earlier  than  had  been  anticipated. 

Weather  as  cold  as  5°  F.  above  zero  was  experienced,  and  the 
snow  on  the  ground  reached  a  depth  of  about  3  ft.  The  extreme 
cold  interfered  with  the  flow  of  the  sluiced  material  by  the 
freezing  along  the  edges  of  the  sluiceways  and  the  formation 
of  ice  on  the  sides  of  the  flumes.  Also  the  ice  on  the  sluicing 
pond  attained  considerable  thickness,  but  this  was  overcome  by 
laying  steam  pipes  around  the  edge  of  the  pond,  and  introducing 
live  steam  from  the  boiler  plant.  With  the  outside  temperature 
ranging  from  10°  to  25°  F.,  it  was  necessary  to  operate  the 
thawing  system  about  12  hours  out  of  48  to  keep  the  pond 
comparatively  free  of  ice. 

During  the  months  of  November  and  December  some  severe  de- 
lays were  occasioned  by  maintaining  the  temporary  spillway 
through  the  dam.  Further  delays  were  due  to  a  failure  of  the 
gravity  supply  of  water,  when  suitable  borrowpit  material  was 
not  available  at  an  elevation  to  be  economically  reached  with 
pumped  water. 

In  the  borrowpit,  a  nozzle  was  maintained  on  each  side  of 
the  pit,  the  two  being  operated  alternately  in  periods  of  about 
six  hours.  While  the  nozzle  was  in  operation  on  one  side,  the 
crew  would  remove  the  boulders  from  the  sluiceways,  and  put 
in  the  blast  holes  for  breaking  the  ground  on  the  other  side.  It 
was  necessary  to  break  all  the  ground  with  powder.  "  Gopher  " 
holes  were  put  into  the  base  of  the  banks  to  a  depth  of  from  10 


1232  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

to  16  ft.;  also  in  places  where  the 'ground  was  shallow  down- 
holes  were  put  in  by  driving  1-in.  drill  steel. 

rlhe  larger  masses  resulting  from  the  heavy  shots  were  "  bifll- 
dozed"  and  the  whole  further  broken  down  with  picks.  Through- 
out the  work  the  amount  of  powder  used  in  the  complete  breaking 
of  the  ground  ran  remarkably  close  to  ^4  lb.  of  powder  per  cu.  yd. 
In  the  "  Gopher  holes "  25%  dynamite  was  used,  and  40%  was 
used  for  "  bulldozing." 

A  fairly  large  proportion  of  the  boulders  were  too  large  to  be 
transported  in  th£  flumes  with  the  amount  of  water  available,  and 
these  had  to  be  handled  and  wasted  in  the  pit.  They  were  re- 
moved from  the  sluiceway  when  the  nozzle  was  not  in  operatic-n, 
and  were  generally  thrown  out  on  the  side  toward  the  center  of 
the  pit,  so  as  to  form  a  wall  or  dike  which  would  confine  the 
water  in  the  sluiceway  and  tend  to  throw  it  in  toward  the  bank. 
This  had  the  effect  of  cutting  out  the  sloping  toe  of  the  bank  and 
keeping  the  face  vertical,  which  was  of  considerable  help  in  put- 
ting in  the  "  Gopher  holes."  It  is  estimated  that  10%  of  the  total 
material  removed  was  handled  and  wasted  in  the  pit.  Also 
when  the  sluicing  was  in  operation,  men  were  kept  in  the  sluice- 
way with  long,  pronged  rakes  removing  the  larger  boulders  and 
keeping  the  material  moving.  It  was  found  necessary  to  keep 
the  sluiceways  cleaned  right  down  to  bedrock,  or  the  material 
would  start  to  deposit  and  block  up,  even  where  the  grade  was 
as  steep  as  15  to  20%.  The  stream  from  the  nozzle  was  fre- 
quently turned  into  the  sluiceways  to  push  the  material.  Later 
on  in  the  work,  flume  boxes  were  carried  up  closer  to  the  work- 
ing face,  and  this  did  away  with  much  of  the  work  of  maintain- 
ing the  open  sluiceways  on  the  bedrock. 

A  donkey  engine  was  used  for  pulling  and  removing  stumps  as 
they  were  undercut  by  the  excavation.  It  was  also  used  in  re- 
moving large  boulders,  and  a  stone-boat  was  used  to  some  extent 
in  removing  rock. 

Flume  tenders  were  stationed  on  the  flume  to  keep  the  ma- 
terial moving  when  blockades  started  to  form.  These  blockades 
were  fairly  frequent,  and  when  they  occurred  it  was  necessary  to 
stop  sluicing  and  run  in  clear  water  from  the  nozzle.  Two 
men  were  kept  on  the  lateral  flumes  to  attend  to  the  depositing 
of  the  material  along  the  edge  of  the  embankment. 

As  the  material  was  deposited  from  the  flumes,  the  boulders 
and  coarse  gravel  would  form  conical  piles,  while  the  lighter  ma- 
terial was  carried  off  by  the  water  toward  the  sluicing  pond,  the 
material  being  graded  and  deposited  as  the  velocity  of  the  water 
decreased  until  when  it  reached  the  edge  of  the  pond  and  the 
velocity  was  entirely  checked,  all  sand,  etc.,  was  immediately 
dropped,  and  nothing  but  the  fine  clay  silt  was  carried  in  to 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1233 

the  puddle  core.  From  the  edge  of  the  embankment  when  de- 
posited, the  material  formed  a  slope  of  about  5%  until  the  edge 
of  the  pond  was  reached,  when  it  dropped  off  abruptly  at  a  slope 
of  1  to  1.  The  surface  of  the  puddle  forming  the  bottom  of 
the  pond  was  practically  level. 

An  average  crew  of  eight  men  was  employed  in  shoveling  to 
slope  the  piles  deposited  from  the  flumes. 

Xo  difficulty  was  experienced  in  maintaining  the  slopes,  as  the 
outer  portion  of  the  embankment  was  built  up  entirely  of  boulders 
and  coarse  material  which  gave  stable,  well-drained  slopes.  Boul- 
ders as  large  as  8  ins.  in  diameter  were  delivered  through  the 
flumes. 

By  sluicing  from  different  sections  of  the  borrowpit,  it  was 
possible  to  select  material  with  differing  proportions  of  clay  and 
coarse  ingredients.  This  proved  quite  helpful,  especially  as  the 
dam  neared  completion,  for  if  the  sides  were  building  up  too 
fast  in  proportion  to  the  puddle,  material  could  be  selected  that 
carried  greater  proportion  of  clay. 

The  puddle  core  was  examined  on  several  occasions  when  the 
pond  was  drawn  off,  and  showed  no  tendency  toward  stratifica- 
tion. The  first  few  inches  on  the  surface  of  the  puddle  was  very 
light  and  fluffy,  but  at  a  depth  of  2  ft.  or  so  it  became  stiff  and 
fairly  solid,  showing  that  it  drained  and  solidified  rapidly. 

An  outlet  for  the  sluicing  pond  was,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the 
work,  provided  by  a  timber  culvert  extending  in  from  the  down- 
stream toe  of  the  dam  to  a  vertical  shaft,  also  of  timber.  This 
shaft  was  carried  up  as  the  work  progressed,  the  level  of  the 
pond  being  regulated  by  openings  or  gates  in  the  shaft.  The 
depth  of  the  pond  was  usually  kept  at  from  3  to  6  ft.,  according 
to  the  width  desired  for  the  puddle  core.  As  soon  as  the  embank- 
ment had  reached  an  elevation  such  that  the  pond  backed  up  into 
the  north  end  of  the  cut-off  trench,  a  deep  narrow  ditch  was  cut 
from  this  into  the  spillway,  so  that  the  pond  would  now  dis- 
charge through  this  ditch,  by  way  of  the  cut-off  trench.  This  was 
desired  in  order  that  any  current  set  up  in  the  sluicing  pond 
would  tend  to  carry  puddle  material  up  into  the  north  end  of  the 
trench,  for  it  was  feared  that  there  might  be  a  shortage  of  puddle 
for  this  portion,  due  to  the  narrowness  of  the  dam  section  here. 
The  level  of  the  pond  was  now  regulated  by  placing  sandbags 
in  the  entrance  to  the  ditch,  and  the  waste  water  was  discharged 
into  the  reservoir  by  means  of  a  small  flume.  This  was  done 
simply  as  an  extra,  precaution  in  order  that  the  fine  material  car- 
ried by  the  waste  water  might  tend  to  silt  up  the  reservoir  floor. 

As  the  fill  neared  completion,  the  puddle  core  was  carried  up  to 
high  water  elevation,  and  then,  in  topping  off  the*  embankment, 
mixed  material  was  dumped  in  directly  from  the  flumes  with- 


1234     HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

out  maintaining  any  pond.     The  work  of  topping  off  was  started 
at  the  south  end,  the  water  draining  off  at  the  north  end. 

RECORD  OF  SLUICING  OPERATIONS 

Gravity 

sluicing    Pumping 

Number  of  24-hr,  days  worked   (214) 145  69 

Actual  sluicing  time,  hrs 2,347  1,084 

Time   efficiency,    %    66  64 

Average  water   used,    sec. -ft , 5.6  3.0 

Material  placed  in  dam,  cu.  yds 92,490  32,015 

Ratio  of  material  to  water,   % 5.3  7.3 

Cu.  yds.  per  24  hrs.  straight  time 640  460 

Cu.  yds.  per  24  hrs.  sluicing  time 946  709 

Cu.  yds.  per  sec.-ft.  of  water '. 169  236 

Cost.     Following  is  a  list  of  the  average  force  employed  in  the 
borrowpit,  and  on  the  dam: 

BORROW-PIT  CREW 
Day  Shift  — 

1  Foreman    $5.75 

6  Drillers  (breaking  ground),  Iiy2  hours  at  30  cts 20.70 

5  Laborers  (rocking  out  sluiceways),  11%  hours  at  30c.     17.25 

1  Nozzleman    4.00 

Donkey  engine  crew   16.75 

Night  Shift  — 

1  Nozzleman     $4.50 

4  Men  (breaking  ground  and  rocking  out),  11%  hours 

at   30   cts 13.80 

CREW  ON  DAM 
Day  Shift  — 

3  Flume  tenders  on  main  flume,  11%  hours  at  30  cts...  $10.35 

2  Tenders  on  lateral  flumes,  11%  hours  at  30  cts 6.90 

8  Laborers  building  up  slope,  10  hours  at  27%  cts 22.00 

Night  Shift  — 

3  Flume  tenders,  11%  hours  at  30  cts 10.35 

2  Tenders  on  laterals,  11%  hours  at  30  cts 6.90 

1  Foreman 5.75 


Total  labor  cost   _. „....  $145.00 

Powder  for  breaking,  1,000  cu.  yds.  rr  250  Ibs 30.00 

$175.00 

From  this  force  account  it  is  seen  that  when  sluicing  with 
gravity  water,  and  placing  1,000  cu.  yds.  per  24  hrs.,  the  normal 
capacity  when  no  delays  were  encountered  —  the  powder  and  direct 
labor  cost  of  taking  the  material  from  the  borrowpit  and  plac- 
ing it  to  slope  in  the  dam  was  practically  17%  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 

The  cost  for  7  months  operation,  including,  in  addition  to  pow- 
der and  labor  costs  given  above,  all  labor  and  fuel  and  supplies 
for  pumping  plant  operation  and  maintenance,  superintendence, 
and  all  labor  and  material  for  maintenance  and  extension  to  pipe 
lines  and  flumes,  was  $54,277,  which  for  127,035  cu.  yd.  is  42.5 
cts.  per  cu.  yd. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1235 


1236 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


A  summary  of  the  material  placed  in  the  dam  is  as  follows: 

Rock  from  spillway  cut 8,285 

Material  from  cut-off  trench 5,700 

Sluiced  from  borrow-pit   (measured  in  excavation) 129,364 

Total   cu.   yds 143,349 

Completed  structure    (measured  in   embankment) 148,390 

Excess  of  embankment  over  excavation  measurement, 

3.6%     5,041 

The  figure  given  above  for  excess  or  swell  would  be  modi- 
fied by  two  conditions. 

(1)  The  amount   of  fine  material  lost  with  the  waste  water 
from  the   sluicing  pond  would,   if   accounted  for,  increase  this 
figure. 

(2)  In  measuring  the  excavation  in  the  borrow-pit,  the  piles 
of  waste  rock  left  in  the  pit  were  considered  as  solids.     If  the 
voids  in  these  were  corrected  for,  it  would  tend  to  decrease  the 
above  figures.     It  is  evident,  however,  that  with  no  losses  there 
should  be  a  considerable  excess  of  embankment  over  excavation  in 
taking  a  material  such  as  was  found  in  the  borrowpit  here  — 
which  as  far  as  voids  are  concerned  was  practically  a  natural 
concrete  —  and  grading  it  into  coarse  and  fine  material. 

Dam  Construction  by  Cars  and  Hydraulicking.  In  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  July  19,  1911,  H.  L.  Bickerson  describes  a 
method  of  constructing  an  earth  dam  across  the  Willow  River, 
Oregon,  in  which  the  material  was  hauled  to  the  embankment 
in  cars  and  washed  into  its  final  place  in  the  dam  by  nozzles. 


Fig.  26.     Section  of  Willow  River  Dam. 

To  secure  good  drainage  from  the  lower  side  of  the  structure, 
rock  fill,  approximately  100  ft.  wide  on  the  base  and  25  ft.  high, 
was  placed  across  the  canyon  on  the  lower  toe  of  the  dam.  Rock 
was  secured  from  the  lava  cap  on  the  north  side  of  the  canyon, 
which  was  shot  down  the  hill  and  placed  by  two  9  x  14-guy  der- 
ricks with  1-yd.  steel  skips  and  small  push  cars.  The  rock 
stripped  from  the  surface  of  the  site  and  excavated  from  the  cut- 
on0  trenches  was  also  wasted  at  this  point. 

A   dry   earth  dyke  was   extended   across   the   canyon   on   top 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1237 

of  the  rock  fill.  The  material  was  delivered  in  trains  of  five 
5l/2 -yd.  cars  with  a  dinkey  engine.  The  end  car  of  the  train  was 
made  to  dump  endwise,  thus  extending  the  dike  in  that  direction, 
while  the  other  four  cars  were  dumped  toward  the  center  of  the 
dam,  the  material  from  the  side  dump  cars  being  washed  to- 
ward the  center  of  the  dam,  the  material  from  the  side  dump 
cars  being  washed  toward  the  upper  toe,  where  a  low  dry  dike 
was  maintained,  with  water  forced  through  a  l*4-in.  nozzle  under 
pressure  produced  by  a  750-gal.  Knowles  Underwriters  pump. 
The  lower  dike  was  kept  enough  higher  than  the  upper  one  so 
that  the  puddle  containing  the  finer  and  impervious  material 
was  always  nearer  the  upstream  face  of  the  dam,  and  the  coarser 
material  in  the  lower  half  of  the  structure,  any  excess  water 
being  drained  out  through  and  over  this  low  upper  dike.  The 
sluiced  material  was  usually  solid,  and  it  was  possible  to  walk 
on  any  part  of  the  puddle  shortly  after  water  was  turned  off. 
Tests  made  during  construction  showed  that  the  weight  of  the  ma- 
terial in  the  pits  averaged  104  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  and  in  the  dam, 
thoroughly  saturated,  123  Ibs.  The  quantities  as  measured  in  the 
dam  checked  the  quantities  computed  from  cross-section  of  the 
material  pits  within  2%%. 

Trains  placing  the  earth  fill  consisted  of  five  and  six  cars, 
the  end  car  being  a  rebuilt  car  to  dump  endwise,  thus  extend- 
ing the  dike  across  the  canyon  while  placing  material  into  the 
dam.  The  dump  crews  consisted  of  five  men,  three  on  the  dump 
shoveling  and  clearing  track,  and  two  working  the  nozzle  in  the 
sluicing  operation.  Train  crews  consisted  of  engineer  and  brake- 
man;  shovel  crew  consisted  of  engineer,  craneman,  fireman,  and 
four  pitmen. 

The  operations  were  carried  on  with  one  Model  40  Marion 
shovel  with  ll/2-yA.  dipper,  two  14-ton  Vulcan  locomotives,  and 
sixteen  5y2-yd.  Peteler  two-way  dump  cars,  all  standard  gage. 
The  material  was  sluiced  into  place  by  a  750-gal.  Knowles  Under- 
writers pump,  served  by  a  60-hp.  Kewanee  boiler,  and  the  rock 
fill  was  placed  with  two  9  x  14  American  Hoist  &  Derrick  Co.'s 
guy  derricks. 

Placing  earth  from  the  borrow  pits  was  commenced  on  Aug.  12, 
1910,  and  on  Jan.  22,  1911,  the  dam  was  completed  to  the  100-ft. 
elevation,  286,000  cu.  yds.  having  been  placed.  The  work  was 
carried  on  in  two  10-hr,  shifts,  laying  off  one  shift  per  week  for 
general  overhauling  and  repairs  to  plant.  The  best  monthly  run 
was  in  September,  1010,  when  63,570  cu.  yds.  were  placed  in  55 
shifts,  or  an  average  of  1,156  cu.  yds.  per  shift. 

The  average  haul  from  pits  to  dam  was  2,500  ft.  The  pits  when 
opened  up  were  1,200  ft.  in  length,  with  an  18-ft.  face.  For  the 
completion  of  the  structure  to  125-ft.  elevation,  new  pits  are  to  be 


1238  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

opened  up  directly   north  of   the  dam   and  the  excavation   thus 
made  is  to  serve  as  the  permanent  spillway. 

In  the  preparation  of  foundations,  19,000  cu.  yds.  of  material 
were  excavated,  all  by  hand,  and  wasted  both  outside  and  inside 
the  slopes  of  the  dam.  This  material  consisted  of  large  boulders, 
brush  and  vegetable  matter,  soil  and  silt,  part  of  the  excavation 
being  wet,  and  all  being  transported  either  by  wheelbarrows  or 
small  push  cars.  The  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  this  work  was 
$1.28.  The  cost  of  9,000  cu.  yds.  of  rock  fill,  including  cost  of 
drilling  and  shooting,  was  $1.41  per  cu.  yd.  This  cost  also 
includes  transporting  to  place,  1,117  cu.  yds.  of  concrete  in  the 
outlet  tunnel  and  controlling  works  was  $14.82  per  cu.  yd. 
The  cost  of  the  earth  fill  was  as  follows,  per  cu.  yd.: 

Excavating  and  Loading: 

Labor  drilling    2.3 

Labor  shoveling    4.7 

Powder    2.7 

Fuel     3.3 

Total    13.0 

Hauling  and  Placing: 

Labor,   track   _..... 1-4 

Labor,   dumping  and  sluicing 10.6 

Fuel,  engines  and  pumps   '. 6.4 

Total    18.4 

Grand  total,  cts.  per  cu.  yd 31.4 

This  gives  a  cost  per  cubic  yard  for  labor  of  19  cts.,  and  for 
material  of  12.4  cts.  The  wages  paid  were  as  follows  per  10-hr, 
day: 

Common   labor $2.25  to  2.75 

Steam  shovel   enginemen    ,  6.17 

Steam  shovel   cranemen 4  67 

Locomotive    enginemen    4.00 

Carpenters     4.00  to  4.50 

The  average  cost  of  lumber  at  the  site  was  $25.00  per  M  ft. 
B.M.;  eost  of  cement  $4.46  per  bbl.,  and  cost  of  coal  $13.50  per 
ton. 

Hydraulicking  the  Los  Angeles  Dam.  Engineering  Record, 
Feb.  3,  1912,  gives  the  following:  The  South  Hawaii  dam  of  the 
Los  Angeles  Aqueduct  was  composed  of  earth  delivered  in  dump 
cars  and  jettied  to  place  by  streams  of  water  delivered  from 
nozzles.  The  dam  is  designed  to  contain  559,750  cu.  yds.  of 
earth,  exclusive  of  the  contents  of  the  cut-off  trench.  It  is  1,523 
ft.  long  and  has  a  height  at  the  center  of  91  ft.  The  width  at 
the  top  is  20  ft.  and  the  slopes  are  2y2  to  1  on  each  side. 

The  bed  rock  is  overlain  with  a  decomposed  tufa  shale.  Test 
pits  75  or  80  ft.  deep  were  dug  and  the  soil  stood  up  without  tim- 
bering. A  trench  was  then  excavated  by  steam  shovel  to  a  depth 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1239 

of  14  ft.  along  the  axis  of  the  dam.  This  was  filled  with  water 
and  within  a  week  the  ground  settled  12  ins.  for  distances  as 
great  as  75  ft.  each  side  of  the  trench.  This  proved  that  it  was 
necessary  to  take  the  cut-off  trench  to  bed  rock,  which  was 
reached  at  a  depth  of  120  ft.  Ground  water  was  encountered  at 
a  depth  of  75  ft.  The  material  was  mainly  shale  soils  with  a 
3-ft.  stratum  of  sand  and  gravel  at  the  bottom. 

This  trench  was  excavated  with  light,  stiff-leg  derricks,  and 
dump  buckets.  The  spoil  in  the  dumps  was  hauled  to  the  lower 
toe  of  the  dam  with  scrapers.  The  trench  was  timbered  through- 
out. The  impervious  core  was  composed  of  clay,  which  was 
excavated  by  an  electric  shovel  and  hauled  an  average  of  1,000 
ft.  in  dump  wagons  to  the  side  of  the  trench,  into  which  it  was 
pushed  by  a  road  grader.  The  trench  was  kept  filled  with  water, 
and  the  force  of  the  fall  thoroughly  compacted  the  clay.  The  cost 
of  the  cut-off  trench  (27,032  cu.  yds.)  was  as  follows: 

Labor     $22,422 

Live    stock    2,280 

Materials  and  supplies 1,843 

Electric   power    957 

Freight    630 


Total  excavating  cost $28,132 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $1.04 

Timbering : 

Labor     $15,144 

Live  stock  457 

Other   charges    " 25,790 


Total  for  timbering $41,391 

Cost  of  timbering  per  cu.  yd $1.53 

Cost  of  puddle  fill  per  cu.  yd 0.315 

Grand  total  cost  per  cu.  yd $2.885 

The  material  for  the  body  of  the  dam  was  excavated  from  a 
pit  1,000  ft.  from  the  dam  with  a  60-ton  Marion  steam  shovel. 
The  soil  was  loaded  into  4-yd.  double-side  dump  cars,  and  hauled 
in  three  trains  of  7  cars  each  by  three  18-ton  Vulcan  locomotives, 
running  on  a  3-ft.  gage  track.  While  one  train  was  being  loaded, 
another  was  in  transit  and  the  third  was  being  dumped.  The 
grades  were  3%  up-grade  for  loaded  trains  and  6%  down-grade 
for  empties.  The  shovel  had  a  2.5  yd.  dipper;  two  dippers  filled 
each  car.  When  conditions  were  favorable  it  required  4  mins. 
to  load  a  train.  From  400  to  500  cars  were  loaded  in  two 
shifts.  The  day  shift  accomplished  about  50%  more  than  the 
night  shift.  The  best  day's  run  up  to  Oct.  31,  1911,  when 
184,000  cu.  yds.  had  been  placed,  was  700  cars  or  2,100  cu.  yds. 

The  hauling  track  divided  when  it  reaches  the  dam,  a  branch 
running  up  along  each  toe.  Thus  two  walls  were  built  up. 


1240  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  waters  of  two  streams  were  discharged  in  the  space  be- 
tween these  walls,  and  in  the  pool  thereby  formed  two  steel  pon- 
toons were  floated.  These  pontoons  were  20  x  10  x  2.5  ft.  in  size. 
Each  carried  a  6-in.  centrifugal  pump  direct  connected  to  a  30-hp. 
electric  motor.  Power  was  supplied  through  an  insulated  cable 
thus  allowing  changes  in  the  location  of  the  pontoons.  The 
water  was  discharged  through  a  2-in.  nozzle  against  the  banks 
of  earth  dumped  from  the  trains.  The  earth  was  washed  down 
towards  the  center  of  the  pool,  the  coarser  material  remaining 
at  the  edges  of  the  pool  and  the  finer  stuff  going  to  the  center. 
This  center  material  was  very  fine  and  clayey.  The  use  of 
two  tracks  permitted  one  to  be  shifted  and  raised  while  the  other 
was  in  use.  The  cost  of  the  first  184,000  cu.  yds.,  including 
50,000  cu.  yds.  placed  by  wagon  work,  was  22  cts.  per  cu.  yd. 
The  cost  of  the  work  complete  was  estimated  to  be  about  15  cts. 
per  cu.  yd. 

Hydraulicking  the  Abott  Brook  Dike.  Engineering  and  Con- 
tracting, Feb.  26,  1913,  contains  an  article  descriptive  of  the 
plans  and  methods  used  in  constructing  the  Abott  Brook  Dike, 
an  earth  dam  located  on  the  westerly  side  of  Sawyer  Lake,  near 
the  headwaters  of  the  Androscoggin  River.  This  dike  is  900  ft. 
long,  165  ft.  wide  at  the  base,  and  about  16  ft.  wide  at  the  top, 
and  has  a  6-in.  plank  core  composed  of  two  layers  of  3-in. 
plank.  The  total  volume  of  the  dike  is  46,000  cu.  yds.,  of 
which  amount  1,600  cu.  yds.  were  placed  by  manual  labor  to 
form  the  toe  of  the  dike,  and  for  the  puddle  fill  at  each  side  of 
the  core  in  the  cut-off  trench.  About  31,165  cu.  yds.  were  pdaced 
by  hydraulic  sluicing  methods. 

The  plant  used  comprised  two  150-hp.  turbine  driven  pumps, 
direct  connected  to  3-stage,  8-in.  centrifugal  pumps,  designed 
to  run  at  speeds  ranging  from  1,800  to  2,000  r.p.m.  The  main 
pressure  line  of  pumps  to  borrowpit  was  600  ft.  long  and  10 
ins.  in  diameter.  Branches  connecting  this  main  with  a  2-in. 
giant  were  350  ft.  long  and  7  ins.  in  diameter.  Steam  to  run 
the  turbines  was  furnished  by  a  battery  of  8  boilers,  consisting 
of  two  50-hp.,  three  40-hp.,  and  three  30-hp.,  and  a  feed  water 
heater.  Steam  pressures  at  the  boiler  ran  from  80  to  150  Ibs., 
and  the  pump  pressure  was  from  45  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  down  to  20 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  depending  upon  the  elevation,  with  an  average 
of  about  45  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  with  a  2-in.  monitor  discharge  stream. 

Two  water  jets,  with  a  pressure  of  from  20  to  80  Ibs.  per  sq. 
in.,  were  directed  against  the  bank  in  a  borrow  pit  at  the  northerly 
end  of  the  dike.  The  force  of  the  water  was  so  great  that 
although  the  nozzles  were  securely  mounted  on  swivel  bases,  a 
long  lever  had  to  be  attached  to  each  nozzle  to  enable  one  man 
to  control  it;  under  certain  conditions,  two  men  were  required. 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS        1241 

The  flumes  were  rectangular  wooden  structures,  supported  on 
wooden  trestles,  built  with  even  slopes  from  the  borrow  pit  to 
the  dike.  The  main  flume  was  about  1,000  ft.  long,  and  the 
main  trestle  about  40  ft.  high  at  the  tallest  point.  The  laterals 
discharged  at  the  edges  of  the  fill,  and  in  this  way  the  loose 
stones  and  coarse  material  remained  at  the  .edge,  and  the  finer 
and  silt  were  carried  toward  the  center. 

The  dam  was  situated  far  from  the  railroad,  and  it  was  diffi- 
cult to  get  a  sufficient  supply  of  coal.  The  little  that  could 
be  obtained  cost  $20  per  ton,  and  it  became  necessary  to  use  wood 
for  fuel.  A  total  of  1,860  cords  of  wood  were  burned.  Counting 
the  55  long  tons  of  soft  coal  used  as  equivalent  to  2  cords 
each  of  wood,  the  equivalent  of  1,970  cords  of  wood  were 
burned. 

The  material  was  a  glacial  drift  of  sand,  gravel,  clay,  and 
small  stones  so  firmly  compacted  that  it  was  found  advisable  to 
resort  at  times  to  dynamite.  Holes  about  8  ft.  deep  and  8  ft. 
apart  were  drilled,  and  about  6  Ibs.  of  16%  dynamite  used  per 
hole,  and  set  off  in  batteries  of  from  three  to  seven  holes. 

Sluicing  was  carried  on  for  32  ( 10-hr.)  days  and  for  68  (24-hr.) 
days;  equivalent  to  82  full  days.  The  men  worked  on  two 
shifts  of  12  hours  each,  working  week  days  and  Sundays  con- 
tinuously, the  only  stop  being  for  unavoidable  delays  in  clean- 
ing and  repairing.  The  average  yardage  placed  per  day  was 
380  cu.  yds.;  the  best  weekly  record  was  3,891  cu.  yds.,  an  aver- 
age of  556  cu.  yds.  per  day.  These  measurements  were  deter- 
mined by  weekly  cross  sections  of  the  embankment.  The  volume 
of  solids  moved  in  the  water  averaged  a  little  better  than  6%. 

Hydraulicking  the  Somerset  Dam,  Vt.  Engineering  News,  Dec. 
25,  1913,  gives  the  following:  This  dam  is  located  at  what  was 
Peck's  Mill  in  the  town  of  Somerset,  Vt.  It  is  2,100  ft.  long  on 
the  crest  and  has  a  finished  height  of  106  ft.  It  contains  about 
one  million  cu.  yds. 

A  cut  was  opened  with  steam  shovels  to  a  borrowpit  on  the 
west  side  of  the  dam.  This  cut  was  run  for  about  a  half  mile 
on  an  upgrade  of  5%  maximum,  passing  through  a  number  of 
rock  ledges.  The  location  of  the  pit  was  a  gently  rising  slope 
which  by  test  pits  had  been  found  to  contain  a  glacial  drift  with 
some  30%  of  clayey  material  and  running  from  very  fine  ma- 
terial to  sand,  gravel  and  boulders,  well  graded.  The  pit.  was 
opened  up  on  two  levels  and,  as  the  height  of  the  dam  increased, 
the  shovels  worked  farther  up  the  hillside,  the  result  being  that 
the  downgrade  from  the  pit  to  the  dam  was  gradually  decreased, 
though  not  much.  At  first  there  were  seven  dinkey  locomotives 
(19-ton)  and  70  4-yd.  narrow  gage  cars.  For  the  last  season's 
work,  however,  three  more  locomotives  were  put  on  and  30  more 


1242  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

cars,  making  in  all  10  locomotives  and  100  cars.  During  the  last 
season  too,  a  borrowpit  was  opened  up  on  the  east  side  of  the  dam 
and  a  third  2%-yd.  steam  shovel  put  in,  reducing  the  length  of 
haul  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  fill. 

First,  in  starting  the  fill,  a  couple  of  20  to  30-ft.  trestles  were 
run  out  some  50  ft.  inside  the  upstream  and  downstream  toe  lines 
of  the  dam,  and  material  from  the  pit  was  dumped  off  these,  work- 
ing out  from  both  ends  of  the  dam.  These  four  toe  fills  were 
thus  pushed  out  until  the  water  was  reached  when  the  gap  in  the 
upper  dike  was  filled  in.  When  this  was  done,  the  water  rose 
until  the  entire  flow  was  through  the  conduit.  The  pool  be- 
tween the  two  dikes  could  then  be  drained  through  the  gap  in 
the  lower  dike  and  the  remaining  work  of  stripping  the  site 
completed. 

When  the  work  was  in  this  stage,  a  pumping  plant  was  built 
just  above  the  dam,  taking  water  from  the  reservoir  for  6-in. 
supply  pipes  laid  along  both  trestles.  There  were  in  this  plant 
three  60-hp.  locomotive  boilers,  two  compound  duplex  pumps 
rated  at  750  gals,  per  min.  at  200  Ib.  pressure,  and  one  smaller 
pump  as  a  spare  unit.  Only  150  Ibs.  pressure  was  held  on  the 
pipe  lines,  however.  The  lines  were  fitted  every  50  ft.  with  T 
fittings  and  valves  for  connecting  on  lengths  of  3-in.  rubber 
sluicing  hose  fitted  with  1%-in.  taper  nozzles  mounted  on  port- 
able wood  stands  as  monitors. 

The  material  dumped  from  the  trestles  was  undercut  with 
streams  from  these  nozzles  and  washed  down  into  position.  A 
pool  was  created  between  the  two  dikes  and  the  finer  material 
settled  in  the  center.  At  times  alum  was  used  in  the  sluicing 
water  to  increase  the  precipitation  of  clayey  material,  but  this 
was  finally  abandoned  as  unnecessary.  An  18-in.  concrete  pipe 
was  carried  up  from  a  hole  in  the  outlet  conduit.  Through 
this  the  excess  water  was  drained  and  the  depth  of  the  pool 
regulated,  being  allowed  to  vary  between  10  and  20  ft.  The 
outside  faces  of  the  two  dikes  were  filled  with  coarser  material 
and  boulders  from  the  pits,  and  this,  on  being  washed  down 
into  place,  gave  satisfactory  rock  face  without  riprapping. 

When  the  washed  fill  reached  the  level  of  the  trestles,  the 
tracks  were  shifted  inward.  Five  heights  of  trestle  were  run 
in  during  the  work  on  the  dam.  The  old  timbers  were  not  pulled. 

Samples  were  taken  at  each  5  ft.  along  the  length  of  the 
dam  to  see  if  sufficient  fine  material  was  being  deposited  to 
build  up  an  impervious  core.  In  sounding  the  center  pool  the 
bottom  at  each  stage  was  always  found  quite  hard,  and  the 
examination  of  the  accumulated  samples  shows  that  the  fine 
material  has  considerable  binding  property.  The  two  years  oc- 
cupied in  construction,  1911  to  1913,  gave  opportunity  for  set- 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1243 

tlement  which  was  small,  but  the  dam  was  carried  to  an  ex- 
cess height  of  4  ft.  to  provide  for  future  shrinkage. 

Accident  to,  and  Reconstruction  of  the  Charmes  Dam.  En- 
gineering and  Contracting,  May  29,  1918,  gives  the  following: 

The  Charmes  Dam  in  France  was  completed  in  1906.  It  is 
about  1,190  ft.  long,  55  ft.  high,  and  22  ft.  wide  on  top.  The 
up-stream  face  is  built  in  5.5-ft.  steps,  giving  a  general  slope 
of  iy2  to  1.  The  down-stream  slope  is  flatter  and  has  a  slightly 
concave  force. 

The  dam  was  constructed  in  a  series  of  layers  of  good  clay 
mixed  with  5%  of  fine  crushed  rock,  each  layer  being  puddled 
and  rolled  with  a  corrugated  roller.  The  layers  were  5  ins. 
thick  before  rolling,  which  reduced  them  to  3  or  4  ins.,  mak- 
ing the  earth  remarkably  hard  and  compact.  Allowance  was 
made  so  as  to  make  it  follow  the  required  slopes,  and  the 
layers  were  put  in  rapidly  to  be  always  on  freshly  puddled 
material.  The  face  was  paved  or  covered  with  concreted  slabs 
8  ins.  thick,  with  clay  joints. 

After  the  dam  had  been  in  use  three  years  a  longitudinal 
fissure  developed  a  little  above  the  top  bench  on  the  inside 
slope.  The  water  was  being  drawn  off  at  the  time,  and  as  its 
height  was  lowered  a  slide  developed.  The  amount  of  the 
slide  was  about  26,200  cu.  yds.  It  was  decided  that  the  re- 
pairs would  be  made  of  the  same  clay  compacted  by  the 
same  process  to  a  proper  hardness,  and  for  security  it  was 
decided  to  reinforce  the  lower  part  8  ft.  above  the  cut-off  wall, 
the  foundation  of  it  being  considered  perfectly  good.  Two  other 
conditions  were  adopted,  first,  the  physical  improvement  of  the 
Charmes  clay  by  the  addition  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
small  pebbles;  second,  the  construction  of  buttresses  in  the  re- 
inforcements. 

The  necessity  of  adding  pebbles  to  the,  clay  to  be  used  for 
the  puddled  wall  48  ft  high  on  a  slope  of  1.5  to  1  was  deter- 
mined upon,  which  plan  had  been  used  at  the  Liez  dam,  and, 
probably  on  account  of  which  it  has  stood  for  25  years;  and  was 
used  in  the  Wassy  dam  repairs.  Such  a  mixture  is  very  much 
superior  to  any  other  for  puddled  material  for  dams. 

There  being  no  pebbles  or  gravel  in  the  vicinity,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  resort  to  crushed  stone  which  was  a  valuable  material 
and  could  not  be  used  wastefully.  Experiments  were  made  to 
determine  the  proper  amount  to  be  used  and  20%  was  finally 
adopted  as  best.  The  earth  work  for  the  repairs  was  done 
largely  by  hand,  using  small  horse  drawn  cars  to  transport 
the  materials. 

The  addition  of  buttresses  was  considered  necessary,  and  it 
was  decided  they  need  not  go  all  the  way  up  the  face  of  the 


1244  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

dam,  as  insisted  upon  by  some  constructors,  but  only  to  be 
carried  up  to  the  height  of  the  danger  zone  or  29  ft.  above  the 
top  of  the  cut-off  wall.  They  were  4  ft.  7  in.  thick  and  aver- 
aged 49  ft.  in  length.  They  were  built  of  concrete  similar  to 
that  employed  in  like  work.  Where  they  join  the  cut-off  wall 
they  are  enlarged  in  the  form  of  a  girder,  thus  approaching  the 
form  of  a  solid  of  equal  resistance. 

Particular  precautions  were  taken  to  prevent  "  water  ways " 
where  water  would  follow  the  junction  of  the  puddled  material 
and  the  concrete  masonry,  so  the  buttresses  were  put  in  at  a 
time  and  in  a  manner  that  they  would  not  interfere  with  the 
rolling  of  the  puddled  material.  The  plan  for  the  restoration 
comprised  a  complete  drainage  system  from  the  top  to  the  bot- 
tom. 

The  paving  slabs  were  made  by  crushing  the  broken  ones 
from  the  former  work,  using  an  excellent  sand  to  make  the 
concrete.  The  new  top  step  was  an  improvement  over  the  old. 

The  repairs  were  made  from  1909  to  1911  and  were  quite 
difficult,  as  the  year  1910  was  unfortunately  very  rainy.  The 
cutting  away  of  the  slide  and  old  face  was  done  in  the  first  6 
months  and  all  the  work  was  carried  out  under  considerable 
difficulty.  The  total  cost  of  the  work  was  500,000  francs. 

A  Slide  on  the  Stanley  Lake  Dam.  John  E.  Hayes,  in  Engineer- 
ing News-Record,  May  31,  1917,  gives  the  following:  This  dam 
was  hastily  built.  At  first  material  was  dumped  from  trestles 
on  the  up  and  down  stream  toes  into  a  pond  of  water  that 
was  kept  between  the  trestle  embankments.  At  the  30-ft.  level 
it  was  found  that  the  puddle  material  was  not  drying  out. 
Thereafter  up  to  64  ft.  elevation,  material  was  scattered  in 
thin  layers  with  teams  and  scrapers  over  the  puddle  core  area, 
sprinkled  by  means  of  hose,  and  compacted  by  the  team  travel. 
Above  the  64-ft.  level  to  the  top  of  dam  at  70  ft.  elevation  the 
trains  were  depended  upon  for  consolidation.  The  dam  was 
completed  in  1912.  In  the  summer  of*  1916  while  water  was 
being  drawn  from  the  reservoir  a  large  part  of  the  up-stream 
face  of  the  dam  slid  into  the  reservoir.  Approximately  88,000 
cu.  yds.  of  material  was  displaced.  Owing  to  the  different 
methods  of  construction  adapted  this  dam  was  not  a  homogene- 
ous structure. 

Slide  on  the  Calaveras  Dam.  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
July  10,  1918,  and  Jan.  8,  1919,  gives  the  following: 

The  Calaveras  Dam  was  being  built  about  36  miles  south- 
east of  San  Francisco  by  hydraulicking.  Its  top  length  was 
to  be  1,300  ft.  and  its  top  width  25  ft.  The  upstream  slope 
was  3  to  1;  the  downstream  slope,  3%  to  1;  and  the  maximum 


DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  EARTH  DAMS       1245 

distance  between  upstream  and  downstream  toes,  1,312  ft.  Its 
finished  height  at  the  center  was  to  be  210  ft.  above  ground 
level,  plus  30  ft.  above  the  bottom  of  a  wide  excavation  to  solid 
bed  rock.  About  half  the  material  in  the  dam  was  a  dry  rock 
fill  used  in  both  toes;  the  rest  was  an  earth  fill  deposited  by 
hydraulic  sluicing.  The  earth  fill  was  half  clay  and  half  sand 
and  gravel  hydraulicked  from  nearby  hills.  The  coarse  material 
was  crushed  before  entering  the  conveyance  pipes.  The  hydrau- 
licked material  was  dumped  on  the  edge  of  the  pool,  thus  per- 
mitting the  clay  to  separate  and  flow  to  the  center  of  the 
pool. 

The  failure  did  not  occur  without  warning,  but  the  great 
mass  of  earth  slid  out  within  five  minutes  after  it  started  to  go. 
There  had  been  a  slight  horizontal  movement  of  the  upstream 
slope  of  the  dam  as  early  as  June  18,  1917,  whereupon  sluicing 
was  discontinued  until  Feb.  12,  1918,  except  for  a  period  of  12 
days  in  the  summer  of  1917.  On  March  4,  three  weeks  after 
sluicing  had  been  resumed,  another  slight  horizontal  movement 
of  the  upstream  face  occurred.  Sluicing  was  again  stopped,  but- 
10  days  later,  March  14,  the  failure  occurred. 

The  depth  of  the  hydraulic  fill  in  the  center  was  155  ft.  at 
the  time  of  failure.  In  five  minutes  800,000  cu.  yd.  slid  out, 
leaving  about  2,000,000  cu.  yd.  still  in  place.  The  2,000,000 
includes  the  whole  of  the  downstream  part  of  the  dam.  At  the 
time  of  the  failure  the  reservoir  was  partly  full,  the  water 
being  about  55  ft.  deep.  The  cost  of  replacing  the  upstream 
material  will  be  more  than  $500,000.  The  original  estimate  of 
the  cost  of  the  complete  dam  was  $2,500,000,  and  it  was  to 
have  contained  3,085,000  cu.  yds. 

Beginning  March  16,  1916,  it  was  the  practice  to  have  a  man 
periodically  force  a  ll/2-in.  pipe  into  the  hydraulic  fill,  and  this 
practice  was  continued  till  Jan.  24,  1917,  when  the  "ball  test" 
was  adopted.  The  material  in  the  core  was  so  plastic  that  the 
pipe  could  be  forced  down  to  a  depth  of  90  ft.  On  Feb.  12,  1917, 
the  ball  test  was  begun,  and  it  was  found  that  a  6-in.  cast  iron 
ball  sank  by  its  own  weight  45  ft.  into  the  soft  clay  fill,  or 
half  the  depth  that  the  pipe  was  forced.  By  July  27,  1917, 
the  depth  of  penetration  of  the  ball  was  35  ft.;  a  month  later 
it  was  12  ft.;  and  on  Jan.  21,  1918,  it  was  only  5  ft.  From 
this  test  it  was  apparently  reasoned  that  the  fill  had  dried  out 
sufficiently  to  be  safe. 

See  Chapter  XVIII  for  a  description  of  the  construction  of 
this  dam. 

Bibliography.  "The  Design  and  Construction  of  Dams,"  Ed- 
ward Wegmann — "  Reservoirs  for  Irrigation,  Water-Power  and 


1246  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Domestic  Water  Supply,"  James  Dix  Schuyler — "Earth  Dams," 
Barr  Bassell. 

"The  Bohio  Dam,"  George  S.  Morison,  Tran.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E., 
Vol.  48,  1902— "  Hydraulic  Fill  Dam  of  the  Necaxa  Light  and 
Power  Plant,"  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  58,  1907. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
DIKES  AND  LEVEES 

This  chapter  relates  solely  to  the  design  and  construction 
of  earth  embankments  along  rivers,  lakes  and  oceans,  to  exclude 
water  from  low  lying  lands.  The  reader  is  referred  to  Chapters 
VI  and  XX  for  data  on  making  embankments  water  tight.  For 
methods  and  costs  of  protecting  embankments  with  brush  mat- 
resses  and  sheet  piling,  and  for  surfacing  slopes  with  concrete 
and  stone  masonry,  see  the  author's  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data." 

The  Location  of  Levees.  This  is  discussed  by  Arthur  A.  Stiles, 
State  Levee  and  Drainage  Commissioner  of  Texas,  in  a  report  is- 
sued in  1913. 

The  problem  involved  consists  in  providing  a  channel  for  the 
flood  flow  of  the  stream.  This  can  be  done  either  by  confining 
it  to  the  usual  channel  between  high  levees  or  by  increasing  the 
channel  section  by  building  the  levees  away  from  the  river. 

It  is  a  well-known  characteristic  of  over-flowed  river  valleys 
that  the  ground  surface,  rising  gradually  from  the  base  of  the 


Hign  Water  Level 


Fig.  1.  Typical  Cross-Section  of  River  Channel,  Showing  Prob- 
able Distribution  of  Current  Velocities  in  Ft.  Per  Sec.  and  Their 
Influence  Upon  Levee  Positions. 

foothills  at  each  side  of  the  flood-plain,  reaches  its  greatest  ele- 
vation at  the  banks  of  the  channel  overlooking  the  principle 
stream.  Hence,  a  levee  to  be  of  minimum  height  and  maximum 
protection  should  be  built  along  this  crest,  but  a  stable  position 
cannot  be  obtained  so  near  the  channel,  and  the  distance  which 
should  separate  the  proposed  levee  from  the  adjacent  stream  bank 
may  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  a  compromise  between  practical 
interests,  and  other  more  technical  requirements. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  advantage  of  setting  the  levee  back  to  where 
it  will  be  subjected  only  to  the  wash  of  slow  moving  water. 

Land  lying  between  the  levee  and  the  normal  channel  is,  in  a 
way,  wasted,  as  it  should  be  kept  clear  to  permit  the  passage  of 
water.  Where  levees  are  built  on  a  tidal  stream  fences  of  brush 
should  be  built  across  this  waste  land  from  levee  to  channel  at 
frequent  intervals.  These  will  in  time  build  up  the  waste  ground 
£0  that  it  will  fprffi  a  considerable  reinforcement  to  the  levee. 

1247 


1248 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Design  of  Dikes  for  Salt  Marsh  Reclamation.  This  is  dis- 
cussed in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Sept.  6,  1911,  as  follows: 

Dikes  for  tide  marsh  reclamation  are  made  of  earth,  but  they 
differ  from  the  levees  used  on  rivers  in  that  they  must  be  so  lo- 
cated and  designed  as  to  withstand  the  action  of  the  waves. 
The  best  protection  against  waves  is  to  have  the  dike  a  safe  dis- 


Form  of  Pike  Made  of  Clay  or  Clayey  Loom 


Form  of  Dike  Mode  of  Sand  or  Sandy  Loam 

iff 


form  ofDiteMode  of  Muck  Soil 
Fig.  2.     Typical  Dike  Sections  for  Different  Materials. 


, 

L4 L 


/--"' 

^.x" 

* 

j 

{ 

W/.J 

Eng.V  Contg. 

u—  5~  ^fvZ&r 
Muck  Ditch 

Muck  Ditch 

Fig.  3.     Method  of  Preparing  Base  for  a  Dike. 

t»  I <:?  ''  i- !  '.-.;:'  •  •  fv!  -,.}' j 

tance  from  the  shore,  never  less  than  the  width  of  the  base  of  the 
dike,  and  a  greater  distance  if  wave  heights  require  it.  The  cross- 
sectional  dimensions  depend  upon  the  material  available  for  con- 
struction and  the  length  of  time  the  water  will  remain  against  the 
dike.  Three  forms  of  dike  sections  are  shown  in  Figs.  2  and  3. 

The  ground  is  cleared  and  broken  up  under  the  base,  and  where 
very  Avet  is  frequently  ditched  along  each  edge  of  the  dike  about 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES 


1249 


6  ft.  inside  the  toes,  as  shown  by  Fig.  3.  The  dirt  from  these 
ditches  is  used  for  the  toes  of  the  dike  and  the  ditches  them- 
selves are  filled  with  the  new  material  from  which  the  embank- 
ment is  made.  It  is  preferable  practice  to  borrow  the  material 
for  embankment  from  the  water  side.  The  borrow  pits  should 
be  located  well  away  from  the  toe  of  the  dike. 

Design  of  a  Dike  for  Tidal  Marsh  Reclamation.  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  Nov.  15,  1911,  describes  the  reclamation  of 
marsh  land  on  a  tidal  stream  at  Cape  Cod,  Mass.  A  dike  900 
ft.  long,  22  ft.  wide  on  top,  was  built.  See  Fig.  4.  A  roadway 
runs  along  the  top  of  the  dike  the  crown  of  which  is  at  grade 
17.7  ft.  above  mean  low  water,  or  about  7  ft.  above  ordinary  high 
tide.  The  maximum  bottom  width  is  about  68  ft.  The  filling 


^Roadway 


OUTSIDE 


Fig.  4.     Typical  Section  of  Dike,  Herring  River  Reclamation, 
Cape  Cod. 

was  obtained  from  pits  in  the  hills  at  each  end  of  the  dike,  and 
was  hauled  in  automatic  side  dumping  cars  of  about  3  cu.  yd.  ca- 
pacity. The  20-in.  gage  track  was  laid  so  that  the  cars  ran  out 
from  the  pit  by  gravity;  the  empty  cars  were  pushed  back  on 
the  level  track  along  the  dike  by  two  men,  and  drawn  up  the 
grade  to  the  pit  by  a  rope  and  hoisting  engine.  The  sand  was 
placed  at  a  labor  cost  of  about  8  ct.  per  cubic  yard,  the  haul  being 
about  450  ft. 

Along  the  center  line  of  the  dike  from  end  to  end  4-in.  splined 
spruce  sheeting  was  driven  about  6  ft.  into  the  river  bed,  the  top 
of  the  sheeting  extending  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  dike.  The  up- 
stream slope  of  the  dike  is  backed  by  a  6-in.  layer  of  granite 
chips.  Some  of  the  blocks  in  this  facing  weigh  more  than  3 
tons,  and  the  whole  construction  appears  to  be  very  safe  and 
durable.  Above  the  heavy  facing  the  protection  is  the  same  as 
on  the  upstream  slope.  The  top  of  the  dike  is  surfaced  with  a 
mixture  of  fine  sand  and  clay  silt,  and  is  sufficiently  compact  to 
make  a  fair  roadway  for  light  teaming. 

Levee    Sections    on   the    Mississippi    and    Sacramento    Rivers. 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Fred  H.  Tibbitts,  in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Apr.  9,  1913, 
gives  the  sections  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  California  levees  are  not 
subject  to  flood  for  such  long  periods  as  those  on  the  Mississippi. 


Min  Berm  Lonasiae  IW 


fF>rr  ;.TTTTV    : •  :•    •  <    •;-!  '.  !,          MuckDitchy     Banquette-'  Trrrr  I1' n"f'"n"r 

(  •-    STANDARD  CROSS  SECTION  OF  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER  COMM. 

Borrow  Pit    \or\L  --H/0V- 


STANDARD  LEVEE  CROSS  SECTION  OF  UPPER  YAZOO  LEVEE  DISTRICT 

3' for  River  Levees  —^  Iff  i 

5  Io6' For  bock  Levees" 


BE23S?C^w 


OABNEY  COM.  AND  CALIFORNIA  DEBRIS  COMM 
FOR  SACRAMENTO  RIVER 


NATOM AS  CONSOLIDATED  OF 
CALIF.  RECLAM  DiST.N°lOOO 


RECLAMATION  DIST.  IM  ADOPTED  PLAN  FOR  BACK  LEVEES 


WEST  SACRAMENTO  Co.  RIVER  LEVEE  RECLAM.  DIST.  Na900 

ftemf  Concrete  Facing^}  -L  ion?.   t~.iff-* 

__j^fe^fwi. 


WEST  SACRAMENTO  Co.  BACK  LEVEE  RECLAM  DIST.  N°900 

^^£ 


mz. — ~^&&^^-m*m 


?^^*v?v3 


-Borrow  ^FSpfJT 

NETHERLANDS  FARMS  Co.  PROPOSED  BACK  LEVEE  IN  YOLO  BASIN 

Fig.   5.     Standard  Levee  Sections  on  the  Sacramento  and  Mis- 
sissippi Rivers. 


They  are  subject  to  greater  wave  action,  and,  being  built  of  sand, 
they  have  not  been  so  generally  successful  as  the  levees  on  the 
Mississippi. 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES 


1251 


Enlarging  and  Slope-Walling  a  Levee  on  the  Wabash  River. 

This  is  described  by  George  C.  Graeter  in  Engineering  News,  Jan. 
4,  1917.  This  levee  was  built  in  1895  at  a  cost  of  $74,500.  A 
total  length  of  8.6  miles  of  levee  reclaimed  7,500  acres  of  bot- 
tom and  marsh  land  which  now  has  a  value  of  $100  per  acre. 

In  1904,  $4,000  was  spent  for  repairs;  in  1912,  $18,300  for  re- 
pairing breaks;  and  in  1913,  $14,500  for  repairing  breaks  and  for 
placing  concrete  at  the  riverside  toe  of  slope  on  12,500  ft.  of  the 
upper  end.  Maintenance  has  cost  $14,000  (or  about  $650  per 
year),  most  of  this  being  spent  in  digging  out  ground-hog  and 
mole  burrows  and  mowing  the  levee.  Thus  the  cost  of  repair  and 
maintenance  up  to  1916  was  over  66%  of  the  first  cost  of  con- 
struction, and  the  levee  was  still  in'  poor  condition. 


Grade  S'abore  1913  Flood  'brief3' 


Fig.  6.     Wabash  River  Levee  Showing  Earth  Enlargement  and 
Concrete  Facing. 


. 

In  1916  the  Levee  Committee  adopted  a  plan  of  raising  the 
levee  and  facing  it  with  concrete,  see  Fig.  6. 

The  concrete  extends  for  about  12,500  ft.  from  Riverton  to  a 
sand  ridge.  It  consists  of  199,100  sq.  ft.  of  facing  and  154.3  cu. 
yd.  of  footing.  The  earth  enlargement  on  this  upper  section 
averages  231  cu.  yd.  per  100-ft.  station;  on  the  next  20,000  ft. 
beyond  this  ridge  it  averages  163  cu.  yd.  per  station,  and  then  for 
about  6,700  ft.  the  average  is  240  cu.  yd.  per  station.  The  total 
enlargement,  including  a  short  stretch  of  relocated  levee,  amounts 
to  88,000  cu.  yd. 

On  the  section  that  is  being  concreted  the  earth  enlargement 
(28,890  cu.  yd.)  is  being  put  up  by  a  reconstructed  Monighan 
dragline  excavator.  The  remainder  of  the  enlargement  is  being 
constructed  with  teams,  using  drag  and  wheel  scrapers.  The 
shrinkage  allowance  was  20%  for  dragline  work  and  10%  for 
team  work.  The  top  and  land  slope  of  the  levee  were  plowed,  and 
all  stumps  and  brush  were  removed  before  placing  the  fill  for  the 
enlargement.  The  Levee  Committee  provided  borrow  pits  with- 
out expense  to  the  contractor.  The  specifications  permitted  ma- 


1252  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

terial  to  be  taken  on  either  side  of  the  levee,  but  required  it  to 
be  taken  on  the  river  side  where  possible.  No  material  was  to 
be  taken  within  22  ft.  of  the  toe  of  the  old  slope,  and  new  pits 
were  not  allowed  to  be  more  than  3}£  ft.  deep. 

The  contract  prices  for  this  work  were  20  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  for 
earth  enlargement  and  $6.60  per  cu.  yd.  for  concrete  facing. 

Levee  Construction  by  Dragline  Excavators  on  the  Little 
River  Drainage  District,  Mo.  B.  F.  Burns,  in  Engineering  and 
Contracting,  July  18,  1917,  gives  the  following: 

For  the  main  diversion  channel  and  levee  a  strip  is  cleared 
approximately  400  ft.  wide.  From  this  all  brush  logs  and  debris 
are  removed.  The  stumps  on  the  berms  are  cut  to  24  in.  above 
the  ground,  but  elsewhere  they  are  cut  to  such  heights  as  will 
enable  them  to  be  removed  with  stump  pullers,  stump  pullers 
and  skidders  being  a  necessary  part  of  the  contractor's  equip- 
ment. As  the  work  goes  forward  the  floodway  strip,  900  ft. 
in  width,  is  cleared  and,  before  the  final  completion  of  the  sys- 
tem, all  logs,  brush  and  debris  are  removed  so  as  to  permit  of 
the  free  movement  of  the  flood  water  over  it. 

Following  the  clearing  of  the  channel  and  levee  base  area  the 
stumps  are  broken  with  dynamite  and  removed  and  the  roots 
grubbed  out  so  that  the  material  will  be  practically  free  from 
fibrous  matter  when  excavated  from  the  channel  and  placed  in 
the  levee. 

The  work  was  divided  into  two  contracts.  Contract  "A" 
including  that  part  from  Allenville  west,  and  contract  "  B  "  that 
part  east  of  Allenville. 

The  operation  of  stripping  and  digging  muck  ditch  on  Con- 
tract "  B,"  is  done  by  caterpillar  tractor  having  a  boom  length 
of  70  ft.  and  a  bucket  capacity  of  li£  yd.  The  machine  works 
over  the  channel  area  for  a  stretch  of  approximately  2,000  ft., 
removing  the  surface  material  for  a  depth  of  6  in.  or  more,  and 
depositing  the  same  on  the  levee  area  at  the  limit  of  its  boom 
reach.  It  then  tracks  back  and  begins  stripping  the  levee  base 
area,  removing  the  surface  material  to  about  the  same  depth  as 
on  the  channel,  and  placing  the  stripping  outside  of  the  levee 
base  area  and  also  removing  that  taken  from  the  channel,  which 
it  places  with  the  levee  stripping.  As  the  machine  moves  over 
the  levee  base  area  it  excavates  the  muck  ditch,  6  ft.  wide  and 
8  ft.  deep,  and  places  that  material  along  the  outer  toe  line  of 
the  levee.  As  the  levee  is  finished,  the  stripping,  which  is  quite 
free  from  roots  and  other  material  objectionable  for  levee  con- 
struction, will  be  shaped  into  a  banquette  of  such  height  and 
with  such  crown  as  the  material  will  make. 

An  experiment  in  the  use  of  dynamite  for  the  excavation  of 


DIKES  AKD  LEVEES 


1253 


muck  ditches  was  made  soon  after  the  construction  started. 
The  imick  ditch  at  that  point  was  but  3  by  4  ft.  The  experi- 
ment was  not  successful  as  the  ditch  was  unsatisfactory. 

The  character  of  the  soil  under  the  levees  was  determined  by 
borings  made  to  a  depth  of  11  ft.,  along  the  center  line,  at  in- 
tervals of  300  ft.  These  borings  indicated  that  at  one  point  the 
soil  was  such  that  an  ordinary  muck  ditch  would  not  effectually 
cut  off  seepage.  Further  investigation  showed  the  extent  of  that 
condition  to  but  little  more  than  100  ft.  along  the  center  line 
of  the  levee,  and,  in  lieu  of  a  muck  ditch,  a  wall  of  Wakefield 
sheet  piling  was  driven.  These  were  driven  to  a  penetration  be- 


Fig.  7.     Movement  of  Dragline  Machines  in  Constructing  Levees. 

low  the  sandy  strata  and  allowed  to  protrude  4  ft.  above  the 
surface,  penetrating  the  levee  to  that  extent. 

Two  machines  are  required  to  excavate  the  main  diversion 
channel. 

On  Contract  "  B,"  the  first  machine  is  a  Bucyrus  drag  line, 
having  a  125-ft.  boom  and  a  3^-yd.  bucket.  This  machine  tracks 
along  the  channel  near  the  center  line  and  excavates  approxi- 
mately 65%  of  the  material.  This  it  places  over  the  levee  area 
in  layers  about  8  ft.  in  depth,  making  two  lifts.  In  depositing 
the  material  for  the  first  lift,  the  movement  is  clockwise  and  in 
placing  the  second  lift  it  moves  in  the  opposite  direction.  See 
Fig.  7.  The  earth  is  compacted  by  dropping  at  least  8  ft. 

The  second  machine,  a  Bucyrus  drag  line,  100  ft.  boom,  4-yd. 
bucket,  tracks  along  the  berm  and  removes  the  remainder  of  the 
material  in  the  channel.  It  likewise  deposits  the  material  in 
two  lifts  and  operates  in  the  same  manner  as  machine  1.  Usu- 


1254  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

ally  machines  1  and  2  are  at  leas;  2,000  ft.  apart.  Machine  2 
carries  the  levee  to  its  shrinkage  grade  and  section.  brnu 

The  operations  on  Contract  "  A  "  are  similar  to  those  on  Con- 
tract "  B,"  with  the  exception  that  the  stripping  is  removed  and 
muck  ditch  excavation  is  made  by  the  pilot  machine,  which  also 
excavates  about  30  per  cent  of  the  channel.  Two  Bucyrus  drag 
lines,  100-ft.  booms,  3^-yd.  buckets,  are  in  use  on  this  contract. 

The  material  handles  more  easily  if  there  is  some  water  in  the 
channel,  but,  if  there  is  too  much,  it  makes  the  material  unstable 
for  levee  building  and  slides  result.  Except  during  periods  of 
heavy  rain,  the  stage  in  the  channel  is  controlled  by  pumping, 
dams  being  left  in  the  channel  at  intervals  and  the  water  pumped 
from  the  sections  where  operations  are  in  progress. 

The  crew  of  a  drag  line  excavator,  electrically  operated,  consists 
of  the  runners,  who  work  in  8-hr,  shifts,  a  foreman,  three  labor- 
ers, a  helper  and  a  spotter,  who  work  12  hr.  The  machines  op- 
erate during  the  entire  24-hr,  period. 

The  following  statement,  covering  the  operations  of  the  con- 
tractor for  one  year,  is  of  interest: 

Total  yardage,  four  electric  machines 2,682,330  cu.  yd, 

Total     yardage,     three     steam     machines, 

including  stripping  and  muck  ditch..       980,750  cu.  yd. 

Current  consumed  during  year   1,952,240  K.  W.  H. 

Coal  consumed  during  year   4,350  tons 

Grubbing  during  year   155  acres 

Dynamite  used  during  year  133,000  Ib. 

Average  number  of  men  employed,  contract  "  A,"  102  men. 
Average  number  of  men  employed,  contract  "  B,"  187  men. 

The  above  indicates  that  under  similar  operating  conditions 
it  requires  0.756  K.W.H.  per  cu.  yd.  to  excavate  earth,  and  that 
0.9  Ib.  of  coal  is  required  for  the  same  purpose. 

Levee  Construction  in  Texas  with  Draglines.  In  Engineering 
and  Contracting,  July  17,  1918,  O.  W.  Finley  gives  the  following: 

The  first  levee  work  of  any  magnitude  on  the  Trinity  River 
in  northern  Texas  was  begun  in  June,  1914,  when  a  levee  10  ft. 
high  and  44,000  ft.  long  was  built  for  the  protection  of  9,040 
acres  of  very  fine  black  flood  land  in  Kaufman  County.  This 
levee  has  since  been  raised  to  18  ft.  height.  The  levee  was  con- 
structed by  an  old  steam  skid  and  roller  dragline  machine  which 
has  long  since  been  junked  and  has  now  been  replaced  by  18 
new  machines,  15  of  which  are  Monighan  gas  walking  machines, 
one  a  Bucyrus  mutipedal,  one  a  gas  skid  and  roller  and  one  a 
steam  skid  and  roller.  The  18  machines  are  of  the  following 
types  and  sizes: 

All  the  small  machines  have  vertical  triple  cylinder  gas  en- 
gines while  all  the  larger  or  No.  2  and  3  machines,  except  the 
Bucyrus,  have  horizontal  single  cylinder  gas  engines.  The  Bu- 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES  1255 

cyrus  has  a  triple  vertical  type  engine  and  is  an  excellent  dirt 
mover. 

TJp  to  May  18,  1918,  a  fraction  more  than  100  miles  of  levee 
had  been  built  in  which  had  been  placed  6,540,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth. 
Seldom  more  than  15  of  the  machines  are  working  at  the  same 
time,  the  others  are  moving  from  one  job  to  another,  but  nearly 
500,000  cu.  yd.  are  being  moved  per  month,  or  an  average  of 
about  30,000  yd.  for  each  machine.  The  larger  machines  some- 
times excavate  more  than  60,000  yd.  a  month. 

The  contract  price  for  these  levees  is  about  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd. 
The  cost  per  acre  for  reclamation  varies  from  $14  to  $70.  It 
is  stated  that  these  lands  are  so  valuable  for  agriculture  that  ex- 
penditures up  to  $100  per  acre  are  justifiable. 

Machines  for  Building  Levees.  J.  R.  Slattery  in  Engineering 
News,  May  25,  1916,  gives  the  following:  The  floods  of  1912  and 
1913  resulted  in  a  number  of  crevasses  in  the  Mississippi  River 
levees  which  it  was  imperative  to  repair  before  the  next  flood 
period.  Recognizing  the  inability  of  existing  team  outfits  on  the 
river  to  handle  this  work  economically,  the  Mississippi  River 
Commission  directed  that  careful  consideration  be  given  to  the 
problem  of  selecting  suitable  mechanical  devices  for  levee  con- 
struction. 

TABLE    I.— AMOUNT   AND   YARDAGE    COSTS    OF   MISSISSIPPI 
RIVER  LEVEES 

Price  per 

Fiscal  year  Cu.  yd.  cu.  yd. 

1882-90    1,672,619  28.83 

1891-92    4 979,154  22.37 

1892-93 793,365  21.12 

1893-94     785,642  17.50 

1894-95    1,326,255  11.19 

1895-96     1,149,411  9.26 

1896-97     256,153  11.70 

1897-98     4,141,326  12.67 

1898-99     2,845,342  11.67 

1899-1900     1,840,340  17.30 

1900-1901    614,940  13.52 

1901-2 21,932  18.56 

1902-3     841,589  17.21 

1903-4     1,905,842  17.24 

1904-5     1,040,708  17.40 

1905-6    429,632  19.75    hjn! 

1906-7    305,507  21.89 

1907-8    918,504  20.55 

1908-9 986,674  25.31 

1909-10     303,878  22.08 

1910-11     906,761  20.34 

1911-12 420,260  11.64 

1912-13     1,072,305  25.80 

Specifications  for  levees  above  the  Red  River  require  that  bor- 
row pits  shall  be  40  ft.  from  the  base  of  the  levee  on  the  river  side 
and  100  ft.  from  the  base  of  the  levee  on  the  land  side.  Side 


1256      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

slopes  of  borrow  pits  must  be  very  flat.  Below  the  Red  River 
borrow  pits  may  be  within  20  ft.  of  the  base  of  the  levee  on  the 
river  side  and  within  80  ft.  on  the  land  side. 

The  generally  smaller  levees  below  Red  River  and  the  more 
liberal  pit  specifications  for  them  made  the  selection  of  a  suitable 
type  of  machine  for  their  construction  much  less  difficult  than 
the  selection  of  a  machine  for  levees  above  Red  River.  The  ma- 
chine selected  was  the  dragline  excavator,  of  the  self-contained, 
revolving  locomotive  crane  type,  arranged  to  operate  an  orange- 
peel,  clamshell  or  drag-line  bucket  at  a  radius  of  90  or  125  ft. 

The  machines  are  mounted  on  four-wheel  trucks  and  are  pro- 
vided with  the  necessary  mechanism  for  performing  the  opera- 
tions of  traveling  and  hoisting,  rotating  and  operating  a  bucket. 
Track  is  provided  for  the  machines  to  work  on  during  low-water 
stages  and  barges  from  which  to  operate  them  during  high-water 
stages.  The  barges  are  likewise  used  to  transport  the  machines 
from  one  job  to  another.  The  crews  of  the  machines  are  housed 
on  quarter-boats.  The  first  machine  with  its  barge,  quarter-boat, 
track  and  equipment  cost  approximately  $40,000.  The  second  and 
third  machines  purchased  are  stronger  and  of  greater  capacity 
than  the  first  one,  and  the  last  machine  purchased  has  been  so 
successful  as  to  warrant  its  adoption  with  minor  modifications 
as  a  type  for  work  in  the  Fourth  District,  particularly  below  Red 
River.  This  type  machine  will  handle  a  3-yd.  orangepeel  bucket 
or  a  5-yd.  dragline  or  clamshell  bucket  at  a  radius  of  126  ft. 
from  the  center  of  the  machine.  The  cost  of  machines  of  this 
type  fully  equipped  and  provided  with  a  quarter-boat  for  the 
housing  and  care  of  crew  and  coal  barge  for  supplying  it  with  coal 
will  be  approximately  $60,000.  This  figure  does  not  include  the 
cost  of  a  barge  from  which  to  operate  it  during  high  stages  and 
with  which  to  move  the  machine  from  point  to  point.  The  cost 
of  a  steel  barge  suitable  for  this  purpose  is  about  $18,000.  It 
will  not  be  necessary  to  provide  a  barge  for  every  machine.  It  is 
thought  that  with  these  machines  it  will  be  possible  to  place 
earth  in  the  levee  system,  wherever  rehandling  is  unnecessary,  at 
field  costs  of  from  5  to  10  ct.  per  cu.  yd.,  exclusive  of  the  cost  of 
clearing  and  grubbing  when  this  is  necessary.  When  material 
can  be  placed  in  the  levee  without  rehandling  this  type  of  ma- 
chine is  believed  to  be  the  most  economic  for  levee  work. 

Above  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River  the  levees  become  much 
.  higher  than  below  the  Red,  and  this  fact,  together  with  the  more 
difficult  pit  specifications,  necessitates  greater  reach  on  the  part 
of  the  machines.  The  considerably  greater  reach  led  to  the  se- 
lection of  cableway  machines  for  trial  in  preference  to  drag-line 
machines. 

:^«;i'    >;         '«-  ^ 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES 


1257 


1258  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Above  Greenville  the  average  height  of  the  levee  system  is  20.7 
ft. ;  the  average  width  of  the  existing  riverside  pits  is  258  ft. ;  the 
average  amount  of  material  to  be  added  to  the  existing  levees 
to  bring  them  up  to  the  grade  and  section  calculated  to  be  neces- 
sary to  contain  safely 'such  a  flood  as  that  of  1912  is  2,150  cu. 
yd.  per  100  ft.  station.  In  order  to  obtain  this  amount  of  ma- 
terial it  is  necessary  to  go  out  63  ft.  beyond  the  existing  river- 
side pit.  The  outer  edge  of  the  resulting  pit  would  then  be  428 
ft.  from  the  center  line  of  the  crown  of  the  existing  levees.  Even 
if  this  earth  were  all  to  be  placed  on  the  river  side,  dragline 
excavators  to  do  this  work  without  rehandling  would  have  to  han- 
dle their  buckets  on  booms  approximately  200  ft.  long.  See  Fig. 
8. 

A  machine  was  sought  that  would  take  all  the  material  from 
the  river  side  of  the  levee  beyond  the  limit  of  the  old  pits,  and 
place  it  either  on  the  river  side  or  the  land  side.  A  cableway 
of  the  Lidgerwood  type  (Fig.  9)  was  purchased  and  started  to 
work  on  the  upper  end  of  the  Third  District. 

The  first  cost  of  a  cableway  of  this  type  erected  and  equipped 
is  about  $45,000.  It  has  a  clear  span  of  662  ft.  The  towers  are 
of  steel,  85  ft.  and  45  ft.  high  respectively,  and  support  between 
them  a  2}4-in.  cable.  On  this  cable  travels  a  carriage  which  car- 
ries a  3-yd.  dragline  bucket.  Derricks  are  provided  on  each 
tower  for  handling  the  track. 

The  crew  of  this  machine  consists  of  1  foreman  rigger;  1  op- 
erator; 1  rigger's  helper;  1  engineman;  1  fireman;  1  signalman; 
8  laborers;  (trackmen)  3  on  tail  tower  and  5  on  head  tower,  3 
laborers  (dressing  levee),  3  teamsters  (plowing,  dressing  levee, 
and  hauling  supplies). 

From  April  to  December,  inclusive,  in  1915,  153,900  cu.  yd. 
of  material  were  placed  at  a  cost  of  15  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  Delays 
were  caused  in  September  and  December  by  high  water. 

Levee  Building  with  an  Oglesby  Tower  Dragline.  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  May  12,  1915,  gives  the  following: 

The  main  tower  (Fig.  10)  consists  of  a  timber  frame,  78  ft. 
high  of  10  x  14-in.  timbers  on  a  24  x  27-ft.  base.  The  tower  is  sup- 
ported on  a  platform  of  seven  12  x  16-in.  timbers  40  ft.  long  laid 
on  wheel  trucks  spaced  32  ft.  The  wheel  trucks  are  each  com- 
posed of  four  20i4-in.  double  flange,  iron  wheels  running  between 
two  12  x  16-in.  timbers  24  ft.  long.  Upon  the  platform  are 
mounted  three  60-in.  drums  and  a  pony  drum  operated  by  double 
121/4-in.  by  15-in.  Flory  engines  and  a  150-hp.  locomotive  boiler. 

The  operator's  platform  is  26  ft.  above  the  tower  base.  Control 
is  secured  through  seven  levers  and  six  pedals  connected  with  the 
drums  by  pipes  to  the  platform.  The  dragline  sheave  may  be 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES  1259 


1260  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

raised  and  lowered  to  suit  varying  heights  and  slopes  of  levee. 
The  slack  cable  and  tail  rope  operate  over  sheaves  at  the  .top  of 
the  tower.  The  cableway  is  attached  within  the  tower  to  a  throw 
wheel  double  block,  the  rope  from  which  leads  over  the  central 
drum. 

The  tail  tower  consists  of  a  platform  20x20  ft.  laid  on  five 
12  x  12-in.  by  20-ft.  timbers  supported  on  two  three-wheel  trucks 
spaced  16  ft.  The  gallows  frame  is  24  ft.  high  and  the  counter- 
weight boom  24  ft.  long.  Timber .  seats  are  used  for  both  the 
gallows  frame  and  the  boom.  The  boom  seat  is  slightly  rounded 
to  the  segment  of  a  circle  having  a  cord  of  about  6  ft.  and  a  mid- 
dle ordinate  of  about  8  in.  This  joint  is  unique  and  bears  an  im- 
portant part  in  facilitating  the  movement  of  the  tail  towers,  as 
described  later.  A  vertical  boiler  and  second-hand  hoisting  engine 
are  mounted  on  the  platform  of  the  tail  tower.  The  counter- 
weight consists  of  a  timber  box  filled  with  earth. 

This  tail  tower  is  a  loose  jointed  structure  and  has  an  impor- 
tant function  in  absorbing  shocks  occasioned  by  sudden  stoppage 
of  the  bucket.  It  acts  as  a  safety  valve  in  the  operation  of  the 
machine. 

The  dragline  and  slack  line  cables  are  \%  in.  in  diameter  and 
the  tail  rope  is  %  in.  diameter.  These  cables  have  handled  154,000 
cu.  yd.  of  earth  up  to  the  present  time  and  very  little  wear  is  ap- 
parent. No  trouble  of  any  kind  has  been  experienced  with  the 
cables.  In  this  connection  the  sheave  arrangement  is  worthy  of 
note. 

Bucket.  The  bucket  was  designed  by  C.  G.  Oglesby  and  made 
in  Memphis,  Tenn. 

The  average  time  required  for  a  round  trip  of  the  bucket  from 
the  back  of  the  borrow  pit  is  3  minutes.  As  a  rule  the  bucket 
pushes  about  1  cu.  yd.  of  earth  in  front,  some  of  which  falls  off 
and  builds  up  the  berm.  The  amount  of  earth  moved  in  a  trip 
varies  from  5  to  9  cu.  yd.  The  average  bucket  load  of  a  day's 
run  is  probably  6  cu.  yd. 

For  dumping,  the  elevation  of  the  dragline  sheave  has  been  so 
adjusted  that  the  teeth  of  the  dumped  bucket  follow  naturally  the 
face  of  the  1  to  3  levee  slope.  This  facilitates  the  use  of  the 
bucket  in  dressing  the  levee  face.  The  bucket  is  dragged  over 
the  earth  already  placed  in  the  levee  to  the  dumping  point.  The 
compaction  resulting  from  the  repeated  passage  of  the  loaded 
bucket,  the  average  weight  of  which  exceeds  15,000  lb.,  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  securing  a  stable  levee. 

When  the  earth  is  wet  the  three  stage  method  of  placing  is 
employed  as  shown  in  Fig.  11.  Ordinarily  the  earth  is  placed  the 
full  height  for  each  runway. 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES  1261 

Two  men  with  shovels  are  employed,  finishing  and  smoothing 
the  earth  placed  in  the  levee.  If  the  earth  is  quite  wet  when 
placed  and  drys  out  in  clods,  a  Mormon  scraper  is  used  to  advan- 
tage in  smoothing. 

The  costs  given  here  are  not  representative  of  the  cost  of  hand- 
ling earth  with  the  Oglesby  machine  since  they  include  the  cost  of 
developing  the  machine  to  its  present  state.  The  costs  given,  more- 
over, do  not  include  accurate  repair  or  construction  costs  on  the 
machine  or  the  contractors'  overhead  cost.  These  costs  are,  how- 
ever, estimated  at  $25  a  day.  The  operating  costs  it  is  believed 
by  Mr.  Oglesby  could  be  materially  reduced  by  increasing  the 
boiler  capacity  and  thereby  reducing  the  coal  loss  resulting  from 
the  use  of  forced  draft  on  the  present  boiler  and  by  using  a  10-cu. 
yd.  bucket.  The  amount  of  earth  to  be  moved  on  the  job  does 

31 

*----^_^ 4'    ^-^-^^ 

zi 


Fig.   11.     Stage  Method  of  Building  Levee  When  Earth  Is  Wet. 

not,  however,  justify  these  changes.  Table  I  gives  the  daily  op- 
erating cost  of  the  excavator. 

The  machine  has  operated  up  to  Apr.  20,  1915,  a  total  of  1,914 
hr.  and  has  built  154,031  cu.  yd.  of  compact  levee,  an  average 
hourly  output  for  the  whole  job  of  80  cu.  yd.  The  best  day's 
work  was  on  April  18,  and  amounted  to  1,610  cu.  yd.  of  compacted 
levee,  a  length  of  70  ft.  On  that  day  the  cost  of  building  finished 
levee  was  approximately  8  ct.  a  cu.  yd. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  when  comparing  the  costs  of  this 
work  with  team  work  that  the  average  haul  for  wheelers  would 
be  not  less  than  400  ft.  The  machine  is  essentially  long  haul, 
shallow  pit  type  of  excavator. 

The  machine  was  erected  early  in  1914,  and,  after  numerous  de- 
lays incidental  to  the  development  of  a  pioneer  machine,  was  well 
started  Sept.  1,  1914.  Work  was  interrupted  by  high  water  on 
the  Mississippi  for  a  month  in  1915.  On  April  20,  1915,  a  total 
of  154,000  cu.  yd.  had  been  moved  and  it  is  estimated  the  job  will 
be  completed  by  Aug.  1,  1915. 

The  daily    (12-hr.)    cost  of  operating  the  excavator  was: 

1  foreman  at  $150  a  month,  20  days  $    7.50 

1  runner  at  $150  a  month,  20  days   7.50 

3  trackmen   at  $2    6.00 

1  fireman 3.00 

1  tail   tower  engineman 3.00 

1  tail  tower   helper    2.00 


1262  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

2  levee  trimmers  at  $2.50  5.00 

1  extra   man    2.00 

1  pump  engineman   2.50 

1  team  and  teamster 5.00 

1  night    watchman 2.50 

Total  daily  labor  cost  $  46.00 

Fuel. 

7  tons  coal  (on  3  boilers)  at  $7.75  54.25 

Oil  and  waste   1.50 


Total  daily  labor  and  fuel  cost  $101.75 

Repairs,     depreciation    and    overhead    expenses    esti- 
mated for  normal  conditions   24.00 


Total  daily  operating  cost   $125.75 

Output  April  11-20,  100  hr.  operated,  compacted  levee, 

cu.    yd 8,754 

Earth  actually  placed  in  levee,   allowing  25%  shrink- 
age per  12-hr,  day,   cu.  yd 1,340 

Approximate  cost  per  cu.  yd.  compacted  levee,  ct 11.7 

Approximate  cost  per  cu.  yd.  earth  moved  (no  shrink- 
age),   ct 

Building  Levees  with  a  Hydraulic  Dredge.  In  Engineering 
News,  Oct.  29,  1914,  appears  the  following  by  Jean  M.  Allen: 

Sand  or  gravel  dredged  by  the  hydraulic  process  is  not  carried 
entirely  in  suspension  by  the  water  in  the  discharge  pipe,  but  the 
heavier  material  settles  and  flows  along  the  bottom  at  a  velocity 
much  lower  than  the  impelling  water.  This  is  specially  true  if 
the  pipe  line  is  long  or  the  velocity  of  the  discharge  water  is 
low.  This  action  can  be  utilized  to  build  embankments  of  as 
steep  a  slope  as  1  on  1,  directly  from  the  discharge  pipe. 

This  is  accomplished  by  what  are  called  "  shutter  pipes,"  which 
are  lengths  of  ordinary  slip-joint  discharge  pipe,  generally  made 
of  No.  10  to  14  sheet  steel  and  in  lengths  of  from  16  to  18  ft., 
with  openings  in  the  bottom.  (See  Fig.  12.)  These  openings 
are  controlled  by  steel  plates  or  shutters  and  may  be  opened 
or  closed  at  will.  A  stretch  of  these  pipes  is  laid  on  a  trestle 
and  the  discharge  pipe  from  the  dredge  is  connected  to  them. 
When  the  shutters  are  opened  the  sand  flows  at  about  the  con- 
sistency of  thick  mortar,  building  up  into  a  steep  embankment. 

The  discharge  pipe  is  continued  beyond  the  shutter  pipe  in 
order  to  carry  away  the  surplus  water  and  avoid  washing  down 
the  levee  which  has  been  built.  The  shutters  should  be  spaced 
3  to  4  ft.  apart,  and  should  be  attached  to  the  pipe  with  chain  or 
wire,  otherwise  many  will  be  dropped  into  the  fill  and  lost. 

Many  sizes  and  types  of  dredges  have  been  used,  with  discharge 
pipes  12  to  20  in.  in  diameter,  and  the  cost  of  the  complete  plant 
is  from  $15,000  to  $100,000.  Both  steam  and  electrically  driven 
dredges  are  being  used.  Some  have  revolving  cutters  or  water 
jets  to  disintegrate  the  material,  but  many  have  neither  appara- 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES 


1263 


tus.  This  depends  on  the  compactness  of  the  material  to  be  ex- 
cavated. In  general,  any  attempt  to  economize  in  first  cost  at 
the  expense  of  construction  or  equipment  of  the  dredge  will  be 
paid  for  dearly  in  subsequent  breakdowns  and  loss  of  time. 

Mississippi  and  Missouri  River  Dredges.  On  these  rivers,  12 
and  15-in.  dredges  are  used,  due  no  doubt  to  the  reluctance  of  the 
contractor  to  build  an  expensive  plant  for  the  small  yardage  of 
contracts  offered. 

The  total  cost  of  a  12-in.  plant,  complete  with  pipe  line,  is  be- 
tween $15,000  and  $25,000,  depending  upon  the  class  of  machinery 
and  the  refinement  of  construction.  Between  25,000  and  50,000 
cu.  yd.  per  month  would  be  the  probable  output,  depending  upon 


ffcr 

shutter  plate 
LpngitudincJ1 
Section 

Shutter  Plate. 


Bottom  Plan  «*<>  »tw» 

Fig.  12.    Bottom  Discharge  Gates  for  Shore  Pipes  of  Hydraulic 

Dredge. 

the  length  of  the  pipe  line,  the  layout  of  the  work,  river  condi- 
tions and  the  skill  of  the  operators. 

The  dredge  with  15-in.  pump  is  built  along  the  same  lines  as  the 
12-in.,  though  frequently  the  pump  is  directly  connected  rather 
than  belt  driven.  In  either  case,  the  engine  should  be  compound, 
to  save  fuel.  Between  250  and  300  hp.  is  required  for  a  plant  of 
this  size,  depending  upon  the  conditions  mentioned.  An  efficient 
engine  for  medium  power  is  a  cross-compound  of  either  the  hori- 
zontal or  marine  type.  The  boilers  should  have  about  2,500  sq.  ft. 
of  heating  surface.  If  surface  condensers  are  installed,  water- 
tube  boilers  may  be  used,  otherwise  the  Mississippi  River  type  is 
to  be  preferred.  A  donkey  boiler  should  be  provided  for  washing 
the  main  battery.  A  hoisting  engine  handles  the  suction  pipe, 
but  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  deck  capstan  with  independent  en- 
gines for  handling  the  boat. 

The  suction  pipe  is  articulated  at  the  end  of  the  dredge  either 
by  a  swivel  elbow  or  merely  by  a  length  of  suction  hose,  and  is 
raised  and  lowered  by  tackle  suspended  from  an  A-frame  over  the 
bow.  Its  lower  end  is  provided  with  a  suction  nozzle,  consisting 


1264  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

of  a  cone-shaped  head  with  cross  bars  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
large  stones  and  pieces  of  wood  that  would  clog  the  pump.  The 
hull  will  be  about  110x30x5  ft.  The  15-in.  dredge,  complete 
with  all  equipment,  will  cost  between  $25,000  and  $45,000  and  its 
output  will  be  from  60,000  to  125,000  cu.  yd.  per  month.  To  at- 
tain the  latter  figure,  the  conditions  must  be  very  favorable  and 
the  dredge  must  be  operated  cpntinuously  (24  hr.  a  day)  and  with 
very  few  delays. 

The  maximum  monthly  output  of  which  a  dredge  is  capable  is 
rarely  attained  in  levee  work,  on  account  of  the  large  percentage 
of  time  lost  in  shifting  pipe,  and  it  is  of  great  importance  that 
experienced  men  be  employed,  to  reduce  this  loss  to  a  minimum. 
As  the  shutter  pipes  have  to  be  shifted  ahead  as  each  section 
of  the  levee  is  completed,  it  is  advisable  so  to  plan  the  work  that 
operations  can  be  conducted  on  two  sections  simultaneously.  The 
main  discharge  pipe  is  provided  with  a  Y-branch  and  gate  valves 
so  that  the  filling  can  progress  on  each  section  alternately,  thus 
reducing  the  idle  time  of  the  dredge.  If  this  is  not  possible, 
sometimes  the  levee  is  brought  up  to  the  full  height  but  not  to 
full  width  at  the  first  operation,  and  then  widened  with  the  branch 
line  while  extending  the  main  line. 

Some  contractors  use  a  discharge  pipe  of  larger  size  than  the 
pump  and  suction;  for  instance,  an  18-in.  discharge  pipe  for  a 
15-in.  pump,  with  15-in.  suction  pipe.  The  purpose  is  to  save 
power  by  reducing  the  velocity  of  water  in  the  line  and  thus  the 
friction  head  pumped  against.  But  it  is  the  velocity  rather  than 
the  quantity  of  the  water  that  is  instrumental  in  keeping  in  sus- 
pension and  transporting  such  heavy  material  as  coarse  sand 
and  gravel.  Enlarging  the  discharge  pipe  reduces  the  velocity 
and  causes  the  sand  to  settle  until  the  cross-section  is  reduced 
and  the  velocity  thus  increased  to  a  point  where  it  will  again 
carry  the  material. 

It  is  better  practice  to  use  a  discharge  pipe  of  the  same  size 
as  the  pump  as  far  as  it  connects  with  the  shutter  pipe.  There 
it  may  be  enlarged,  as  it  is  desired  that  the  sand  should  settle 
so  that  it  may  be  discharged  through  the  shutters.  In  a  high- 
powered  20-in.  dredge  on  the  New  York  Barge  Canal,  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  pumping  gravel  and  small  boulders  through 
a  long  20-in.  discharge  line,  but  upon  replacing  this  with  a  16-in. 
line  the  material  was  discharged  with  ease  and  the  output  greatly 
increased. 

Shields  or  slope-boards,  consisting  of  plates  of  No.  16  steel 
about  10  ft.  long  and  18  in.  wide,  are  frequently  used  to  facilitate 
the  formation  of  the  desired  slope.  A  number  of  these  are  in- 
serted, end  to  end,  in  the  partly  formed  slope.  They  prevent 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES  1265 

the  sand  from  flowing  downward  until  it  fills  to  the  top  of  the 
plates,  when  they  are  pulled  out  and  moved  further  up  the  slope. 

The  hydraulic  construction  of  levees  requires  considerable  skill. 
The  suction-pipe  operator  must  keep  a  steady  and  uniform  flow 
of  sand  in  the  discharge  pipe,  and  the  pipe  men  must  use  judg- 
ment in  opening  and  closing  the  shutters  to  build  the  embank- 
ment to  the  proper  slope;  closing  some  of  them  if  the  percentage 
of  sand  in  the  pipe  decreases  and  opening  enough  of  them  to 
discharge  water  if  the  slopes  need  to  be  flattened  out.  The  hand- 
ling of  the  slope  boards  also  requires  practice.  With  a  good  re- 
liable plant,  properly  designed  to  meet  local  conditions,  some  re- 
markable results  have  been  obtained,  not  only  in  the  low  cost 
per  yard  but  in  the  character  and  appearance  of  the  fill. 

The  monthly  operating  costs  given  in  the  accompanying  table 
are  typical  for  a  15-in.  dredge  on  the  Mississippi  River: 

1  foreman     , $   150 

1  engineman     125 

1  engineman     100 

2  suction  operators,  at  $100   200 

2  oilers,    at   $60    120 

2  firemen,    at  $70    140 

2  coal  passers,  at  $60  120 

3  deck  hands,    at  $60   180 

1  levee   foreman    (day)    90 

1  levee  foreman   (night)    70 

10  levee  laborers,   at  $60    600 


26           Total  labor  cost  per  month  $1,895 

Coal  (18  tons  per  day)    1,200 

Supplies    (rope,   oil,    packing)    150 

Repairs    and   renewals    200 

Office  and  overhead  expenses   200 

Insurance    (fire   and   liability)    100 

Interest  and  depreciation  (2%  on  $35,000)   700 


Total  operating  cost  per  month   $4,445 

This  is  for  two  12-hr,  shifts  daily.  The  wages  do  not  include 
subsistence.  Assuming  an  output  of  75,000  yd.  per  month  the 
cost  is  about  6  ct.  per  yd. 

Construction  of  Levees  by  Hydraulic  Dredges.  D.  L.  Yarnell, 
in  Engineering  News,  June  11,  1914,  describes  work  on  levees  on 
the  Mississippi  River  near  Trempealeau,  Wis.,  and  in  Henderson 
County,  111.,  as  follows: 

Each  of  the  dredges  consisted  of  a  hull  24x80x4^  ft.,  upon 
which  were  mounted  a  centrifugal  pump  having  one  12-in.  suc- 
tion pipe  and  a  14-in.  discharge  pipe,  a  200-hp.  engine,  and  a 
boiler  nominally  rated  at  150  hp.  The  discharge  pipe  was  car- 
ried from  the  dredge  to  the  top  of  the  levee  by  small  towers 
mounted  on  14  x  40-ft.  barges.  The  power  actually  developed  by 


1266  HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  engine  varied  with  the  length  of  the  discharge  pipe,  the 
height  of  delivery  and  the1  character  of  the  material  pumped. 

The  desired  slopes  were  formed  by  means  of  steel  boards  about 
18  in.  wide  and  10  ft.  long,  of  No.  14-gage  steel  with  angle-iron 
top,  not  too  large  or  heavy  to  be  easily  moved  by  one  man.  The 
slope  boards  are  placed  at  the  intersection  of  the  side  slope  with 
the  natural  slope  of  the  end  of  the  fill  under  construction.  Sev- 
eral men  equipped  with  shovels  are  necessary  to  distribute  the 
material  evenly  and  to  move  the  slope  boards  ahead  as  the  levee 
is  built  up. 

In  the  Trempealeau  District,  there  were  two  separate  levees 
constructed.  The  levees  were  built  with  material  from  the  chan- 
nel excavated  to  divert  Trempealeau  River  from  near  the  foothills 
to  Trempealeau  Bay.  The  average  width  of  the  levee  crown  is 
between  8  and  10  ft.,  and  the  average  height  of  embankment  is 
probably  14  ft.  The  levees  have  slopes  of  1  on  3  on  the  water 
side  and  1  on  2  on  the  other,  with  banquette  against  the  land 
side  upon  which  is  a  roadway.  The  site  for  the  levee  was  not 
cleared  of  vegetation  and  stumps  were  not  grubbed  out  for  the 
reason  that  during  the  greater  part  of  the  construction  period,  the 
bed  of  the  levee  was  flooded.  It  was  assumed  that  the  method  of 
construction  so  completely  sealed  the  voids  around  the  stumps 
that  moisture  enough  will  be  retained  and  the  air  excluded  to 
prevent  decay.  The  total  earthwork  in  the  two  levees  and  divert- 
ing channel  is  approximately  500,000  cu.  yd.,  which  was  let  at 
a  contract  price  of  8.5  ct.  The  construction  work  was  begun  in 
May,  1912,  and  completed  in  October  of  the  same  year  by  the  La- 
Crosse  Dredging  Co.,  two  dredges  being  used. 

Part  of  the  levees  in  Henderson  County,  111.,  drainage  districts 
Nos.  1  and  2  are  being  built  by  hydraulic  dredges.  The  levee 
of  District  No.  2  is  a  reinforcement  placed  against  the  west  side 
of  the  C.,  B.  &  Q.  R.  R.  (Carthage  Branch)  embankment,  carried 
about  3  ft.  higher  than  the  track.  The  easterly  slope  of  the  new 
fill  is  1  on  U/2,  and  the  slope  on  the  water  side  is  1  on  2%. 
About  126,382  cu.  yd.  have  been  let  at  a  contract  price  of  15.9 
ct.,  23,400  yd.  at  20  ct.,  and  there  is  an  additional  5,900  yd.  for 
which  contract  has  not  yet  been  let.  On  the  District  No.  1,  two 
sections  of  the  levee  are  to  be  constructed  with  a  suction  dredge. 
The  total  length  of  these  two  sections  is  20,500  ft. ;  the  embank- 
ment is  to  have  an  8-ft.  crown  and  1  on  3  slopes  on  both  sides; 
the  contract  price  is  11.25  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  rest  of  the  levee, 
incuding  probably  two  to  three  times  the  amount  of  earth-work, 
with  6-ft.  crown,  1  on  3  slope  on  the  water  side  and  1  on  2  slope 
on  the  land  side,  is  to  be  constructed  with  a  dragline  excavator 
at  12.1  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  The  advertised  earthwork,  based  on  a  6-ft. 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES  1267 

crown  throughout  the  entire  length  and  combined  slopes  of  1  on 
5,  was  821,400  cu.  yd. 

At  the  time  of  the  inspection,  the  levee  being  built  was  about 
14  ft.  high,  and  the  top  width  was  2  to  3  ft.  wider  than  the  8 
ft.  specified.  The  designed  section  of  the  levee  at  that  point 
contains  practically  26  cu.  yd.  to  the  linear  foot,  and  the  con- 
structed section  about  27  cu.  yd.  On  the  day  of  the  inspection, 
Aug.  23,  the  two  11-hr,  shifts  built  100  lin.  ft.  of  completed  levee, 
or  2,700  cu.  yd.  were  actually  placed.  There  were  no  delays  for 
repairs,  moving  dredge,  or  any  other  reason.  On  this  work  a 
strip  about  30  ft.  wide  in  the  base  has  been  grubbed  and  ploughed, 
the  entire  base  being  cleared.  The  number  of  men  usually  em- 
ployed was  about  14,  and  the  fuel  used  about  5  tons  of  good  Il- 
linois coal,  in  each  shift.  The  average  day's  work  will  be  con- 
siderably less  than  this,  and  to  the  cost  of  labor  and  fuel  must 
be  added  that  of  dela37s,  repairs,  depreciation  of  plant,  prepara- 
tion of  site,  superintendence,  and  overhead  charges. 

A  20-ft.  head  with  about  600  to  800  ft.  of  discharge  pipe  is  the 
maximum  condition  under  which  a  plant  developing  only  200  hp. 
can  operate;  greater  heights  and  distances  may  be  overcome  by  a 
corresponding  increase  of  power  equipment.  The  dredge  must 
always  be  in  about  8  ft.  of  water  to  prevent  air  from  being  drawn 
into  the  suction  pipe.  A  dredge  of  this  type  costs  approximately 
$15,000,  not  including  the  discharge  pipe,  the  barges,  and  other 
necessary  appurtenances,  which  will  add  about  $5,000,  making  the 
total  first  cost  about  $20,000  for  a  plant  to  build  levees  by  this 
method.  It  would  hardly  pay  to  put  such  an  outfit  on  a  contract 
of  less  than  250,000  cu.  yd. 

Building  Levees  in  111.  by  Hydraulic  Dredging.  Jean  M.  Allen, 
in  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Feb.  16,  1910,  gives  a  description 
of  the  method  of  filling  low  areas  at  Cairo,  111.  This  work  was 
particularly  interesting  because  the  material  pumped  into  the  fill 
by  the  hydraulic  dredges  was  sand  which  is-  not  used  for  filling 
low  places  as  often  as  is  clay  or  alluvial  mud.  Furthermore,  the 
Cairo  plant  was  unique  in  that  the  flow  of  material  through  the 
very  long  pipe  line  from  the  dredge  was  accelerated  by  the  use  of 
a  booster  pump. 

The  method  used  for  building  up  the  levee  enclosing  the  dredged 
material  was  also  unique.  The  tendency  of  the  sand  to  settle  in 
the  bottom  of  the  pipe  permitted  the  building  of  levees  having  any 
desired  slope,  ranging  from  that  assumed  by  moist  sand  to  the 
slope  of  a  semi-fluid.  It  was  observed  at  Cairo  that  the  gravel 
dumped  from  the  openings  nearest  the  pump  was  coarsest  and 
that  the  material  became  finer  as  the  distance  it  was  carried 
increased.  The  method  used  in  hydraulic  fills  of  placing  boards 


1268  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

as  retainers  on  the  slope  was  here  used  until  it  was  realized  that 
as  sand  was  less  inclined  than  clay  to  hold  moisture,  boards 
were  not  required.  The  regulation  of  the  gate  openings  con- 
trolled the  solidity  of  the  fill.  Even  where  mud  is  used  for  fill- 
ing, sand  might  be  efficiently  employed  to  form  retaining  em- 
bankments if  obtainable  by  dredging  in  sufficient  quantities. 
Sand  also  settles  much  more  quickly  than  does  clay  alone  after 
being  pumped.  The  addition  of  a  certain  amount  of  sand"  to  clay 
embankments  formed  by  dredging  or  hydraulicking  would  cause 
a  quicker  settlement  of  the  material  and  would  likewise  improve 
the  character  of  the  fill. 

Regarded  as  a  hydraulic  filling  proposition  some  rather  un- 
usual and  difficult  problems  presented  themselves.  The  extreme 
distance  to  which  the  material  was  pumped  was  something  over 
6,500  ft.  and  the  greatest  elevation  to  be  overcome  at  extreme 
low  water  was  about  38  ft.  Extreme  low  water  was  about  5  ft. 
referred  to  zero  on  the  government  gage  at  this  point  and  the 
city  grade  was  43  ft.  referred  to  the  same  gage.  As  it  was  in- 
tended to  use  12-in.  pipe  and  as  a  velocity  of  water  of  at  least 
10  ft.  per  second  had  to  be  maintained  to  keep  the  heavy  sand 
and  gravel  in  suspension,  a  total  friction  and  static  head  of 
about  300  ft.  had  to  be  overcome. 

There  were  very  few  data  available  on  a  plant  of  this  kind. 
Some  of  the  builders  of  standard  dredging  pumps  declared  that 
the  proposed  heads  were  excessive  and  declined  to  submit  bids 
on  the  equipment.  A  somewhat  similar  plant  found  working  in 
Kansas  City,  was  carefully  studied  and  much  valuable  informa- 
tion gained  therefrom. 

The  following  was  the  plant  eventually  decided  upon  and  in- 
stalled: A  floating  dredge  was  installed  in  the  Mississippi  River 
adjacent  to  the  sand  bar.  It  was  connected  to  the  bank  by  a  pile 
trestle  extending  into  the  river  a  distance  of  100  ft.  and  by  a  rigid 
pontoon  line  160  ft.  long  connecting  the  boat  with  the  trestle. 
Articulations  at  the  connection  of  the  trestle  with  the  pontoons 
and  of  the  pontoons  with  the  bow  of  the  boat  enable  the  suction 
pipe,  located  at  the  stern  of  the  boat,  to  pump  sand  from  any 
point  in  the  interior  of  a  semicircle  whose  radius  is  380  ft. 

On  the  boat  was  installed  a  12-in.  centrifugal  dredging  pump  of 
a  standard  make  with  a  32-in.  runner.  This  pump  was  belted  to 
a  20  x  24-in.  slide  valve  engine.  Three  "  Mississippi  River  "  boil- 
ers, each  44  in.  in  diameter  and  22  ft.  long,  supply  steam  at  a 
pressure  of  140  Ib.  To  save  time  necessary  to  construct  a  hull 
for  the  dredge  a  river  tow  boat  141  ft.  long,  26  ft.  beam  and  4^ 
ft.  deep  was  secured  and  the  dredging  machinery  placed  upon  it. 
The  boat's  original  boilers,  feed  pumps  and  capstans  were  utilized 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES  1269 

in  the  dredging  equipment.  The  suction  pipe  passed  over  the 
stern  of  the  boat  and  was  raised  and  lowered  by  a  small  hoisting 
engine.  In  high  water  periods  this  suction  pipe  was  about  50  ft. 
long. 

A  shore  pumping  plant,  or  "  booster  "  plant,  was  located  just 
inside  the  levee  at  a  distance  of  about  1,800  ft.  from  the  boat. 
The  pump  and  engine  were  duplicates  of  those  on  the  boat. 
Steam  was  furnished  by  two  standard  tubular  boilers  76  in.  in 
diameter  and  16  ft.  long.  The  discharge  pipe  from  the  boat  plant 
connects  directly  to  the  suction  of  the  shore  plant  pump.  Both 
boat  and  shore  plant  used  the  Mississippi  River  water  for  boiler 
feed  and  both  plants  ran  non-condensing. 

The  length  of  the  pipe  line  from  the  shore  plant  to  the  dis- 
charge was  about  1,300  ft.  when  the  filling  commenced  and  was 
increased  to  4,400  ft.  with  the  progress  of  the  work.  All  pipe 
used  except  the  suction  and  pontoon  pipe  was  12-in.  spiral  riveted 
pipe,  asphalted.  Nearly  all  the  pipe  was  No.  12  gage,  but  on  the 
end  of  the  discharge  line  where  the  pipe  required  frequent  handling 
and  lightness  was  a  prime  consideration,  some  No.  14  and  16  gage 
is  used. 

A  private  telephone  line  connected  the  boat,  shore  plant  and  end 
of  discharge  pipe,  and  by  it  the  suction  operator  was  kept  con- 
stantly informed  as  to  the  percentage  of  solids  carried  in  the 
water  and  is  thus  enabled  to  regulate  the  supply.  The  surplus 
water  found  its  way  to  the  river  by  means  of  the  city  sewers. 

The  original  estimates  of  the  cost  were  somewhat  exceeded  and 
$42,000  was  expended  on  the  plant  before  it  was. ready  for  opera- 
tion. 

Pump  Wear.  The  plant  was  started  late  in  the  season  of  1907. 
A  number  of  difficulties  developed  after  the  plant  had  been  in  op- 
eration a  short  time.  The  most  serious  was  the  rapid  wearing  of 
the  shells  of  the  dredging  pumps.  These  were  of  cast  iron  and 
not  very  thick  and  it  was  found  that  every  15,000  cu.  yd.  pumped 
required  a  new  set  of  shells  at  both  the  boat  and  the  shore  plant. 
This  extreme  wear  was  due  in  part  to  the  quality  of  the  material 
handled.  The  Mississippi  River  sand  is  very  coarse  and  sharp. 
The  high  speed  at  which  the  pump  had  to  be  driven  caused  the 
shells  to  cut  out  faster  than  most  sand  pumps.  It  was  found  that, 
at  low  water  periods  and  when  pumping  to  the  most  distant  areas 
a  peripheral  speed  of  the  runner  of  about  5,500  ft.  per  minute 
had  to  be  maintained  to  produce  the  required  velocity  in  the  pipe. 
Considerable  trouble  was  experienced  with  the  pump  shafts  as 
they  wore  very  fast  m  the  siuffing  boxes  and  finally  broke.  As 
the  pumps  were  of  the  side  suction  type  great  trouble  was  ex- 
perienced in  caring  for  the  end  thrust  of  the  runner. 


1270  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

A  great  deal  of.  time  and  money  was  spent  in  the  endeavor  to 
produce  a  pump  more  suitable  for  the  work.  Pumps  with  larger 
diameter  runners,  and  with  renewable  liners  in  the  shells  were 
tried  and  at  length  a  pump  was  evolved  that  gives  very  good  sat- 
isfaction. The  pumps  finally  used  which  were  designed  and  built 
specially  for  this  work,  were  of  the  double  suction  type  to  obvi- 
ate the  end  thrust.  The  runners  were  built  up  of  steel  casting 
and  %-in.  boiler  plate  and  were  52  in.  in  diameter.  The  shaft 
was  6  in.  in  diameter.  The  shells  were  concentric  with  the  shaft 
and  are  heavy  steel  castings.  The  inside  dimensions  were  6  ft. 
in  diameter  and  10  in.  wide.  The  metal  in  the  shells  was  1^  in. 
thick  on  the  sides  and  2  in.  thick  on  the  circumference.  These 
pumps  gave  excellent  service.  A  pair  of  them  pumped  80,000  cu. 
yd.  of  sand,  and  it  was  estimated  that  a  pair  of  the  steel  shells 
would  deliver  200,000  cu.  yd.  before  wearing  through. 

The  22-in.  belts  connecting  the  engines  and  pumps  gave  a 
great  deal  of  trouble.  Rubber  and  leather  belts  were  tried,  but 
none  would  stand  the  severe  service.  At  last  a  wire  rope  drive 
was  installed  in  both  plants.  This  drive  consisted  of  the  ordi- 
nary grooved  pulleys  and  ten  parts  of  %-in.  wire  rope.  Each 
strand  of  the  wire  was  served  with  marlin  which  produced  a  very 
flexible  rope.  This  transmission  gave  excellent  service  and  caused 
no  trouble  since  its  installation. 

Average  Output  and  Cost.  The  periods  of  unusually  high  and 
low  water  experienced  the  last  two  years  proved  a  great  handicap 
to  the  work.  At  the  extreme  low  water,  which  lasted  for  two  or 
three  months  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  the  sand  bar  was  entirely 
dry  and  the  boat  was  aground  and  could  not  be  moved  to  secure 
a  supply  of  sand.  Again  at  high  water,  which  was  sometimes  45 
ft.  above  low  water,  the  land  outside  the  levee  and  the  trestle 
work  to  which  the  pontoons  connected  was  from  6  to  10  ft.  under 
the  water.  The  running  ice  which  filled  the  river  during  January 
and  February  was  dangerous.  These  conditions  rendered  it  neces- 
sary to  suspend  operations  for  at  least  six  months  out  of  the 
twelve.  The  plant  averaged  about  30,000  cu.  yd.  per  month  when 
running,  and,  up  to  the  beginning  of  1910  about  340,000  cu.  yd. 
were  moved. 

A  set  of  observations  of  the  working  conditions  were  taken 
December  4,  1909. 

BOAT 

Engine    132  R.  P.  M. 

Pump     352  R.  P.  M. 

Indicated   horse    power    321 

Pump   suction    % .     15  in.  vacuum 

Pump   discharge    60  Ib.  pressure 

Steam  pressure,   boiler    138  Ib. 

Coal  consumption  About  1  ton  lump  per  hour 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES  1271 

0 

SHORE   PLANT 

Engine    140  R.  P.  M. 

Pump     384  R.  P.  M. 

Indicated  horse  power   365 

Pump    suction 4  Ib.  pressure 

Pump   discharge    82  Ib.  pressure 

Steam  pressure,    boiler    130  Ib. 

Coal  consumption About  0.7  Ib.  screenings  per  hour 

The  velocity  of  the  water  was  not  determined  accurately,  but 
was  about  10  ft.  per  second.  The  percentage  of  solids  carried 
was  also  difficult  to  determine  for  the  reason  that  a  few  hundred 
feet  away  from  the  pumps  the  sand  settled  to  the  bottom  of  the 
pipe,  and  while  from  10%  to  20%  of  the  cross  sectional  area  of 
the  pipe  may  be  filled  with  sand,  this  sand  travels  at  a  much 
slower  velocity  than  the  water.  The  average  amount  of  solids 
delivered  per  hour  was  about  65  or  70  cu.  yd. 

About  16  men  were  required  on  the  day  shift  and  about  14  on 
the  night  shift.  The  weekly  pay  roll  amounted  to  about  $500. 
An  extract  from  the  report  of  October,  1909,  is  an  average  per- 
formance and  is  as  follows: 

Total  yardage  pumped   33,577.9 

Total  hours  run    515 

Yards  per  hour   65 

Expenses  —  Per  cu.  yd. 

Fuel     $0.0482 

Labor     0.0599 

Repairs     0.0082 

Oil     0.0022 

Office  and  sundry 0.008 

Total  per  cu.  yd $0.1265 

This  statement  makes  no  allowance  for  interest,  depreciation 
nor  insurance. 

The  contract  price  on  the  above  work  was  from  24  ct.  to  30 
ct.  for  the  railroad  work  and  from  28  ct.  to  44  ct.  for  the  city 
work  —  the  latter  payable  in  bonds. 

Shutter  Pipes.  A  feature  of  the  work  of  interest  was  the 
method  used  in  building  the  levees  to  confine  the  material  within 
the  desired  areas.  At  first  the  levees  were  thrown  up  of  earth  by 
means  of  slip  scrapers,  but  later  they  were  built  of  sand  directly 
from  the  pipes  by  what  are  termed  "  shutter  "  or  "  slide  pipes." 
A  number  of  lengths  of  the  regular  discharge  pipe  were  provided 
with  openings  on  the  lower  side  about  3x4  in.,  the  4-in.  dimen- 
sion being  crosswise  of  the  pipe.  These  openings  were  spaced 
about  3  ft.  apart  in  the  pipe  and  closed  by  suitable  sliding  plates 
of  No.  8  sheet  steel  which  work  in  grooved  castings  which  bolt 
over  the  openings  in  the  pipe.  When  one  or  more  of  these  slides 
were  opened  the  sand  issuing  from  them  was  of  the  consistency  of 


1272  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

mortar  and  built  up  very  steeply.  It  was  possible  with  a  little 
care  in  operation  to  build  up  the  sand  to  a  1  to  1  slope  on  the 
outside  of  the  fill.  If  the  slope  was  too  steep  the  slides  were 
opened  wider  and  some  water  allowed  to  escape  which  flattened 
down  the  slope  to  any  extent  desired.  The  end  of  the  discharge 
pipe  was  continued  some  distance  away  so  that  the  water  there- 
from would  not  interfere  with  the  levee  building. 

In  making  the  levees  in  this  manner  advantage  was  taken  of 
the  fact  that  the  heavy  sand  in  long  pipe  lines  is  not  carried  in 
suspension  by  the  water,  but  moves  along  the  bottom  of  the  pipe, 
three  or  four  inches  deep,  and  at  a  much  slower  velocity  than  the 
water.  The  action  is  very  much  like  waves,  there  being  alter- 
nately high  and  low  places,  the  higher  material  being  continually 
removed  and  carried  forward  to  a  depression.  This  peculiar  wave- 
like  action  of  sand  transported  in  water  is  dealt  with  in  many  U. 
S.  Government  Engineer  reports  and  in  Johnson's  "  Surveying." 
Sand  Core  Levees  in  California.  In  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Apr.  29,  1914,  R.  G.  Clifford  describes  the  construction  of  a 
sand  core  levee  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  California,  as  follows: 
Economical  construction  of  these  extensive  levees  necessitates 
the  use  of  the  materials  immediately  at  hand  and  these  consist 
of  a  deep  sand  in  the  river  bottom  and  stratified  sedimentary  de- 
posits of  clayey  silt  along  the  banks.  The  average  height  of  this 
17.7  miles  of  river  levee  is  15  ft.  and  approximately  4,500,000  cu. 
yd.  of  material  were  necessary  to  construct  a  bank  of  sufficient 
stability  to  be  absolutely  safe  under  conditions  of  maximum  flood. 
Most  of  the  recent  levee  work  has  been  done  with  large  clam- 
shell dredges  having  5  or  6  cu.  yd.  buckets,  which  pile  the  river 
sand  up  along  the  banks  after  clearing  the  timber  and  brush  from 
the  site.  These  sand  banks  are  very  slow  in  accumulating  any 
growth  and  are  thus  left  unprotected  from  scour  and  wave  wash 
unless  brush  or  tule  mats  are  provided  at  considerable  expense. 
A  heavy  growth  of  cotton  wood,  willow  and  black  oak  lines  the 
river  throughout  its  length  and  it  was  to  take  advantage  of  this 
natural  protection  to  current  and  wave  action  that  first  sug- 
gested the  use  of  a  levee  built  with  a  suction  dredge. 

The  levee  was  located  with  its  center  line  150  ft.  back  from 
the  natural  river  bank  except  where  the  distance  was  less  than 
800  ft.  to  the  existing  levees  across  the  river  when  this  minimum 
flood  plane  width  was  used. 

Retaining  dikes,  Fig.  13,  are  thrown  up  first  by  drag  line  ex- 
cavators mounted  on  trucks  having  16  wheels  running  on  two 
standard  gage  parallel  tracks.  The  booms  are  100  ft.  in  length, 
and  3y2  and  4i£  yd.  Bucyrus  and  Page  buckets  are  employed  in 
the  varying  material  encountered.  These  drag  lines  backed  down 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES 


1273 


the  cleared  right  of  way,  digging  a  deep  cut-off  trench  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  furnish  material  for  the  two  retaining  dikes  on  each 
toe  of  the  finished  levee.  The  crown  of  these  dikes  was  kept  about 
6  ft.  below  the  finished  top  of  the  levee  and  was  made  5  ft.  wide 
with  a  natural  slope  of  about  1%  to  1.  The  total  yardage  in- 


Riverside 


Varies  wifh  Levee  Ht 

Fig.  13.     Cross-Section  of  Sand  Core  Levee  Showing  Sequence  of 
Construction  Operations. 

eluded  in  this  drag  line  work  for  the  river  levee  is  1,224,400  cu. 
yd.  The  operation  of  Drag  Line  No.  2,  which  did  60%  of  the  work, 
is  given  in  Table  I. 

The  cost  of  excavating  this  743,056  cu.  yd.  of  core  trench  ma- 
terial and  placing  it  in  the  two  dikes  is  divided  as  follows: 

Labor   of    operation    $24,013 

Fuel,    8,645  bbl.   oil    8,645 

Superintendence   and  engineering   2,800 

Moving  and  erection  at  beginning  2,400 

Repairs 11,900 

Total    $49,798 

20%  annual  depreciation  on  $28,717  worth  of  equipment       5,743 

Grand   total    (12  mo.)    ^ $55,541 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $0.075 

The  efficiency  of  operation  increased  very  materially  after  the 
crews  became  trained  to  handle  this  particular  character  of  con- 
struction. 

TABLE    I.— OPERATION   OF   DRAGLINE   EXCAVATOR    (12   MOS.) 

Operating,    hr 6,884 

Digging,    hr 5,507 

Per  cent,  of  time  digging 80 

Yardage  moved    743,056 

Cu.  yd.  per  hr.  digging   135 

Cu.  yd.  per  bbl.  fuel  oil   87 

Cu.  yd.  per  lin.  ft ". 13 

The  best  month's  work  was  in  Jan.,  1913,  when  120,128  cu. 
yd,  were  excavated  in  744  operating  hr.  or  627  digging  hr. 


1274  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  dredge  had  a  hull  150  x  35  x  9  ft.  in  size,  and  a  20-in. 
pump  driven  by  a  650-hp.  triple  expansion  steam  engine.  Crude 
oil  costing  85  ct.  per  bbl.  was  used  for  fuel.  The  limits  of  dig- 
ging were  7  ft.  minimum  and  36  ft.  maximum,  although  the 
average  was  18  to  32  ft.  The  lift  was  from  20  to  30  ft.  with 
1,400  ft.  average  length  of  pipe  used.  The  crew  consisted  of  3 
levermen,  3  enginemen,  2  firemen,  2  deck  hands,  all  on  the  dredge, 
beside  a  shore  gang  of  34  men  total  for  the  two  12-hr,  shifts.  The 
levermen  worked  6  hr.  on  and  12  hr.  off,  making  an  average  of  8 
hr.  per  day. 

The  dredge  worked  downstream  so  as  not  to  require  outside  mo- 
tive power  for  moving.  The  pipe  was  extended  across  the  space 
between  the  river  and  levee  center,  and  the  distributing  "  pocket 
pipe"  was  supported  on  bents  for  an  average  distance  of  700 
ft.  on  a  slight  down  grade  along  the  center  of  the  levee.  Tem- 
porary wooden  baffles  kept  the  stream  at  the  discharge  end  to- 
ward the  center  of  the  levee  to  prevent  washing  of  the  side  dikes. 
The  pockets  are  merely  openings  in  the  bottom  of  the  pipe,  opened 
or  closed  as  desired  by  means  of  simple  sliding  gates  operated  by 
the  attendant.  The  sand  drains  itself  readily  and  builds  up  on 
slopes  of  from  1  on  10  to  1  on  4,  depending  on  the  fineness  of  the 
sand  and  the  amount  of  silt  present.  The  operation  of  the  suc- 
tion dredge  for  the  2,053,509  cu.  yd.  handled  to  date  is  given  in 
Table  II. 

The  cost  of  placing  .this  2,053,509  cu.  yd.  of  sand  core  is  di- 
vided as  follows: 

Labor  of  operation   $  53,054 

Fuel,  20,436  Ib. 20,436 

Superintendence  and  engineering    7,117 

Repairs     27,727 

Total    $108,334 

20%  yearly  depreciation  on  $105,300,  cost  of  outfit....        28,100 

Grand  total  (16  mo.)    $136,434 

Cost  per  cu.  yd $0.067 

Since  there  were  13  cu.  yd.  per  lineal  ft.  of  drag  line  work 
against  35  cu.  yd.  of  suction  dredge  work,  the  average  cost  of  each 
cubic  yard  of  levee  untrimmed  would  be  $0.07,  including  the  as- 
sumed 20%  depreciation  charge  on  equipment.  This  cost  in- 
cluded the  plowing  of  furrows  parallel  to  the  core  trench  under- 
neath the  side  dikes  to  further  prevent  percolation  between  the 
original  ground  surface  and  the  levee. 

To  compare  with  a  levee  built  by  a  clam  shell  dredge,  the  side 
slopes  being  the  same  but  with  no  core  trench  excavated,  the  cost 
of  the  13  cu.  yd.  of  dragline  work  would  have  to  be  added  to  the 


DIKES  AND  LEVEES  1275 

cost  of  the  suction  dredge  yardage  and  the  unit  price  would  be 
$0.094  instead  of  $0.07. 

The  justification  for  this  additional  expenditure  is  found  in  the 
efficacy  of  the  earth  blanket  on  the  levee  for  furnishing  a  ready 
foothold  for  shrub  and  grass  growth  and  the  advantage  of  the 
core  trench  in  breaking  up  the  line  of  percolation  and  doing  away 
with  danger  of  the  levee  sliding  on  its  base.  It  is  also  evident 
that  to  take  advantage  of  the  protection  afforded  by  the  natural 
growth  along  the  river  it  was  necessary  to  use  the  hydraulic 
fill  type  of  levee,  which  in  turn  necessitated  the  use  of  the  dikes. 
The  presence  of  the  sand  in  the  core  is  the  only  certain  way  of 
preventing  dangerous  burrowing  by  gophers  and  other  small  ani- 
mals. 

In  addition  to  the  above  levee  cost  there  is  a  charge  for  pulling 
up  the  sediment  in  the  dikes  so  as  to  cover  the  levee  faces,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  13.  This  covering  sods  readily  and  is  soon  com- 
paratively water  tight,  while  the  growth  starting  on  it  without 
delay  aids  greatly  against  wave  wash.  Little  of  this  trimming 
has  yet  been  done,  but  so  far  has  cost  about  $3,000  per  mile,  or 
about  $0.012  per  cu.  yd.  of  material  in  the  levee,  the  work 
being  done  by  teams.  Since  a  road  24  ft.  wide  was  to  be  built  on 
the  top  of  this  levee,  most  of  this  trimming  cost  would  apply  to 
any  form  of  levee  constructed. 

TABLE   II.— OPERATION  OF  HYDRAULIC  DREDGE   (10  MO.) 

Operating,    hr 10,730 

Pumping   time,    hr 6,362 

Per  cent,  of  time  pumping   59 

Yardage   moved    2,053,509 

Cu.  yd.  per  hr.  pumping 323 

Cu.  yd.  per  lin.  ft.  • 35 

Cu.  yd.  per  bbl.  fuel  oil  100 

Bibliography.  "  Relief  from  Floods,"  John  W.  Alvord  and 
Charles  B.  Burdick ;  "  The  Improvement  of  Rivers,"  B,  F.  Thomas 
and  D.  A.  Watt. 

"  Standard  Levee  Sections,"  H.  St.  L.  Coppee",  Trans.  Am.  800. 
C.  E.,  Vol.  39,  1898. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 

General  Discussion.  An  English  author,  John  Newman,  has 
written  a  book  on  the  subject  of  "  Earthwork  Slips  and  Subsi- 
dences Upon  Public  Works."  He  cites  some  fifty  "  causes "  for 
slides  in  cuts  and  embankments,  but  nearly  all  of  them  are  merely 
varieties  of  one  cause,  namely  the  saturation  of  earth  with  water. 

The  term  "  slip "  is  perhaps  preferably  applied  to  relatively 
small  movements  of  earth ;  and  the  term  "  slide,"  to  relatively 
large  movements,  such  as  "  land  slides." 

Increasing  the  unit  pressure  on  earth  often  increases  the  coef- 
ficient of  friction.  Whether  this  is  universally  true,  is  yet  to  be 
shown.  But  if  it  is  universal,  increasing  the  load  on  earth  will 
increase  the  angle  of  repose.  More  tests  on  the  coefficient  of 
friction  of  different  earths  under  varying  unit  pressures  are 
badly  needed.  Lubricating  earth  with  water  decreases  the  coef- 
ficient of  friction  and  reduces  the  angle  of  repose. 

The  jarring  of  passing  trains  reduces  the  coefficient  of  sliding 
friction  of  earth  upon  earth  and  is  the  cause  of  some  slips. 

High  embankments  built  upon  side  hills  in  a  clayey  country 
often  cause  extensive  slides  of  the  underlying  earth,  and  settle- 
ments of  the  embankment.  Where  experience  has  shown  that 
such  slides  are  to  be  expected,  tile  drains  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  the  site  of  the  proposed  embankment. 

Often  there  is  no  way  of  predicting  a  slide,  and  when  it  begins 
it  is  too  late  to  do  any  draining  of  the  subsoil.  The  fill  has  then 
to  be  carried  up  until  the  slipping  stops  of  its  own  accord.  An 
engineer  may  find  upon  examination  that  the  real  source  of 
trouble  lies  in  the  damming  back  of  water  by  the  new  embank- 
ment, which  water  by  soaking  into  the  subsoil  so  reduces  the  co- 
efficient of  sliding  friction  as  to  cause  the  slip.  In  that  case  the 
remedy  is  obviously  drainage  ditches  along  the  upper  toe  of  the 
embankment,  leading  to  a  culvert. 

It  would  be  a  waste  of  words  to  attempt  to  outline  all  pos- 
sible methods  of  getting  rid  of  water.  In  many  cases  it  is  im- 
possible, with  reasonable  expense,  or  even  with  unreasonable  ex- 
pense, to  get  rid  of  the  water  that  saturates  and  lubricates  the 
subsoil. 

If  embankments  are  to  be  built  upon  soft  swampy  muck,  a 
compression  of  that  muck  is  inevitable.  The  engineer  should 
endeavor  to  secure  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  earth  load  so  as 
to  secure  uniform  settlement.  This  uniform  loading  he  should 
have  during  construction  as  well  as  afterward.  That  is  he  should 
build  the  embankment  up  in  horizontal  layers  —  not  by  end  dump- 
ing—  if  he  can;  for  a  concentrated  load  will  simply  push  the 

1276 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1277 

muck  out  from  under  the  load  and  not  compress  it.  If  it  is  im- 
practicable to  build  up  in  uniform  layers,  then  it  may  pay  to 
build  a  log  or  brush  mattress  upon  which  to  dump  the  earth. 
The  author  has  read  very  many  accounts  of  the  building  of  such 
mattresses  written  by  those  who  seemed  to  think  that  in  some 
way  the  mattress  served  to  buoy  up  or  float  the  finished  embank- 
ment. As  a  matter  of  fact  these  mattresses  ordinarily  serve  but 
one  useful  purpose.  They  secure  an  even  distribution  of  the  earth 
load  during  the  construction  of  the  embankment,  and  so  prevent 
the  soft  muck  from  being  pushed  out  from  beneath  the  embank- 
ment. In  very  bad-  cases  a  close  line  of  sheet  piling  along  each 
toe  of  a  proposed  embankment  may  be  used  instead  of  the  mat- 
tress, for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  lateral  escape  of  the 
subsoil  muck  is  what  is  to  be  prevented  if  possible. 

It  is  obvious  from  the  preceding  discussion  that  in  building  an 
embankment  the  engineer  should  avoid  dumping  a  mass  of  marl 
or  soft  clay  in  such  a  way  that  subsequent  water  saturation  of  it 
will  cause  a  slip.  Many  marls  are  wholly  unfit  to  form  an  em- 
bankment, and  if  a  pocket  of  such  marl  is  encountered  in  exca- 
vation it  should  be  wasted. 

Clay,  as  is  well  known,  shrinks  some  5%  when  thoroughly  sun 
dried,  thus  opening  cracks  or  crevices  through  which  water  may 
gain  access  to  the  material  below.  A  sod  covering  or  a  foot  or  so 
of  sand  covering  over  clay  that  becomes  treacherous  in  this  way 
will  keep  it  from  drying  out. 

The  Cause  and  Cure  of  Slides.  George  L.  Dillman  in  a  dis- 
cussion of  a  paper  by  D.  D.  Clarke,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Dec., 
1918,  gives  tne  following: 

Water  lubricates  and  lessens  friction.  Water  accumulates  a 
head,  and  forces  itself  into  and  through  otherwise  impermeable 
material,  thus  extending  the  lubrication;  but  the  greatest  effect 
of  water  is  from  its  pressure.  It  acts  like  millions  of  jack- 
screws,  under  and  back  of  the  slide,  to  produce  motion.  The  film 
of  water  back  of  and  under  the  slide  has  only  to  be  thick  enough 
to  be  continuous  in  order  to  transmit  the  pressure  of  its  whole 
head  in  this  manner. 

We  have  articles  on  the  pressure  of  water  under  dams.  A 
slide  is  a  dam,  in  all  essential  features,  until  motion  begins. 
Then,  fortunately,  the  continuity  of  the  water  film  is  broken. 
At  the  instant  the  continuity  is  sufficiently  broken,  motion  ceases. 
Then,  if  conditions  are  right,  the  inflow  of  water  increases  the 
continuity  of  the  film,  ..flows  into  the  cracks,  and  motion  again 
begins. 

A  slide  is  frequently  a  number  of  dams,  according  to  different 
planes  of  motion,  any  one  of  which  may  move.  It  matters  not 


1278         HANDBOOK  OP  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

how  saturated  is  the  mass  above  the  bottom  of  the  slide,  the 
analysis  of  bottom  pressures  and  effects  is  not  changed  thereby. 
Although  slides  of  some  extent  offer  at  first  varying  evidence, 
crumpling  at  the  toe,  upheaval  in  places,  subsidence  at  the  head, 
and  lateral  motion  in  varying  degrees,  they  can  all  be  traced  to 
one  phenomenon  by  proper  analysis.  There  is  frequently  a 
swampy  place  at  the  head,  sometimes  attaining  the  dignity  of  a 
lake.  There  are  usually  springs  at  the  toe,  frequently  also 
along  its  trace  on  the  surface.  These  may  develop  by  erosion 
into  gulches  which  hide  the  cracks,  the  crumpling,  and  other  ev- 
idences of  motion. 

There  is  no  need  to  enlarge  on  the  cause  of  slides.  Every  fact 
in  evidence  can  be  traced  directly  to  water,  principally  to  its 
pressure. 

Sometimes,  the  surface  can  be  drained  sufficiently  to  effect  a 
cure.  Surface  drainage  will  always  help;  but  surface  drainage  is 
often  difficult,  especially  after  motion  has  developed  a  cracked 
wart-like  surface,  as  this  tends  to  hold  rainfall  and  guide  it  to  the 
surface  of  motion,  or  several  surfaces  of  motion. 

Sub-drainage,  which  will  kill  the  water  pressure,  is  infallible. 
There  never  has  been  a  slide  that  could  not  be  cured  in  this  way. 
There  are  cases  where  the  expense  is  not  warranted.  There  are 
cases  where  the  whole  slide  can  be  sluiced  away.  There  are 
also  cases  where  the  motion  is  so  slow,  or  its  effect  so  small,  that 
the  removal  of  the  material  as  it  comes,  or  not  removing  it  at  all, 
is  the  best  answer.  Incidentally,  removal  is  drainage. 

Subsidence  at  the  head  of  the  slide  tends  to  the  formation  of 
swamps  and  lakes,  which,  in  turn,  supply  the  water  to  fill  the 
cracks,  to  form  the  pressure,  to  produce  motion,  to  make  more 
subsidence,  and  so  on  in  a  never-ending  cycle.  The  interruption 
of  this  cycle  is  most  certainly  accomplished  by  killing  the  head 
of  water  acting  on  the  surface  of  motion.  Draining  the  swamps 
and  lakes  will  help.  At  Panama  one  enthusiast  proposed  con- 
creting the  whole  surface  of  the  slide  to  prevent  the  ingress  of 
water.  This  might  do,  if  there  were  not  probably  some  subter- 
ranean supply  of  water,  possibly  with  a  great  head,  that  would 
not  keep  out.  Such  construction  might  be  an  actual  hindrance, 
instead  of  a  help,  and  might  serve  to  hold  the  water  and  increase, 
instead  of  decrease,  the  head. 

In  some  cases  increasing  the  resistance  to  motion  has  been 
tried,  by  masonry  and  wooden  bulkheads.  These  have  been  ef- 
fective where  it  only  needed  another  "  straw,"  but  have  gen- 
erally been  disastrous.  Drainage  by  perforating  the  bulkhead 
is  taught  as  a  rudiment  in  retaining  walls. 

Far   apart   as    they   may    seem,    there    is    much    similarity    in 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1279 

glides,  retaining  walls,  and  dams.  The  analysis  is  nearly  identi- 
cal, gravity,  friction,  and  hydrostatic  pressure.  Sub-drainage 
will  cure  the  slide,  is  necessary  to  the  stability  of  the  wall, 
and  increases  the  safety  of  the  dam. 

[In  the  author's  opinion,  Mr.  Dillman  is  wrong  in  attributing 
slides  mainly  to  water  pressure.  Water  in  clayey  earth  de- 
creases the  coefficient  of  friction,  so  that  sliding  may  occur 
without  any  change  in  pressure.] 

A  Landslide  at  Mount  Vernon.  N.  H.  Darton,  in  Engineering 
News,  Feb.  25,  1915,  gives  the  following:  Mount  Vernon  is 
situated  on  a  bluff  about  100  ft.  high,  fronting  on  the  Potomac 
River.  In  Washington's  time  extensive  land  slides  occurred 
on  the  front  of  the  bluff,  and  a  few  years  ago  evidence  was  dis- 
covered that  another  slide  was  beginning.  The  movement  was 
extending  so  far  as  to  threaten  the  broad  lawn  in  front  of  the 


••   '••••     - 


Fig.   1.     Section  Through  Mount  Vernon  Bluff 

mansion  itself.  A  small  drainage  tunnel  was  started  in  the 
bottom  of  the  sandstone  stratum  and  was  driven  back  from  the 
river  front  a  distance  of  some  200  ft.  From  this  drainage 
tunnel  a  considerable  flow  of  water  at  once  started  and  con- 
tinued for  several  months.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  flow 
gradually  diminished  and  now  remains  of  moderate  amount  but 
practically  constant.  The  draining  of  the  overlying  strata  has 
apparently  been  so  thorough  that  they  are  now  able  to  sustain 
the  load  upon  them  without  further  movement.  A  masonry 
wall  along  the  river  at  the  water's  edge  prevents  further  under- 
cutting by  the  waves. 

An  Extensive  Earth  Slip  near  Hudson,  N.  Y.  Engineering 
News,  Aug.  12,  1915,  gives  the  following:  The  slip  affected 
an  area  of  15  acres  belonging  to  the  Knickerbocker  Portland 
Cement  Co.,  on  Claverack  Creek.  The  first  visible  incident  in 
the  disturbance  was  the  movement  of  a  section  of  earth  50  ft. 
wide  by  at  least  30  ft.  deep  and  200  ft.  long,  about  200  ft. 


1280  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

southeast  of  the  power  house,  and  this  section  toppled  over 
into  the  creek  flowing  120  ft.  east  of  the  power  house.  This 
slide  was  followed  immediately  by  others  in  ever-lengthening 
arcs,  until  a  huge  storage  pile  of  crushed  traprock  was  under- 
mined. The  pile  then  sank  20  to  25  ft.  over  its  area  (160  ft. 
in  diameter).  This  sinking  caused  the  settlement  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  coal  trestle  and  power  house,  in  the  order  men- 
tioned. 

The  disturbance  extends  over  15  acres  of  ground.  The  creek 
was  pushed  from  40  to  200  ft.  out  of  its  original  course  and  its 
channel  was  dammed  so  that  a  new  channel  had  to  be  blasted 
almost  immediately  to  prevent  the  flooding  of  the  plant.  The 
water  in  the  Claverack  is  from  6  to  8  ft.  in  depth.  The  entire 
earth  movement  was  over  in  2}£  min.  The  total  damage  will 
probably  reach  $250,000. 

The  buildings  of  the  company  were  on  flat  footings  with  no 
piling.  The  soil  is  the  blue  clay  common  to  the  Hudson  Valley. 
The  general  slope  is  toward  Claverack  Creek  (30  ft.  wide) 
which  bounds  the  company's  property  on  the  east,  the  water 
level  being  about  15  ft.  below  that  of  the  property.  The  slope 
is  about  1  on  2. 

The  nature  of  the  slippage  indicates  that  water  seeping  through 
cracks  at  the  foot  of  the  bank  caused  a  section  of  the  bank  to 
cave  in,  and  this  started  a  succession  of  similar  movements,  each 
farther  away  from  the  creek  than  its  predecessor.  Whether  a 
lateral  flowing  of  the  clay  subsoil  under  the  heavy  superin- 
cumbent load  had  anything  to  do  with  the  caving  cannot  be  de- 
termined. 

Land  Slides  at  Bulls  Bridge  Hydro-electric  Plant.  Charles 
R.  Harte,  in  Engineering  Record,  May  27,  1916,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing: Water  passing  through  the  power  house  is  carried 
through  a  long  canal  from  the  reservoir  to  the  forebay.  This 
canal  follows  a  hillside,  the  easterly  side  in  cut  and  the  west- 
erly side  in  fill.  Slides  developed  in  the  hill  side  that  threat- 
ened to  fill  and  destroy  the  canal.  In  1907  an  area  about  100 
ft.  wide,  extending  200  ft.  up  the  hill,  pulled  forward  several 
feet  in  as  many  hours,  opening,  at  the  top,  a  crack  3  or  4  in. 
wide,  while  the  surface  dropped  nearly  a  foot. 

The  entire  affected  area  showed  cracks  parallel  to  the  canal, 
far  apart  at  the  top  but  closer  together  toward  the  lower  end, 
where  the  ground  looked  like  a  plowed  field,  and  was  2  or  3  ft. 
above  its  original  level.  At  the  face  the  top  overhung  the  base, 
and  continually  dropped  down  masses  of  a  cubic  yard  or  so. 
Under  the  direction  of  E.  H.  McHenry,  then  engineering  vice- 
president  of  the  properties,  the  slide  was  attacked  from  the 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1281 

front.  The  material,  a  hardpan  with  streaks  of  greasy  clay  of 
various  colors,  was  so  saturated  that  when  touched  it  "  melted  " 
and  flowed,  but  in  a  very  short  time  the  face  was  sufficiently 
drained  to  act  as  an  abutment.  The  ditches  were  then  pushed 
to  the  end  of  the  movement,  which  had  apparently  extended 
10  or  12  ft.  below  the  surface,  and  no  further  trouble  was  ex-- 
perienced. 

Four  years  later  an  area  of  7  acres  immediately  south  of  the 
first  slide  dropped  about  4  ft.  vertically,  and  moved  forward,  open- 
ing up  a  main  crack  about  a  foot  wide  and  30  ft.  deep  at  the 
upper  edge,  300  ft.  from  the  canal.  •  A  series  of  smaller  cracks 
appeared  between,  while  the  base,  some  20  to  40  ft.  high  at  the 
point,  became  saturated,  bulged  outward  and  dropped  consid- 
erable material  on  the  berm,  which  was  between  it  and  the 
water. 

Following  the  same  general  plan  as  in  the  case  of  the  first 
slide,  the  face  was  "  bled  "  by  a  series  of  ditches  driven  into  it, 
a  cut-off  ditch  was  dug  outside  the  limits  of  the  movement  to 
trap  off  all  surface  water,  and,  at  the  point  of  maximum  dis- 
turbance, an  exploration  shaft  was  sunk  some  25  ft.,  where  a 
sliding  plane  of  3  ft.  of  clay  was  found.  On  this  a  drift  was 
pushed  25  ft.  up  the  hill  to  rock  and  100  ft.  down  the  hill  to 
the  base  of  the  canal  bank. 

A  second  drift  was  started  at  the  bank  face,  100  ft.  north 
of  the  first,  and  a  little  above  the  canal  level.  This  was  driven 
in  a  northwesterly  direction  80  ft.  to  the  rock,  and  had  a  rising 
grade  from  the  bank  of  about  2%.  Thirty  feet  from  the  mouth 
a  lateral  was  run  nearly  to  the  exploration  shaft,  and  from 
near  the  end  of  the  main  drift  another  lateral  was  run  north- 
westerly 240  ft.,  with  two  short  branches  eastward  to  rock. 

Comparatively  little  water  was  intercepted,  but  the  behavior 
of  the  slide  indicated  that  the  small  quantity  found  was  the 
cause  of  the  trouble.  Apparently  it  had  accumulated  along  the 
rock  until  the  head  was  sufficient  to  start  the  mass,  but  this 
movement  largely  increased  the  size  of  the  cavity,  and  some 
little  time  elapsed  before  the  head  was  again  sufficient  to  cause 
a  succession  of  moves. 

The  drifts  were  timbered  with  local  chestnut,  at  least  8  in. 
in  diameter  for  the  sets,  and  3-in.  plank  for  the  sides  and  roof. 
A  bulkhead  was  maintained  at  the  face  throughout,  and  fre- 
quently the  work  was  stopped  for  a  day  or  so  to  drain  off  an 
unusually  wet  section.  The  advances  were  made  by  driving  the 
roof  and  the  top  side  plank,  removing  the  top  board  of  the  bulk- 
head, excavating  to  the  ends  of  the  roof  and  side  boards  just 
driven,  and  setting  the  top  of  the  next  bulkhead. 


1282 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


It  was  expected  that  the  drifts  would  have  to  explore  the  en- 
tire line  of  the  break,  and  future  developments  may  necessitate 
such  a  course,  but  so  far  it  would  appear  that  the  work  already 
done  has  been  entirely  successful  in  anchoring  the  area,  although 
less  than  ha'lf  has  been  explored.  There  is  evidently  a  series  of 
planes  of  sliding,  but,  between  the  surface  drains  and  the  drifts, 
enough  water  has  been  intercepted  to  protect  the  planes  below. 

Preventing  Slides  on  the  Chicago  Canal.  In  a  report  of  the 
engineers  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  District,  quoted  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  May  27,  1914,  slides  developing  on  the  side 
of  the  Calumet-Sag  Channel  are  discussed. 

Three  types   of  sliding  ground  have   been   encountered   as   fol- 


Fig.  2.     Slope  Paving,  North   Shore   Channel,  Chicago  Drainage 

Canal. 


lows:  (1)  Structural  breaks  resulting  from  inability  of  a  layer 
of  drift  to  hold  the  weight  of  the  overhead  bank.  ,  (2)  Normal 
or  gravity  slides.  ( 3 )  Surface  erosion. 

Structural  breaks  occur  at  points  where  a  layer  of  shale  upon 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere  disintegrates  and  crumbles.  A  crack 
or  fissure  then  develops  in  the  bank,  sometimes  at  a  distance  of 
200  to  300  ft.  from  the  channel  center  line  and  this  crack  gradu- 
ally widens  and  deepens  as  the  bank  moves  slowly  into  the  chan- 
nel. Instead  of  a  layer  of  shale,  the  prime  cause  may  be  a  peat 
stratum,  or  it  may  be  a  soft,  silty  or  unstable  clay. 

The  normal  or  gravity  slide  results  from  the  movement  of  the 
overhead  bank  upon  a  slippery  layer  of  clay  or  other  material,  the 
line  of  stratification  of  which  is  clearly  defined.  It  is  due  almost 
entirely  to  an  excavated  slope  steeper  than  the  angle  of  repose  of 
the  particular  formation  then  being  excavated,  and  in  many  cases 
has  been  further  aggravated  by  the  superimposing  on  the  berm 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1283 

heavy   spoil  banks   at  a  comparatively   small  distance   from  the 
slope. 

Surface  erosion  is  a  gradual  sloughing  of  the  surface  of  the 
slopes  due  to  the  weathering  action  of  the  elements.  In  addition 
to  rain  and  wave  action,  the  action  of  frost  is  a  contributing 
cause  of  slides  of  this  character.  The  freezing  and  thawing  of 
the  bank  tends  furt-her  to  aggravate  the  sloughing  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  slopes,  so  that  the  sowing  of  shallow  rooted  grasses 
and  like  vegetation  is  not  in  all  cases  a  sufficient  preventive 
means. 


Water  Surface 


J^T"  f^'- 

Fig.   3.     Slope  Paving   Calumet   Sag   Branch   Chicago  Drainage 

Canal. 

Rip-rap  on  a  12-in.  layer  of  crushed  stone  or  gravel  is  used 
with  success  to  prevent  surface  erosion  and  even  slides  but  at 
times  has  to  be  held  in  place  with  piles.  Where  rip-rap  paving 
can  be  placed  before  water  is  turned  into  the  channel  it  is  better 
to  carry  the  slope  paving  to  a  solid  foundation. 

The  Great  Slides  at  Panama  Canal.  According  to  General 
Goethals  these  slides  were  of  two  kinds.  One  is  the  ship-launch- 
ing type,  where  a  natural  slip-plane  exists  on  which  the  super- 
incumbent mass  begins  to  slide  under  critical  conditions  of  lu- 
brication. This  is  slow  moving  and  may  be  very  large  and  exert 
enormous  pressure  down  hill.  The  Cucaracha  slide  was  of  this 
type.  The  other  class  of  slip  is  the  plastic  flow  kind,  where  a 
clay-like  soil  becomes  suddenly  plastic  or  semi-liquid  under  cer- 
tain conditions  of  moisture  and  pressure.  The  Culebra  slides 
were  of  the  plastic  flow  type. 

The  magnitude  of  the  slides  at  Panama  precluded  the  possi- 
bility of  stopping  them  with  piles.  Drainage  would  have  been 
very  costly,  and,  due  to  the  excessive  rain  fall,  possibly  not  effec- 
tive. Nothing  could  be  done  but  remove  the  sliding  material  as 
it  reached  the  canal  prism.  This  has  been  done,  and  now  that 
all  the  sliding  ground  has  been  removed  the  remaining  banks 
appear  to  be  stable.  The  volume  of  these  slides  was  enormous 
having  reached  about  50,000,000  cu.  yd.  by  Dec.  30,  1915.  These 


1284  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

unexpected  slides  added  greatly  to  the  estimated  cost  of  the 
canal. 

A  Remarkable  Landslide  at  Portland,  Oregon.  D.  D.  Clarke, 
in  two  papers  before  the  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E., 
Vols.  LIII  and  LXXXII,  discusses  the  treatment  of  this  slide. 

During  1894  two  small  reservoirs  were  constructed  for  the 
city  of  Portland.  During  their  construction  a  slight  movement 
of  adjacent  land  was  noticed.  This  movement  increased  in  size 
so  as  to  affect  the  reservoirs  as  soon  as  they  were  first  filled.  The 
reservoirs  were  immediately  emptied  and  were  out  of  use  for  ten 
years. 

Small  shafts  (22)  and  wash  borings  (33)  were  used  to  study 
the  movement  of  the  slide  for  a  period  of  years.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  moving  ground  were  at  length  determined  to  be  ap- 
proximately 1,700  ft.  from  east  to  west,  and  1,100  ft.  from  north 
to  south  along  the  reservoir  front  —  an  area  of  approximately 
2914  acres  —  the  depth  ranging  from  46  to  112  ft.,  the  average 
being  77.8  ft.  The  approximate  volume  was  3,400,000  cu.  'yd., 
and  the  approximate  weight  4,600,000  tons. 

The  borings  and  open  shafts  revealed  the  presence  of  a  thin 
seam  of  blue  clay  along  the  surface  of  the  bed-rock,  with  nu- 
merous water  pockets  in  immediate  connection  therewith,  several 
of  the  underground  water  pockets  having  considerable  volume. 
Two  of  the  largest  of  these  water  pockets  were  drained  with 
pumps  (the  total  pumpage  aggregating  several  million  gallons) 
with  a  marked  deterrent  effect  on  the  movement  of  the  slide,  as 
indicated  by  the  periodical  instrumental  surveys. 

Comparisons  of  Weather  Bureau  records  of  precipitation  with 
the  monthly  movement  of  the  slide  indicated  a  close  relationship 
between  the  two  —  if  it  did  not  offer  absolute  proof  that  the  rate 
of  movement  of  the  slide  depended  on  the  volume  of  the  rain- 
fall during  any  series  of  months. 

After  a  study  of  all  the  observed  conditions  it  became  evident 
that  the  required  remedy  was  drainage.  Accordingly  a  total  of 
2,507  lin.  ft.  of  drainage  tunnels,  with  timber  supports,  was  con- 
structed between  June,  1900,  and  December,  1901,  at  a  total  cost 
of  $14,161,  or  an  average  cost  of  $5.65  per  lin.  ft.  for  materials 
and  labor. 

The  results  secured  by  the  construction  of  these  drains  were 
considered  very  satisfactory,  and  for  a  time  it  appeared  as  if  the 
slide  problem  had  been  fully  solved. 

The  volume  of  drainage  from  the  tunnels  was  carefully  observed 
for  the  2  years  following  their  completion,  and  was  found  to  range 
from  10,000  to  15,000  gal.  per  day  in  summer,  and  from  25,000 
to  75,000  gal.  per  day  in  winter;  and  at  the  end  of  2  years  it  was 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1285 

decided  that  the  drains  were  doing  effective  work  and  that  it 
would  be  safe  to  proceed  at  once  with  the  work  of  reservoir  re- 
pairs. 

During  March,  1904,  immediately  following  the  adoption  of  a 
plan  for  tunnel  and  reservoir  repairs,  it  was  noted  that  there  had 
been  an  accelerated  movement  of  the  slide.  There  had  been  un- 
usual rainfall  during  the  preceding  4  months,  amounting  to  27% 
more  than  the  average  for  the  same  period  during  the  past  21 
years.  To  remedy  this,  the  construction  of  supplemental  drain 
tunnels  was  started  early  in  1904  and  finished  in  1906. 

In  constructing  tunnels  the  excavated  material  was  hauled 
from  the  heading  to  the  nearest  shaft  in  narrow  gage  cars,  which 
were  then  hoisted  to  the  surface  and  dumped.  Only  a  small  force 
was  employed  on  this  work,  one  or  two  crews  at  different  points, 
sometimes  with  two  shifts  per  day,  each  crew  consisting  of: 
One  tunnel  man,  at  $3.00  per  10-hr,  day;  two  helpers  and  one  or 
two  top  men  at  $2.25  per  10-hr,  day,  each;  and  one  hoisting  en- 
gineman. 

The  timber  supports  were  framed  by  a  man  especially  detailed 
for  that  work. 

A  total  of  4,021  lin.  ft.  of  new  tunnel  was  built  between  April, 
1904,  and  August,  1906,  at  a  total  cost  of  $26,896,  exclusive  of 
engineering  and  superintendence,  or  an  average  of  $6.69  per  lin. 
ft.,  as  compared  with  $5.65  per  lin:  ft.  for  work  of  a  similar 
character  completed  in  1900-01.  This  increase  in  cost  was  due 
largely  to  the  advance  in  the  prices  of  material  and  labor  during 
the  intervening  period.  In  1901  outside  laborers  were  paid  $2.00 
per  day  of  10  hr.,  and  tunnel  men  $2.25  and  $3.00  per  day;  and 
timber  cost  $8.50  per  1,000  ft.  b.  m.,  delivered.  In  1904  and  1905 
the  same  rate  per  diem  was  paid  for  labor,  but  the  working 
hours  were  reduced  from  10  to  8.  This  is  equivalent  to  an  ad- 
vance of  25%  in  the  cost  of  labor;  at  the  same  time  an  equal 
or  greater  advance  had  taken  place  in  the  price  of  timber  and 
other  construction  materials. 

The  4,021  ft.  of  new  tunnels  added  to  the  length  originally 
constructed  gives  6,528  lin.  ft.  in  the  complete  drainage  system. 

The  material  encountered  in  the  tunnel  extension  work  was 
chiefly  yellow  .clay,  intermixed  with  fragments  of  basalt.  No 
large  pockets  of  water  were  discovered,  and  in  that  respect  the 
work  did  not  accomplish  all  that  was  anticipated,  but  the  ag- 
gregate volume  of  drainage  from  all  the  branches  has  been  large, 
ranging  from  18,000  to  108,000  gal.  per  day  during  some  years, 
the  quantity  depending  on  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  at- 
tendant rainfall.  During  recent  years  the  volume  of  this  drain- 
age has  been  somewhat  less  than  noted  above. 


1286 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


Concrete  Tunnel  Culvert.  It  was  realized  that  the  timber  sup- 
ports would  soon  decay.  A  study  was  made  to  determine  the  best 
method  of  lining  the  drains  so  as  to  insure  permanency. 


OFTAfLS  OF  DRAINAGE  TUNNC.L 
CAR  AND  HOIST. 


,  Eining  2"x  8" 


Dning 


-3'2- 


x8 


Rail  2  x  3" 

Footplank 
l"xl2" 


_EL 


j 

B 

Beam 

2x6" 

J 

To  contain 
4.37  cu.  ft. 
or 
480  Ibs. 

1 

2'x  37Knn 

ll   = 

Joistifxl" 

!! 

J                                               L 

ELEVATION  OF  CAGE  AND  CAR 


6"x  8x  5'l" 


-3* 


^jGuide  timbers^ 
/" 


Waterway 
END  VIEW  PLAN  OF  SHAFT  AND  CAGE 

Fig.  4.    Timbering  Details,  Portland  Drainage  Tunnels. 

The  scheme  adopted  was  well  suited  to  this  class  of  work. 
A  circular  concrete  conduit  was  built  in  the  tunnels,  the  base  and 
sides  of  which  were  constructed  as  a  monolith  of  the  dimensions 
shown  in  Fig.  5. 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1287 


The  advantages  of  this  method  of  construction  were  two  fold: 

First  the  distance  between  the  side  walls  permitted  a  man  to 

move  freely  and  push  a  car  with  a  narrow  body.     All  construction 


SECTION  OF  TUNNEL  SHOWING   POSITION  OF  CONDUIT 


CONDUIT  AT  SHAFT 


PLAN  ADOPTED  FOR  CONCRETE  CONDUIT 
IN  DRAINAGE  TUNNELS  UNDER  SLIDING  LAND 
TRACT  WEST  OF  CITY  PARK  RESERVOIRS 
(1904) 

Fig.  5.     Plan  Adopted  for  Concrete  Conduit  in  Drainage  Tunnels 
Under  Portland  Landslide 


materials  were  transported  from  the  foot  of  the  nearest  shaft 
in  cars  running  on  a  narrow  gage  track  laid  on  the  tunnel  sills, 
pr  on  the  sewer  invert  after  it  had  been  built.  The  material  for 


1288  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

back  filling  behind  the  side-walls  and  over  the  top  of  the  sewer 
was  hauled  in  the  same  manner. 

Second,  this  style  of  construction  made  it  possible  to  cast  the 
arch  blocks  a  sufficient  time  in  advance  to  permit  them  to  become 
thoroughly  seasoned  before  being  put  in  place,  and  consequently 
the  work  of  back  filling  was  not  delayed  while  waiting  for  the 
setting  of  the  arch  and  the  removal  of  its  supports. 

The  diameter  of  the  conduit  was  fixed  at  28  in.,  that  being  the 
minimum  size  which  would  admit  of  comfortable  inspection  from 
end  to  end  by  a  man  of  small  or  medium  stature. 

Of  22  shafts  originally  excavated,  7  at  suitable  points,  were 
permanently  lined  with  concrete;  the  others  were  filled  with  earth 
on  the  completion  of  the  tunnel  work. 

In  placing  the  arch  blocks  in  position,  the  ends  were  cemented 
to  the  side-walls,  but  no  attempt  was  made  to  close  the  crevices 
between  the  blocks  at  the  crown  of  the  arch.  This  space  of,  say,  % 
in.  in  width  for  every  foot  in  length  of  the  conduit,  was  left  open 
so  as  to  admit  any  seepage  water  which  might  percolate  into  the 
tunnel  and  thence  to  the  top  of  the  conduit. 

At  intervals  of  about  50  ft.  a  cut-off  wall  of  concrete,  6  in. 
thick  and  18  in.  high,  was  built  across  the  tunnel  from  side  to 
side.  These  walls  were  deep  enough  and  of  sufficient  length  to 
cut  off  any  flow  of  water  along  the  outside  of  the  sewer  walls. 
The  water  is  conducted  into  the  conduit  through  a  3-in.  opening 
left  near  the  bottom  of  the  invert  at  the  up-hill  side  o£  each  cut- 
off wall. 

At  each  side  of  the  conduit  a  line  of  3-in.  drain  tile  was  laid, 
connecting  with  the  opening  in  the  conduit  at  intervals  of  50 
ft.,  this  opening  being  a  few  inches  above  the  invert. 

The  concrete  materials  used  in  the  work  were  furnished  by  the 
contractor.  Mixing  and  laying  of  the  concrete  were  done  by  day 
labor  under  the  Department  foreman.  The  tunnel  foremen  were 
paid  $3.00  per  day,  and  other  inside  labor  $2.25  per  day.  De- 
tailed cost  kept  during  the  period  from  June  1,  1904,  to  June  1, 
1905,  showed  that  2,746  lin.  ft.  were  completed  at  an  average  cost 
of  $3.20  per  lin.  ft.  for  the  materials  and  labor  of  constructing 
the  conduit  and  back  filling  the  tunnel. 

Treatment  of  Railway  Slides.  An  abstract  of  a  report  by  the 
Roadway  Committee  of  the  American  Railway  Engineering  and 
Maintenance-of-Way  Association  was  published  in  Engineering 
Xeivs,  Dec.  10,  1908,  from  which  the  following  is  taken: 

Slides  on  railroad  right-of-way  may  be  classified  as  follows: 
( 1 )  Slips  of  material  on  the  sides  of  the  embankment  away  from 
the  road  bed;  (2)  slips  of  portions  of  the  cut  toward  the  road 
bed;  (3)  general  slides  of  the  land. 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1289 

Slides  of  embankments  are  endless  in  variety  and  magnitude. 
They  always  occur  in  wet  weather.  The  earth  becomes  surcharged 
with  water,  which  increases  its  weight  and  at  the  same  time  les- 
sens its  cohesion.  The  slide  starts  on  a  plane  of  rupture  that  is 
usually  curved. 

The  cure  of  slides  in  most  cases  is  surface  and  subterranean 
drainage,  which  is  often  difficult  and  costly. 

The  driving  of  piles  in  both  embankment  and  excavation  to 
hold  masses  of  earth  is  often  resorted  to.  This  is  never  more 
than  a  temporary  expedient,  and  is  advisable  only  in  special  cases. 

Retaining  walls  at  the  foot  of  a  slope  may  sometimes  be  neces- 
sary where  right  of  way  is  restricted.  But  in  the  open  country 
in  nearly  all  cases  where  the  ground  can  be  obtained,  the  flatten- 
ing of  the  slope -is  the  most  economical,  the  most  efficient  and  per- 
manent method  of  treatment.  The  lobe  at  lower  end  of  a  slide 
often  gives  a  good  point  of  support  or  foothold  for  the  filling  used 
in  restoring  the  roadbed. 

In  embankment  slides,  the  roadbed  can  be  restored  after  it  is 
dried  out  in  a  measure,  by  filling  in  with  suitable  material. 
Usually  the  steam  shovel  will  be  the  best  method  to  use. 

The  way  to  get  rid  of  slides  in  cuts,  is  to  take  them  out  by  the 
cheapest  and  speediest  way  possible.  Only  in  rare  instances  are 
other  methods  effective. 

Piling  a  Sliding  Railway  Cut.  Engineering  News,  Apr.  30, 
1918,  gives  the  following:  The  railroad  has  at  the  point  in  ques- 
tion a  double  track  on  a  curve  of  2}£°  (with  7  in.  elevation)  at 
the  foot  of  a  cut  about  40  ft.  deep  in  sloping  or  sidehill  ground. 
The  material  is  a  wet  yellow  clay,  and  lies  on  a  stratum  of  shale 
or  hardpan.  Water  soaking  through  the  clay  mass  gives  a  smooth 
and  slippery  or  lubricated  surface  to  the  shale,  and  upon  this  the 
clay  slides.  Near  the  top  of  the  cut  is  a  public  highway  known 
as  the  Homestead  Road.  In  January,  1906,  considerable  trouble 
was  experienced,  and  a  number  of  teams  were  employed  to  keep 
the  road  passable  by  filling  in  from  the  top  the  earth  that  was 
settling  away  towards  the  cut. 

In  the  spring,  two  rows  of  piles  were  driven  along  the  lower 
side  of  the  original  line  of  the  road  and  two  rows  of  piles  were 
also  driven  at  the  toe  of  the  slope.  The  rows  were  4  ft.  apart, 
and  the  piles  also  4  ft.  apart,  the  rows  being  staggered.  The 
piles  were  driven  with  a  2,800-lb.  hammer,  and  were  driven  as  far 
as  possible  into  the  substratum  of  shale,  the  penetration  being 
generally  about  6  ft.  A  layer  of  brush  was  filled  between  the 
two  upper  rows  of  piles,  and  this  was  covered  with  earth  to  a 
level  about  2  ft.  below  that  of  the  road.  The  road  was  then  back- 
filled to  the  original  line  and  covered  with  broken  stone.  No 


1200  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

brush  filling  or  other  work  was  done  at  the  lower  row  of  piles. 
There  are  over  900  piles  in  these  rows.  Two  French  drains  about 
3  ft.  wide  were  then  built  up  the  slope,  being  excavated  into  the 
shale  and  filled  with  about  4  ft.  of  loose  rock.  These  were  very 
expensive.  There  has  been  no  apparent  movement  of  either  of  the 
double  rows  of  piling,  or  of  the  slide,  since  this  work  was  done, 
and  the  work  seems  to  have  accomplished  its  purpose. 

Preventing  Slips  on  Railways.  Engineering  News,  Mar.  16, 
1916,  comments  upon  the  success  attained  by  the  Missouri,  Kan- 
sas and  Texas  Ry.  in  maintaining  uninterrupted  service  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  during  periods  of  record  floods.  A  summary 
of  the  chief  engineer's  instructions  for  slip  prevention  is  given. 

A  common  cause  of  slips  in  embankment  is  illustrated  in  1,  Fig. 
6,  where  the  fill  has  been  widened  without  properly  stepping  the 
old  slopes.  This  new  fill  of  impervious  material  is  often  placed 
in  such  a  way  that  the  shoulders  of  the  fill  are  higher  than  the 
old  subgrade,  forming  pockets  or  troughs  that  retain  water  and 
cause  soft  spots  in  the  track.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
this  by  removing  the  ballast  from  eroded  or  settled  parts  of 
roadbed  and  bringing  the  roadbed  to  grade  with  new  material. 
The  slopes  of  the  old  fill  should  be  plowed  before  adding  new 
material. 

The  same  precautions  apply  to  roadbeds  widened  for  additional 
tracks  and  to  widening  roadbeds  in  fills.  Two  examples  of  the 
effects  of  faulty  drainage  in  widened  clay  embankments  are 
shown  in  2  and  3,  Fig.  6.  Transverse  stone-filled  trenches  would 
have  prevented  these  slips. 

In  cuts,  when  a  soft  spot  does  not  extend  to  a  great  depth 
and  the  cut  is  shallow,  it  is  economical  to  widen  the  cut,  lower 
the  side  ditch  to  a  depth  below  the  lowest  pocket  and  drain 
the  roadbed  into  the  ditch  by  means  of  a  stone-filled  trench  or  a 
tile  drain  (see  4). 

When  soft  spots  have  extended  too  deep  to  be  economically 
drained  by  deepening  the  surface  ditches,  they  should  be  drained 
by  tiling  laid  parallel  to  the  track  and  below  the  lowest  part  of 
the  soft  spot  (see  5  and  6). 

In  a  cut  where  there  is  seepage  from  both  sides,  intercepting 
drains  should  be  constructed  on  both  sides  of  the  track  (7)  ;  but 
if  the  seepage  is  from  one  side  only,  a  single  drain  should  be  on 
that  side. 

Where  there  is  probability  of  water  from  a  wet  cut  entering  an 
adjoining  embankment,  a  tile  drain  or  a  stone-filled  trench  should 
be  constructed  across  the  roadbed  near  the  end  of  the  cut,  to 
intercept  the  flow  (8). 

9   and   10  represent  typical  conditions  of  pocket  formation  in 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1291 


cuts  and  show  the  way  drains  should  be  laid  to  take  care  of  such 
formations. 

11  gives  in  detail  the  method  of  laying  and  back  filling  tile 


Improper  Method     Proper  Method 


Stone-filled  Trench  or  Tile^ 


Wet  C 

Ditch  lowered  to  a  Depth  .......  , 

below  Bottom  of  soft  Spot 


Ti/e°c/osed~ 
'  ,n  Motion   Lafen,i  Drain-''  Engine  Cmrtrs'1 

6 

Excavation  Embankment 


Backfill  to 
green  Shale,  or 
impervious  Material, 

well  packed-  •> 


Drain 


/ft1ard  burned  or  No  ?  Bell-end 
Drain  Tile, not  /tss  -than  6" 


11  m  Diameter 

Fig.    6.     Subdraining   Roadbed   to   Prevent   Slips. 

drains  in  cuts.     Notice  that  these  drains  are  for  subsurface  water 
and  are  not  intended  to  take  the  place  of  the  side  ditches. 
Some  general  points  to  be  borne  in  mind  follow:     Determine 


1292  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  depth  of  water  in  the  pockets  by  digging  a  hole.  Subdrains 
must  always  be  laid  below  wet  clay  or  below  the  lowest  point  in 
the  pockets.  If  they  are  not  so  laid,  they  will  not  drain  the 
pocket  and  will  soon  be  displaced  by  slips.  Trenches  should  be 
made  as  narrow  as  possible  and  should  be  braced  during  construc- 
tion, if  necessary.  Drains  parallel  to  the  track  should  be  laid 
as  close  to  the  track  as  the  stability  of  the  soil  will  permit  and 
according  to  their  depth,  but  they  should  never  be  nearer  to  the 
ends  of  the  ties  than  2  ft.  The  drains  should  have  a  fall 
of  not  less  than  4  in.  per  100  ft.  In  deep  trenches  and  in  soft  or 
slipping  material  only  bell-end  tile  should  be  used,  because  it  re- 
tains its  alignment  better.  The  tile  should  be  hard-burned  and 
should  never  be  less  than  6-in.  in  size. 

After  the  trenches  have  been  excavated  to  grade,  about  3  in.  of 
cinders  should  be  placed  in  the  bottom  to  keep  out  the  wet  clay. 
The  tile  should  be  laid  on  the  side  of  the  trench  farthest  from 
the  track,  but  not  less  than  4  in.  from  the  side  of  the  trench. 
The  sections  of  tile  should  be  laid  from  the  low  end  of  the  grade 
or  outlet  upgrade,  the  bell  ends  upgrade.  Joints  should  be  left 
open  enough  to  permit  water  to  enter,  but  not  s<3  open  that  dirt 
can  enter.  The  upper  end  should  be  closed  with  a  block  of  wood 
or  slab  of  stone,  and  the  outlet  should  be  covered  with  wire  net- 
ting to  prevent  animals  from  getting  in. 

The  backfill  should  be  made  of  cinders  all  around  and  to  12 
in.  above  the  pipe.  The  joints  may  be  lightly  covered  with  hay  or 
straw  while  the  backfill  is  being  made,  to  keep  the  joints  open. 
The  fill  directly  over  the  cinders  should  be  selected  material  and 
should  be  carefully  tamped  to  insure  stability  of  the  roadbed. 
The  tile  drain  is  not  intended  to  take  care  of  surface  drainage, 
the  ditches  providing  for  this. 

If  all  pockets  are  not  tapped  and  drained  by  drains  parallel  to 
the  tracks,  lateral  drains  should  be  laid  at  such  intervals  as  may 
be  necessary.  Vegetation  with  deep  roots  must  never  be  allowed 
to  grow  up  over  the  subdrains. 

Drainage  Tunnel  to  Stop  Sliding  Clay.  H.  G.  Wray,  in  En- 
gineering Record,  July  29,  1916,  describes  difficulties  encoun- 
tered in  shifting  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  tracks  at  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  In  eliminating  a  grade  crossing  it  became  necessary 
to  shift  the  tracks  into  a  hillside.  Several  test  pits  dug  into  the 
hillside  disclosed  a  peculiar  formation.  The  entire  hill  consisted 
of  a  soft  clayey  material  resting  on  a  layer  of  stratified  clay 
mixed  with  limestone,  which  dipped  at  a  very  abrupt  angle  to- 
ward the  river.  See  Fig.  7. 

At  the  first  cut  of  the  steam  shovel,   in   preparing  the  new 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1293 


subgrade  for  the  railway  tracks,  serious  cracks  developed  in  the 
hillside,  endangering  a  block  of  houses. 

A  concrete  retaining  wall  was  planned  to  replace  an  existing 
stone  wall.  Meanwhile  the  foundations  of  10  or  15  houses  be- 
gan to  give  evidence  of  the  sliding  action  of  the  hillside,  as  large 
cracks  began  to  appear  in  them,  damaging  the  property  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  In  view  of  these  houses  being  damaged  when 
the  construction  had  barely  begun,  it  was  decided  to  buy  the 
property  and  omit  the  construction  of  the  retaining  wall. 

During  the  rainy  season  of  the  next  year  following  the  pur- 


Fig.  7.     Drainage  Drifts  Used  to  Stop  Sliding  Clay  Hillside. 

chase  of  this  property  the  sliding  action  of  the  hillside  increased 
and  cracks  developed  in  the  surface  of  Columbia  Avenue,  making 
it  necessary  to  take  steps  to  protect  the  street.  It  was  decided, 
therefore,  to  drain  the  hillside  to  see  whether  this  would  stop  the 
sliding. 

Drainage  drifts  were  driven  through  the  hillside  at  frequent 
intervals  to  provide  outlets  for  the  ground  water  and  to  elim- 
inate, as  far  as  possible,  its  spreading  out  over  the  surface  of 
the  substrata.  These  drifts  were  miniature  tunnels  4  ft.  high  by 
3  ft.  wide.  As  the  digging  progressed  each  drift  was  sheeted  at  the 
top  and  sides  with  2-in.  oak  plank.  Two  men  working  in  each 
drift  were  able  to  drive  between  2  and  4  lin.  ft.  of  tunnel  per  day. 


1294  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

One  man  removed  the  material,  while  the  other  hauled  it  to  the 
mouth  of  the  tunnel  by  wheelbarrow. 

After  the  completion  of  the  drift  it  was  backfilled  with  coarse 
rock  in  order  to  allow  the  ground  water  to  flow  through  it. 

These  drifts  were  of  varying  length,  owing  to  the  character 
of  the  material  encountered.  They  were,  however,  driven  in  each 
case  until  the  underlying  stratified  clay  was  reached.  Some  of 
them  are  below  the  tracks  and  extend  up  into  the  hillside  north 
of  the  tracks.  Each  drift  was  given  an  outlet  to  a  sewer  by  a 
4-in.  drain-pipe  connection.  They  were  driven  at  an  average  cost 
of  $5  per  lin.  ft.  This  scheme  of  underdrainage  has  materially 
relieved  the  situation,  and  it  is  believed  that  it  will  be  a  suc- 
cessful undertaking. 

Two  years  after  the  work  was  started,  and  while  the  drainage 
drifts  were  under  construction,  a  surface  talus  of  5-ft.  depth 
started  to  erode  and  slide.  It  was  decided  more  practical  in  this 
case,  since  the  slide  was  of  comparatively  shallow  depth,  to  build 
a  retaining  wall  to  hold  the  hillside  in  place. 

The  Treatment  of  a  Wet  Cut.  Railway  Age  Gazette,  May  17, 
1912,  gives  an  account  of  difficulties  encountered  at  Neff's  Cut, 
Pa.  on  the  Penn.  Ry.  This  cut  is  2,900  ft.  long,  and  is  located 
on  a  summit.  It  passes  through  impervious  potter's  clay,  which 
was  depressed  under  the  tracks  by  the  heavy  weight  of  passing 
trains  and  raised  in  the  ditches,  requiring  the  constant  employ- 
ment of  a  large  force  of  men  to  keep  the  tracks  in  surface  and 
line  and  the  ditches  open.  The  extra  maintenance  cost  was  about 
$900  per  month. 

Following  surveys  made  in  1909  the  grade  was  revised  and  the 
tracks  raised  3  ft.,  2  ft.  of  cinder  ballast  being  used  to  prevent 
the  muck  from  reaching  the  surface.  On  this  was  1  ft.  of  trap 
rock  ballast. 

A  24-in.  cast  iron  pipe  under  the  tracks  was  lowered  to  a  depth 
of  about  6  ft.  below  the  top  of  the  rail,  with  a  good  fall  and  ex- 
tended by  the  use  of  additional  terra  cotta  pipe  to  an  open  ditch 
draining  to  the  river.  Manholes  were  provided  in  the  pipe  line 
for  cleaning  out  sediment. 

The  northern  intake  of  the  drain  was  connected  by  a  covered 
flume  of  pipe  down  the  slope  of  the  cut,  which  drains  all  the 
water  carried  by  a  berm  ditch  during  periods  of  heavy  rains.  As 
the  rainfall  is  very  great  it  materially  assists  in  keeping  main 
drain  well  flushed.  Where  the  main  drain  crosses  the  side 
ditches,  concrete  inlets  were  installed,  also  connected  by  24-in. 
pipe  on  each  side  with  the  French  drains,  which  were  laid  by 
hand  in  the  side  ditches. 

Standard  ditches  and  slopes  were  constructed  on  each  side  of 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1295 


1296  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

the  cut,  the  banks  were  sodded,  and  a  curb  of  small  stone  set 
along  the  foot  of  the  slope  to  prevent  scouring  which  would 
allow  the  sod  to  slip. 

On  both  sides  of  the  track  it  was  necessary  to  shore  up  and 
excavate  through  the  slough,  at  the  ends  of  the  ties,  to  the  depth 
of  from  4  to  6  ft.  and  6  ft.  wide;  the  grade  at  the  bottom  run- 
ning toward  the  main  cross  drain.  These  ditches  were  filled 
with  large  stone  in  such  a  way  as  to  provide  ample  openings  to 
allow  the  water  to  find  its  way  to  the  main  cross  drain.  The 
weight  of  the  stone  combined  with  its  thrusts  against  the  slopes 
prevents  the  raising  of  mud  in  the  ditches.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  where  the  excavation  was  being  made  the  men  had 
to  leave  the  ditches  when  trains  were  passing,  as  their  weight 
forced  the  muck  and  water  from  the  roadbed  into  the  ditch  in 
small  streams,  as  if  shot  from  a  force  pump. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  railway  a  solid  formation  exists  about 
half  way  through  the  cut,  and  where  the  strata  of  slate  and  shale 
end,  a  heavy  retaining  wall  2,100  ft.  long  was  constructed  to  hold 
back  the  slopes,  which  had  constantly  slipped  and  filled  the 
ditches.  This  wall  in  connection  with  a  large  French  drain  doubly 
insures  against  mud  raising. 

Since  the  completion  of  this  work  in  August,  1911,  it  has  been 
possible  to  maintain  line  and  surface,  a  standard  slope  and  ditch 
and  to  dispense  with  all  extra  men,  thereby  reducing  the  cost 
of  maintenance  of  this  section  by  $900  per  month.  In  addition 
the  annoyance  of  trains  reporting  daily  "  track  bad  in  Neff's  cut " 
has  been  eliminated.  The  life  of  rail  and  fastenings  has  been 
increased,  %as  prior  to  this  treatment  the  soft  roadbed  caused 
many  broken  splices,  line  and  surface  bent  rails  and  the  con- 
stant gaging  lessened  the  life  of  ties. 

On  account  of  the  density  of  traffic,  carts  were  used  to  re- 
move all  excavation. 

The  cost  of  treatment  lasting  over  two  years  was  $16,577. 

Large  Slides  in  N.  P.  Ry.  Cuts.  Engineering  News,  Mar.  25, 
1915,  gives  the  following: 

The  Day  Island  cut  on  the  N.  P.  Ry.,  101/4  miles  from  Tacoma, 
Wash.,  gave  unexpected  trouble,  as  there  were  no  surface  indi- 
cations to  cause  suspicion,  and  in  smaller  cuts  very  hard  ce- 
mented material  had  been  found.  The  cut  was  in  ground  slop- 
ing gradually  back  from  Puget  Sound,  and  was  about  700  ft.  long 
with  a  maximum  depth  of  50  ft.  at  the  center  line.  About  200,- 
000  cu.  yd.  of  slide  were  removed  by  steam  shovel  in  excavating 
a  cut  of  100,000  cu.  yd.  The  cut  broke  back  to  a  maximum  dis- 
tance of  360  ft.  from  the  track  at  which  point  a  depth  of  about 
130  ft.  was  reached.  It  would  have  been  necessary  to  remove  a 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1297 


larger  yardage  had  not  a  pile  bulkhead  been  built  for  a  distance 
of  630  ft.  The  material  in  the  cut  was  loam  with  some  blue 
cla}r,  and  it  carried  a  considerable  amount  of  water. 

The  Tenino  cut  was  estimated  at  131,000  cu.  yd.,  but  there  were 
removed  before  its  completion  866,000  cu.  yd.,  or  735,000  cu.  yd. 
of  slide.  On  the  north  side  of  the  cut  there  was  a  slide  for  a 
length  of  850  ft.  extending  back  for  a  distance  of  680  ft.  from 
the  track.  Early  in  1914  a  smaller  slide  appeared  on  the  south 


*&#&}  k- ,r 

- H 

Part  Side  Elevation 


End 
Elevation 


'•This  Timber  to  bt 
g-,    in  Werce  when 
dumping&oop 


Bart     Plan 


Fig.  9.     Front  End  of  Scoop  Car  Showing  Attac 
Excavating  and  Dumping. 


when 


side.  This  measured  600  ft.  along  the  track  and  extended  back 
270  ft.  The  greatest  difficulty  was  with  the  first  slide  in  this 
cut,  where  the  material  was  a  partially  formed  sandstone.  This 
material  broke  up  as  the  slide  moved  toward  the  track  until  it 
had  lost  all  indications  that  it  had  ever  been  rock.  This  cut  car- 
ried a  very  small  amount  of  water.  As  nearly  as  could  be  de- 
termined the  slide  was  moving  on  the  harder  rock  beneath  it.  A 
small  portion  of  this  rock  was  encountered  at  grade. 

A  Scoop  Car  for  Handling  Railway  Slides.     Engineering  News, 
July  16,  1914,  gives  the  following: 


1298  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

The  car  ( Fig.  9 )  is  40  ft.  long  over  the  end  sills,  or  54  ft.  8  in. 
over  all ;  it  is  equipped  with  a  20-ton  crane  mounted  over  the 
center  of  the  front  truck,  and  having  a  fixed  reach  of  12  ft. 
A  double-drum  hoisting  engine  with  cylinders  8}4  x  10  in.  oper- 
ates the  1-in.  hoisting  cable  and  the  %-in.  swinging  cable,  the 
latter  passing  around  a  bull-ring  at  the  foot  of  the  mast.  There 
is  a  vertical  boiler  8  x  3i/£  ft.,  with  the  necessary  coal  space  and 
water  tanks.  To  the  hoisting  block  is  attached  a  swing  beam 
having  a  chain  at  each  end.  The  scoop  is  about  12  ft.  long,  7 
ft.  8  in.  wide  and  3  ft.  4  in.  deep  inside,  with  a  capacity  of  10 
cu.  yd.,  and  it  is  fitted  with  heavy  teeth  on  the  edge.  The  car 
and  its  machinery  weigh  about  90,500  lb.,  which  the  scoop  in- 
creases by  16,900  lb. 

When  excavating,  the  front  of  the  scoop  is  attached  to  the  chain 
hooks  and  its  rear  end  is  held  by  a  pin  and  backed  against  a 
heavy  bumper  in  front  of  the  car,  the  bumper  being  supported 
by  inclined  braces  from  the  sills.  When  the  scoop  is  loaded,  its 
front  end  is  raised  clear,  and  the  car  is  run  out.  At  the  dumping 
point,  the  scoop  is  lowered  upon  the  rails,  with  a  timber  or  metal 
block  under  one  side  ( as  in  Fig.  9 ) .  The  chains  are  then  de- 
tached from  the  end  and  hitched  to  lugs  on  the  bottom  of  one 
side,  so  that  the  scoop  can  be  tilted  and  emptied. 

The  car  was  used  in  moving  a  slide  on  the  west  bound  main 
track  of  the  Norfolk  and  Western  R.  R.,  which  was  approxi- 
mately 110  ft.  in  length  and  5  ft.  deep,  containing  about  800  cu. 
yd.  It  required  10  hr.  with  the  scoop  car  to  move  this  and  con- 
vey it  from  100  to  150  ft.  from  the  point  of  the  slide.  The  labor 
cost  for  handling  the  above  quantity  of  material,  which  consisted 
of  dirt  and  rock,  amounted  to  $182  (including  work-train  cost, 
etc.),  which  is  22.7  ct.  per  cu.  yd.  On  occasions  when  it  has 
been  necessary  to  use  the  scoop  car  for  handling  slides  it  has 
proved  very  satisfactory. 

Two  Methods  of  Stopping  Slides.  H.  Rohwer,  in  "  Bulletin  No. 
90 "  of  the  American  Railway  Engineering  and  Maintenance-of- 
WTay  Association,  gives  the  following: 

At  the  west  entrance  to  the  Oregon  Short  Line  tunnel  in  Idaho, 
where  the  sides  broke  off  vertically  and  heaved  the  track  at 
times  to  such  an  extent  as  seriously  to  interrupt  and  delay  the 
handling  of  material  from  the  tunnel,  good  results  were  obtained 
with  ordinary  horizontal  bracing,  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig. 
10. 

"  A  most  remarkable  slide  was  encountered  on  the  White  River 
Ry.,  at  the  entrance  of  a  tunnel  2,650  ft.  long  (Tunnel  No.  3,  at 
Omaha  Drive,  Ark.),  its  magnitude  precluding  all  thought  of 
removing  it.  The  disturbance  first  manifested  itself  at  a  side- 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1299 

hill  cut.  In  removing  the  footing,  the  mass  of  clay  seemed  to 
lose  its  hold  on  the  rock  whereon  it  rested.  It  began  breaking 
off,  first  showing  cracks  insignificant  in  size  and  their  location 
being  confined  to  the  right-of-way,  but  later  reaching  far  out  into 
the  adjoining  hills,  bringing  down  trees  and  forming  breaks  in 
the  surface  15  to  25  ft.  in  height  and  perpendicular.  The  tunnel 
penetrates  a  sag  in  the  Ozark  mountains,  consisting  of  a  boulder 
formation,  lime  and  rock  being  found  intermixed  with  clay,  a 
hydrated  silica  of  alumina  of  brownish  color,  due  to  the  presence 
of  iron  oxide.  This  clay  is  very  plastic,  especially  in  the  ap- 


Fig.  10.     Method  of  Bracing  a  Cut  hi  Sliding  Material. 

preaches,  where  action  of  water  is  not  constant  as  in  a  tunnel. 
Here  the  layer  of  clay  was  from  5  to  100  ft.  thick,  underlain 
with  strata  of  solid  rock  of  smooth  surface  and  slanting  at  an 
angle  of  from  5  to  10°  toward  the  creek  along  which  the  line 
had  been  located,  then  in  course  of  construction.  The  grade  of 
the  roadbed  entered  the  rock  20  ft.  below  the  surface;  in  other 
words,  the  approach  to  the  tunnel  had  a  20-ft.  rock  cut  with  clay 
in  the  slope  overlying  it. 

As  soon  as  cracks  appeared  on  the  surface,  extra  precautions 
were  taken  against  surface  water.  The  surface  ditches  were 
given  steeper  grades,  and,  where  possible,  the  bottoms  were  ce- 
mented so  that  the  water  could  drain  off  more  quickly,  thus  re- 
ducing chances  of  penetration  to  a  minimum.  In  spite  of  this 
the  ground  continued  to  break,  and  started  to  move  toward  the 
open  cut,  at  first  dropping  into  it  little  at  a  time.  It  gradually 
increased,  until  after  a  rather  heavy  rain  the  entire  cut  was  filled 
with  this  stuff,  involving  an  expenditure  of  $1  per  cu.  yd.  for  its 
removal.  Though  the  moving  masses  had  adopted  a  slope  of 
nearly  1  on  2,  the  breaks  continued,  stretching  for  more  than  150 
ft.  into  the  hill  above  the  grade  of  the  roadbed,  and  over  500  ft. 
distant  from  it. 

To  prevent  similar  occurrences  after  the  road  was  in^operation, 
the  rock  cut  was  arched  over  for  a  distance  of  600  ft.  from  the 
portal  of  the  tunnel  (see  Fig.  11).  An  arch,  framed  of  timber, 


1300 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


without  protection  against  "  side  pressure,"  cannot  be  relied  upon 
as  a  permanent  safeguard  against  slides.  To  make  it  serve,  how- 
ever, should  the  mass  continue  to  move,  the  clay  bank  was  re- 
moved for  a  distance  of  12  ft.  from  the  edge  of  the  rock  cut,  and 
holes  were  drilled  into  the  rock  8  to  10  ft.  in  depth,  and  from 
10  to  15  ft.  apart,  in  a  row  along  the  foot  of  the  clay  slope,  shots 
being  placed  therein  and  fired  simultaneously  by  means  of  an  elec- 
tric battery.  The  rock  was  broken  but  not  scattered,  a  trench- 
like  crack  appearing  at  the  surface.  Logs  were  cut  and  placed 
alongside  each  other  with  the  butt  end  in  the  rock  crevices,  the 
other  end  overhanging  the  timber  arch,  and  resting  upon  its  top. 
The  material  under  the  logs  and  between  the  logs  and  the  arch  was 


Fig.  11.     Cut  in  Rock  Roofed  as  Protection  Against  Sliding  Clay. 

tamped,  thus  forming  a  solid  flooring  over  which  the  material 
could  slide,  distributing  it  over  the  entire  arch  and  serving  as  a 
weight  instead  of  a  thrust. 

The  further  object  of  cracking  the  rock  was  to  permit  the  water 
coming  through  the  clay  to  escape,  thus  leaving  the  footing  dry 
and  in  better  position  to  act  as  a  support.  /The  plan  worked 
very  satisfactorily.  The  first  rain  produced  another  slide,  the  logs 
carrying  the  material  over  the  arch.  With  the  drain  in  the  rock 
at  a  distance  of  12  ft.  from  the  edge  of  the  cut  and  over  30  ft. 
from  the  foot  of  the  new  slope,  a  good  foothold  had  been  created 
which  served  the  purpose,  for  no  further  movement  of  the  over- 
hanging masses  (estimated  at  130,000  cu.  yd.)  has  taken  place 
since  that  time  (1904).  The  few  sticks  of  timber  in  the  arch 
which  had  moved,  were  displaced  not  more  than  an  inch. 

Holding  Slides  by  Piles.     The  following  is  from  a  paper  by  R.  P. 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1301 

Black,  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  G.  E.,  Vol.  XXXVI,  abstracted  in  Engineer- 
ing and  Contracting,  June  8,  1910. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  Kanawha  and  Michigan  Railway, 
for  93  miles  (from  Point  Pleasant  to  Gauley  Bridge,  W.  Va.),  is 
located  on  the  east  side  of  the  Great  Kanawha  River.  For  about 
one-third  of  this  distance  the  road  is  close  to  the  banks  of  the 
river,  on  a  hillside  location,  where  there  is  practically  no  valley, 
the  mountains  rising  directly  from  the  stream.  Owing  to  the 
character  of  the  soil,  there  is  considerable  trouble,  due  to  land- 
slides and  slips,  the  term  slips  being  used  where  the  fill,  or  em- 
bankment under  the  tracks,  settles  or  slips  toward  the  river. 

At  Leon,  where  considerable  expense  was  incurred  in  maintain- 
ing the  track  around  a  slide,  the  hillside  was  removed,  and  the 
track,  for  2,000  ft.,  was  relocated  on  the  rock  bottom,  obtained 
by  cutting  back  to  a  side  hill  location.  By  this  method  the  en- 
tire landslide  was  removed  and  the  track  put  on  rock  bed,  thereby 
doing  away  with  the  trouble,  at  a  cost  of  $20,000. 

At  Cannelton,  where  the  largest  slow-moving  landslide  occurred, 
the  main  track  had  been  pushed  out  of  line.  Reverse  curves  were 
made,  in  order  to  get  back  to  the  alinement,  but  on  account  of 
the  continual  sliding,  the  curves  became  too  sharp  for  opera- 
tion, and  the  side  track  "between  the  hillside  and  the,  main  track 
became  completely  covered.  As  this  slide  was  of  such  extent 
and  depth,  it  was  out  of  the  question  to  remove  it  in  order  to  get 
ba'ck  far  enough  for  a  rock  sub-grade,  as  at  Leon.  The  change  of 
line  not  being  feasible,  it  was  proposed  to  remove  part  of  the  land- 
slide, permitting  the  relocation  of  the  tracks  on  their  original 
alinement  and,  after  completing  this,  to  protect  them  from  further 
slides. 

A  steam  shovel  was  cut  in  at  one  end,  and  removed  enough  of 
the  landslide  to  allow  the  two  tracks  to  be  changed  to  their  or- 
iginal location.  After  the  shovel  had  worked  about  three  daya 
a  slide  occurred  one  night,  half  burying  the  shovel.  Steps  were 
then  taken  to  hold  back  the  hillside  before  further  slides  could 
develop.  This  was  done  successfully  by  driving  two  parallel  rows 
of  piling,  5  ft.  apart,  about  3  ft.  from  center  to  center,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  12.  The  upper  rows,  against  the  hill,  were  backed  with 
3-in.  plank,  the  front  rows  being  driven  against  this  brace  in  order 
to  aid  in  supporting  the  upper  row.  A  lOxlO-in.  stringer  was 
placed  against  the  upper  row,  and  from  this  8  x  8-in.  braces  were 
carried  diagonally,  at  an  angle  of  45°,  to  the  lower  row  of  piles, 
and  these  were  sawed  off  -at  the  ground  level.  Steel  bands,  with 
1-in.  rods  to  hold  the  two  sets  of  piling  together,  were  put  on 
about  8  in.  below  the  top  of  the  brace  pile.  The  depth  of  pene- 
tration of  the  piling  varied  from  15  to  30  ft.  The  piling  was 


1302 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


selected  large  white  oak,  and  oak  timber  was  used  for  the  stringers 
and  braces.  Moving  the  shovel  ahead  about  30  ft.,  then  cutting 
it  back,  and  driving  the  piling  as  shown,  constituted  a  day's  op- 
eration. The  work  was  completed  successfully  without  further 
serious  landslides.  In  four  weeks  about  12,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
were  removed,  the  track  was  thrown  back  to  its  original  aline- 
ment,  and  the  landslide  was  stopped.  This  work  cost  $16,000. 

The  upper  limit  of  the  slide  is  about  135  ft.  above  the  track. 
The  slide  consists  of  about  200,000  cu.  yd.  of  moving  earth.  This 
work  was  done  in  the  spring  of  1907,  and  has  been  successful. 
At  several  places,  due  to  excessive  pressure,  the  braces  have  been 


Fig.    12.     Pile  Brace   Against   Landslide. 

embedded  in  the  stringers.  The  earth  from  the  top  of  the  piling 
was  given  a  slope  of  1^  to  1.  At  several  other  points  smaller 
slides  have  been  stopped  with  one  row  of  piling.  The  piles  were 
driven  3  ft.  c.  to  c.  and  cut  off  3  ft.  above  the  top  of  the  rail,  the 
ground  above  being  given  a  slope  of  1"^  to  1.  At  one  or  two 
places,  where  one  row  was  not  sufficient,  the  trouble  was  stopped 
with  brace  piling.  At  points  where  the  single  row  of  piling 
showed  signs  of  leaning,  due  to  the  pressure  against  that  part  of 
the  piling  above  ground,  this  overturning,  apparently  due  to  too 
much  length  above  ground,  was  stopped  by  cutting  off  the  piling 
3  ft.  above  the  ground  and  giving  the  earth  above  it  a  slope  of 
11^  to  1. 

In  contending  with  landslides  of  this  character  in  West  Vir- 
ginia, all  that  seems  to  be  necessary  is  to  obtain  a  good  toe  hold, 
which  stops  the  movement  of  the  earth  above.  The  so-called 
slow-moving  landslides  on  the  Kanawha  &  Michigan  Ry.  have  been 
stopped  successfully  by  one  of  these  methods. 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1303 

The  term  "  slips "  is  applied  to  places  where  the  soil  slides 
into  the  river.  These  slips  occur  when  the  roadbed  is  con- 
structed on  a  fill,  ranging  in  depth  from  5  to  10  ft.,  across  narrow 
flats,  between  the  hill  and  the  river.  Due  to  the  constant  move- 
ment of  the  earth,  no  trees  grow  on  the  land  between  the  river 
and  the  railroad.  The  ground  slips  gradually  into  the  river 
where,  from  time  to  time,  its  toe  is  cut  away  by  the  current. 

The  peculiarity  of  these  slips  is  the  fact  that  they  may  con- 
tinue for  one  or  more  seasons  without  giving  any  trouble.  Slips 
are  due  to  high  water  and  not  to  surface  water.  A  quick  rise 
and  fall  of  the  river  will  not  cause  the  soil  to  move,  but  con- 
tinued high  water,  or  several  successive  floods,  will  start  the  slip- 
ping action. 

In  the  spring  of  1908,  the  length  of  track  affected  by  the  slips 
was  7,600  ft.,  necessitating,  at  several  different  points,  the  main- 
tenance of  speeds  ranging  from  6  to  20  miles  per  hour  for  five 
months,  until  the  dry  season,  when  this  slipping  action  stopped. 
In  Fig.  13  is  shown  a  cross-section  of  the  Brighton  slip,  which 
gave  the  greatest  trouble.  The  section  is  taken  at  right  angles 
to  the  track,  the  information  for  which  was  obtained  by  levels 
and  test  rods  driven  to  rock.  A  stratum  of  rock,  below  the  earth, 
slopes  toward  the  river,  ranging  from  1:0.2  to  1:1.  This  rock 
is  covered  by  successive  layers  of  red  clay,  varying  from  3  to  6 
ft.  in  thickness.  Immediately  above  the  rock,  and  in  thin  seams, 
from  4  to  8  in.  thick,  between  the  layers  of  clay,  is  found  a  quick- 
sand mixed  with  fine  clay.  When  the  quicksand  and  fine  clay  be- 
come thoroughly  saturated  with  water,  the  mixture  affords  a 
smooth  surface  over  which  the  top  soil  or  successive  layers  of  clay 
slide  toward  the  river.  After  high  water  these  seams  of  quick- 
sand can  be  traced  readily  by  the  water  seepage.  The  quicksand 
is  very  slimy,  and  contains  no  grit.  The  water  must  remain  over 
the  ground  long  enough  to  force  its  way  back  into  this  quicksand 
and  saturate  well  before  the  slipping  action  can  take  place. 

In  1908,  in  order  to  keep  the  track  safe,  the  gangs  on  four  sec- 
tions were  increased  from  three  —  the  normal  force  —  to  ten  men 
each,  and  these  increased  forces  were  maintained  for  four  months. 
The  tracks  had  to  be  resurfaced  and  lined  continually.  At  three 
different  times,  it  was  necessary  to  put  on  filling  material  and  bal- 
last in  order  to  keep  the  track  up  to  grade.  This  entailed  a  cost 
of  $4,400  more  than  the  normal  expenses  for  the  year.  The  track 
over  the  slips  was  not  only  costly  to  maintain,  but  dangerous, 
due  to  wrecks  resulting  from  derailments  on  account  of  rapid 
settlement  of  the  roadbed. 

At  Poca,  where  a  trestle  was  maintained  over  a  slip  for  about 
800  ft.,  due  to  the  heavy  cost  of  changing  the  alinement,  the 


1304  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


• 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1305 

trestlework  was  filled  with  heavy  quarried  rip-rap,  and  the  fill 
was  widened  so  that  the  stone  reached  the  river's  edge.  The 
weight  of  this  stone  fill  caused  settlement,  but,  after  adding 
stone  from  time  to  time  for  five  years,  the  roadbed  became  solid. 
It  is  thought  that  the  stone  fill  settled  to  the  rock  stratum  below 
the  slip,  thereby  stopping  the  movement. 

In  the  spring  of  1909,  test  piling  was  driven  for  a  distance  of 
50  ft.  in  the  center  of  the  Brighton  slip.  Transit  observations 
taken  from  a  base  line,  showed  that  the  piling  did  not  move  any 
appreciable  distance.  The  track  held  up  well  within  the  limits 
of  the  piling  where,  as  on  either  side,  it  had  been  necessary  to  re- 
surface continually. 

The  test  being  successful,  two  rows  of  piling  were  driven,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  track  at  the  Brighton  slip,  and  between  its 
limits,  for  a  distance  of  740  ft.  The  piles  were  equipped  with 
steel  shoes  and  were  driven  3  ft.  apart,  center  to  center,  on  the 
down-hill  side.  Continuous  8  x  16-in.  timber  bracing  was  bolted 
to  the  piling.  The  work  was  done  with  a  self-propelling  track- 
driver.  A  temporary  spur  track  was  constructed  at  one  end  of 
the  slip,  thus  dispensing  with  the  services  of  a  work  train.  The 
cost  of  this  work  was  as  follows: 

Hardwood  piling,  8,075  ft.  at  13  ct $1,049.75 

Steel  shoes,  12,690  Ib.  at  3  ct 380.70 

Labor 856.35 

Fuel,    etc 120.00 


Total     .'.;:..'.;. ./.'.I.  j  i!. .. $2,406.80 

Up  to  the  present  time  (Sept.,  1910)  this  remedy  has  been  suc- 
cessful. 

At  another  point,  where  the  rock  strata  are  not  at  great  depth 
it  is  proposed  to  go  down  the  hillside  about  20  ft.  from  the  track, 
put  down  holes  about  every  20  ft.,  and  blast  the  smooth  surface  of 
the  rock.  Thus,  by  roughening  the  surface  and  destroying  the 
stratification,  the  sliding  of  the  clay  may  be  stopped. 

Stopping  a  Slide  by  the  Use  of  Explosives.  Engineering  Neics, 
July  1,  1915,  gives  the  following: 

The  Pennsylvania  Co.  on  its  C.  &  P.  division  recently  built  a 
spur  track  about  a  mile  long  from  its  main  track  to  the  plant  of 
the  Pittsburgh  Crucible  Steel  Co.  at  Midland,  Penn.  In  exca- 
vating for  the  new  roadbed,  which  for  a  portion  of  the  way  lies 
along  and  below  the  Ohio  River  Passenger  Ry.,  a  bad  slide  de- 
veloped about  1,700  ft.  long,  extending  back  from  the  cut  a  maxi- 
mum width  of  about  350  ft.  to  the  face  of  a  rock  cliff.  About 
40,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  in  excess  of.  the  preliminary  estimate 
slid  into  the  roadbed  prism  and  was  removed  by  a  steam  shovel. 


1300  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Fig.  14  shows  an  approximate  typical  section  through  the  slide. 
For  a  time  it  was  necessary  to  abandon  the  track  on  the  side  to- 
ward the  new  cut,  using  the  other  track  past  the  slide.  The  track 
being  used  was  lined  back  up  the  hill  from  time  to  time  and 
brought  to  surface  with  blast-furnace  slag. 

In  a  thorough  study  of  soil  conditions  it  was  found  that  a  slid- 
ing plane  existed  at  the  top  of  a  bed  of  fire  clay  about  10  ft.  below 
the  surface  of  the  sliding  mass. 


o  \oo'  ax>'  -wo'  -wr 

Fig.    14.     Cross-Section   Through   Slide. 

Holes  large  enough  for  a  man  to  work  in  were  dug  on  15 -ft. 
centers  to  the  surface  of  the  fireclay.  Then  a  2-in.  hole  was 
drilled  10  ft.  into  the  clay  and  the  lower  end  chambered  with 
two  sticks  of  40%  dynamite.  Three  kegs  of  black  powder  were 
then  placed  in  the  enlarged  hole  and  the  charge  fired.  The  clay 
was  lifted  into  mounds  which  connected  into  each  other  at  about 
the  surface  of  the  clay.  This  method  of  stopping  the  slide  proved 
a  complete  success. 

European  Railway  Practice  for  the  Prevention  of  Slides. 
There  is  much  in  print  on  this  subject  by  both  French  and  Eng- 
lish engineers.  Many  of  their  methods  can  have  but  little  appli- 
cation in  the  United  States.  However,  it  is  desirable  to  know  a 
great  variety  of  methods  of  overcoming  slides.  Even  the  most 
laborious  of  European  remedies  may  find  occasional  application 
in  America.  The  following  is  from  "  Notes  on  the  Consolidation 
of  Earthworks,"  by  Jules  Gaudard  (translated  from  the  French 
by  James  Dredge,  C.  E.)  and  published  as  paper  No.  1274  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  39  (1874-5)  : 

The  theory  of  the  thrust  of  earth  against  retaining  walls  is 
well  known.  In  Fig.  15,  the  retaining  wall  is  designed  to  hold 
against  the  thrust  of  the  prism  ACX  sliding  along  the  line  CX. 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1307 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  17. 


'£] 

tl 


* 

1 

-iW. 


Fig.  18. 


1308      HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

If  however  there  is  a  water  bearing  seam  at  CD  the  hypothesis 
of  the  theory  of  earth  thrust  is  not  tenable,  and  it  may  be  im- 
possible to  construct  a  stable  retaining  wall. 

Earth  laid  in  layers  behind  a  retaining  wall  possesses  a  sliding 
tendency  which  destroys  the  hypothesis  of  the  homogeneous  the- 
ory. It  is  preferable  to  place  the  earth  in  well  rammed  layers  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  form  stratifications  the  sliding  angle  of 
which  is  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  thrust  against  the  wall. 

Where  sliding  ground  makes  retaining  walls  unfeasible  the 
earth  must  be  retained  by  strutted  walls  provided  with  sufficient 
outlets  for  drainage. 

The  walls  of  the  Billsworth  cutting  (London  and  Birming- 
ham Ry.)  are  strengthened  by  counterforts  strutted  underneath 
the  road  bed  (Fig.  16).  Over  head  strutting  is  applied  in  the 
case  of  high  walls  which  threaten  to  turn  over  rather  than  slide 
out  at  the  base,  as  for  example  on  the  inclined  plane  at  Euston, 
Fig.  17. 

Fig.  18  shows  an  arrangement  of  masonry  struts,  with  counter- 
forts spaced  21  ft.  apart;  the  wall  itself  being  counter  arched 
between  counterforts,  to  check  it  from  yielding  under  pressure 
from  the  back.  Masonry  struts,  placed  15  ft.  apart,  and  of  the 
form  shown  in  Fig.  19,  serve  to  strengthen  the  retaining  walls 
of  the  Chorley  cutting  (Boltyn  and  Preston  Ry.).  These  are 
formed  with  upper  inverted  arches  to  give  them  additional  stiff- 
ness. When  the  cuttings  are  in  side-lying  ground  the  struts 
should  be  inclined,  as  in  Fig.  20. 

Where  there  is  only  one  side  of  a  cut  to  be  retained  or  where 
the  two  sides  are  very  unequal  thick  dry  stone  walls  may  be 
employed,  strengthened  by  long  internal  counterforts,  as  in  Fig. 
21.  This  class  of  masonry  acts  as  an  efficient  means  of  draining 
the  slope  behind  and  it  gradually  becomes  hardened  into  a  com- 
pact mass,  forming,  together  with  the  counterforts  that  strengthen 
it,  a  body  of  firm  earth  and  stone  able  to  retain  the  mobile  ma- 
terial above. 

Fig.  22  shows  an  inclined  wall  with  counterforts  used  on  the 
Versailles  railway.  The  slope  of  the  cutting  of  Brigant  (Bles- 
mes-Gray)  is  supported  by  inclined  arches  laid  on  the  slope,  the 
space  between  being  filled  with  dry  stone.  The  bases  of  the  piers 
rest  upon  a  continuous  footing  along  the  side  of  the  roadway, 
connected  with  a  similar  one  on  the  other  side  by  means  of  in- 
verts. The  slope  is  drained  by  pipes  leading  to  a  central  cul- 
vert at  C  below  the  invert,  Fig.  23. 

Causes  of  Landslides.  In  considering  the  physical  properties 
of  earth  and  their  relation  to  slides  attention  is  called  to  the 
marked  tendency  of  clays  to  shrink  and  crack  as  they  dry  out. 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1309 


Fig.  22. 


j.6  t  *  J  10 


Fig.  23. 


1310  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

Rain  penetrates  these  cracks  or  fissures  and  soaks  into  the  clay 
which  expands.  Renewed  dryness  opens  the  cracks  wider  than  be- 
fore. If,  in  connection  with  these  fissures  on  the  surface,  under- 
lying water-bearing  seams  exist  in  the  clay,  slides  are  very  likely 
to  occur.  In  Fig.  24,  when  the  fissure  A  B  descends  near  enough 
to  the  water-bearing  seam  C  E  the  fall  of  the  mass  ABCE  is  im- 
minent although  no  disorganization  other  than  the  fissure  A  B 
has  occurred. 

The  chief  means  of  dealing  with  these  slippery  formations  con- 
sist: (1)  in  insuring  the  free  discharge  of  the  water  by  means 
of  channels,  drains  or  filters  in  such  a  manner  that  the  ground 
shall  be  gradually  dried  and  consolidated;  (2)  in  taking  off  the 
rain  or  surface  water  as  rapidly  as  possible,  by  means  of  im- 
permeable coverings,  benches,  or  ditches;  (3)  in  preserving  the 
loamy  soils  from  the  action  of  the  sun,  rain,  and  frost,  and  some- 
times in  protecting  the  foot  of  slopes  with  walls  or  simple  coun- 
terforts of  well-rammed  earth. 

Concerning  the  proper  slopes  to  be  employed  in  cuttings  in  bad 
ground  it  is  well  to  increase  them  to  2  or  3  of  base  to  1  of  height 
instead  of  employing  11^  to  1  or  1  to  1  which  are  applicable  in 
good  material. 

Cuttings.  The  side  slopes  of  a  cutting  may  be  drained  by  the 
construction  of  channels  (Sazilly  system)  if  the  water-bearing 
seams  are  clearly  defined;  by  pipe  drainage  if  the  distribution  of 
water  is  more  vague  and  general;  and  lastly,  by  filtration  in  the 
case  of  water  bearing  sand. 

Water  Bearing  Strata.  In  water  bearing  strata,  in  some  in- 
stances, a  deep  narrow  trench  has  been  excavated  in  the  bank  at 
a  sufficient  distance  from  the  face  of  the  slope.  The  trench  is 
timbered  and  filled  with  dry  stone,  as  in  Fig.  25.  The  planes  of 
moisture  in  the  prism  ABC  dry  up,  and  the  earth  gradually 
and  surely  becomes  consolidated.  This  method  is  good  but  costly; 
it  may  be  employed  to  arrest  movement  already  commenced. 

Sazilly  devised  a  more  economical  system  of  small  longitudinal 
drains  established  near  the  face  of  the  slope,  and  formed  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  seam.  At  the  bottom  of  a  cutting  in  the  face  of 
the  slope,  is  placed  a  channel  formed  transversely  of  three  flat 
tiles  set  in  hydraulic  mortar.  Or  the  channel  can  be  formed 
with  a  single  row  of  half  round  tiles.  Round  or  broken  flints 
2  in.  in  diameter,  or  sometimes  furnace  slag,  are  thrown  over  the 
channel.  The  largest  pieces  are  placed  below  and  the  smallest 
nearer  the  water  bearing  seam.  This  stone  filling,  heaped  against 
the  vertical  side  of  the  cutting  in  the  face  of  the  slope,  is  always 
high  enough  to  cover  any  irregularity  in  the  line  of  the  water 
discharged.  The  surface  may  be  covered  with  turf  or  with  a  layer 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1311 


of  clay  or  matting,  with  tiles  or  with  flat  stones  to  keep  out  the 
mud  which  would  gradually  choke  the  drain.  Two  lines  of  water 
discharge  at  least  18  in.  apart  can  be  served  by  the  same  channel. 
This  system  of  drainage  is  laid  in  the  face  of  the  slope  with  gra- 
dients of  at  least  1  in  100.  See  Fig.  26. 


of 'Water 


Fig.  24. 


Fig.  25. 


Fig.  26. 


A  slope  of  loamy  soil  should  be  completely  covered  against  the 
action  of  weathering.  The  revetment  may  be  executed  of  rammed 
earth  in  successive  layers  from  6  to  8  in.  thick,  laid  with  a  slope 
opposed  to  the  face  of  the  bank.  The  face  of  the  bank  should 
be  furrowed  as  in  Fig.  27  if  the  slope  is  steep.  Ordinary  turfing 
would  be  insufficient,  whereas  sods  laid  as  in  Fig.  28  would  be 
.fpstly,  and  still  permit  water  to  enter  between  the  interstices. 


1312 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


In  deep  cuttings  commanded  by  higher  natural  slope  it  is  of 
great  importance  to  check  the  action  of  the  surface  water.  With 
this  object  a  ditch  is  formed  at  the  foot  of  the  natural  slope, 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  28. 


as  in  Fig.  29.  This  ditch  must  be  of  clay,  puddled  to  make  it 
impermeable.  An  open  channel  in  stone  or  brick,  as  in  Fig.  30, 
is  better  as  it  is  less  likely  to  let  water  percolate.  A  still  better 


Fig.  29. 

method  consists  in  dividing  the  face  erf  the  slope  into  a  number 
of  stages  in  such  a  manner  that  the  action  of  the  surface  water 
is  greatly  reduced.  The  top  of  each  stage  or  bench  is  given  a 


30. 


reverse  slope  of  15%,  forming  a  channel  which  conducts  water  to 
drains  laid  at  intervals  on  the  surface  of  the  slope,  as  in  Fig.  31. 
The  channels  up  the  side  of  the  cutting,  which  take  off  the  water 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


13 


from  the  trench  drains  can  be  formed  of  small  stones  covered 
the  revetment,  and  resting  on  the  natural  ground,  as  in  Fig.  J 

Pipe    Drains.     When    water-bearing    seams    are    numerous, 
regular,  or  indistinct,  pipe  drains  may  be  employed  wherever  a: 


Fig.  31. 

discharge  of  water  shows  itself.  On  the  Croydon  and  Birmingha 
railways  in  England  the  efficiency  of  pipe  drains  has  been  i 
creased  by  making  numerous  small  openings  in  them,  enlarged  t 
ward  the  inside,  as  in  Fig.  33.  Owing  to  the  form  of  the  holes  ai 
mud  which  may  enter  from  the  outside  of  the  drain  frees  itse 
immediately  and  passes  off  with  the  water. 
A  line  of  drain  pipes  is  placed  along  the  crest  of  the  slope,  ai 


Fig.  32. 


from  this  line  others  decend  transversely  into  the  side  dite 
At  regular  intervals  a  vertical  pipe,  C  in  Fig.  34,  rises  from  tl 
main  line  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation.  The  circulation  of  a 
thus  obtained  causes  the  deposit  left  in  the  pipe  in  dry  weather  1 
crack,  and  thus  it  is  easily  removed  the  first  time  water  passi 


J14  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

rough  the  pipe;  on  the  other  hand  this  arrangement  causes  a 
oking  vegetable  growth  within  the  drain.  The  pipes  are  laid 
or  6  ft.  below  the  surface,  toward  the  foot  Qf  the  slope  and  3  ft. 
neath  at  the  top.  They  are  spaced  about  15  ft.  apart. 


Fig.  33. 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  35  shows  an  arrangement  used  on  the  railroad  from 
esmes  to  Gray,  France;  drain  pipes  1.8  in.  in  diam.  are  laid 
in.  below  the  slope  and  from  10  to  20  ft.  apart.  These  dis- 
arge  into  longitudinal  collectors  placed  near  the  side  ditches, 
third  central  collector  drains  the  roadway  and  is  placed  in  con- 
ction  with  the  two  lateral  drains  by  pipes  laid  from  32  to 


ft.  apart.     They  are  formed  by  pipes  3.34  in.  in  diam.  and  are 
vered  with  broken  stones. 
Fig.  36  shows  a  drainage  system  used  on  the  Eastern  railway 

France.  Drains  at  least  2. 30  in.  in  diameter,  surrounded  by  a 
tering  material,  and  with  a  minimum  inclination  of  1  in  200, 
e  laid  in  a  deep  narrow  trench  M  N  to  the  rear  of  the  top  of  the 
>pe.  On  that  side  of  the  trench  farthest  from  the  face  of  the 
>pe  are  placed  small  vertical  pipes  about  6}£  ft.  apart.  These 
pes  are  stopped  short  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  com- 
unicate  below  with  the  longitudinal  drain.  The  trench  is  then 
led  with  earth  and  well  rammed.  Other  collectors  beneath 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


H, 


13 


the  side  ditches  drain  the  formation  to  a  depth  of  4  ft.  The  ma 
M  N  E  C  D  being  thoroughly  drained  by  this  means,  acts  as 
counterfort  to  resist  the  thrust  of  the  moist  ground  behind  M 

The  Ashley  cutting  on  the  Great  Western  railway,  Englar 
was  drained  by  a  system  of  inclined  transverse  galleries  a: 
sumps,  connected  by  a  longitudinal  gallery  in  such  a  mann 
as  to  tap  all  the  water-bearing  seams.  On  the  Great  Easte 
railway  the  slopes  were  drained  by  sumps  filled  with  brok 
stones,  and  by  discharge  pipes. 


M 


A  cutting  in  the  North  of  Spain  was  attended  by  land  slips,  $ 
though  the  stratifications  were  normal  to  the  face  of  the  upp 
slope.  In  such  a  case  water  is  retained  in  pockets  and  can  1 
removed  only  by  a  syphon.  Collecting  wells  were  sunk  and  su 
rounding  trenches  were  made  as  well  as  a  system  of  galleries. 

On  the  Western  railway  of  Switzerland  drain  pipes  were  laid 
the  slope,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37,  in  such  a  way  as  to  drain  a  co: 
siderable  thickness  of  earth.    A  number  of  pipes  are  joined  t 


Fig.  37. 


Fig.  38. 


gether  with  sleeves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  38.  These  sleeve  joints  ai 
kept  in  place  by  means  of  an  iron  wire  from  one  to  another.  Tl 
built  up  length  of  pipes  is  shoved  into  a  hole  in  the  face  of  tl 
slope  formed  by  a  boring  tool. 

Filter  Drains.  In  water-bearing  sands  which  discharge  fro: 
their  whole  mass,  drainage  can  be  only  partially  successful,  an 
it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  filtering  appliances,  coverin 


1316 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


the  whole  of  the  slope  which  is  to  be  consolidated.  On  the  North- 
ern railway  of  France  there  is  reset  a  stone  facing  from  5  to  6 
in.  thick,  covered  with  stone  packing  or  turf  12  in.  thick.  A  9 
or  10-in.  revetment  is  sufficient  to  keep  out  the  frost  which  would 
stop  the  water  discharge. 

Gravel  fascines,  shown  in  Fig.  39  and  40,  should  be  used  where 
there  is  an  abundant  flow  of  water.  They  are  formed  of  envel- 
opes of  brushwood  fastened  with  iron  wire  and  filled  with  gravel 


Fig.  39. 


Dr  broken  stone.  These  fascines  are  laid  in  horizontal  furrows 
Formed  in  the  face  of  the  slope.  A  layer  of  gravel  4  in.  thick  is 
put  on  to  equalize  the  surface,  and  the  whole  covered  with  turf 
Dr  dirt. 

Sometimes  in  very  fluent  sands  the  side  ditches  of  the  road 
bed  fill  as  fast  as  they  are  made.  The  most  efficient  remedy 
igainst  this  is  to  place,  first,  two  fascines  as  shown  in  Fig.  41, 
ind  to  excavate  the  intermediate  material.  At  the  end  of  a  few 


Fig.  41. 


Fig.  42. 


lays  the  upper  bed  will  be  drained  and  two  other  fascines  may 
je  laid  at  a  lower  level  and  so  on,  finally  the  ditch  is  lined  with 
jtone,  as  in  Fig.  42. 

Restoring  Cuttings  After  Landslips.  When  a  landslip  is  not 
fery  considerable  it  is  sufficient  to  raise  it  completely  and 
jromptly,  so  as  not  to  allow  time  for  fresh  slips.  The  new 
ground  is  then  drained  and  strengthened  with  a  counterfort.  On 
;he  line  from  London  to  Birmingham  and  on  the  Croydon  rail- 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


131 


way  some  local  slips  were  restored  with  counterforts  of  dry  stoi 
and  gravel. 

In  some  cases  it  may  happen  that  the  glacis  of  a  slip,  MN  Fi 
43,  may  be  below  the  level  of  the  side  ditch.  It  is  then  advisab 
to  build  it  up  again  with  carefully  rammed  earth. 


With  land  slips  of  a  larger  scale,  in  many  cases  the  principj 
part  of  the  fallen  earth  may  be  left  in  place.  Fig.  44  shows  tl 
treatment  of  a  land  slip  in  the  Hundsoff  Cutting  of  the  Wisser 
bourg  railway.  An  excavation  A  B  C  D  was  made  of  sufficiei 
extent  to  lay  bare  the  undisturbed  ground,  and  at  the  foot  a 
open  drain,  C,  was  formed.  If  the  material  is  very  soft  this  e: 
cavation  must  be  timbered,  but  it  is  sometimes  firm  enough  1 


-cffia   'fiii  'to  noiJib 


.i  .  • 

allow  the  earth  excavated  to  be  thrown  temporarily  on  top  of  tl 
slip,  as  at  G.  The  drain  is  covered  with  turf,  then  a  ramme 
earth  counterfort,  B  D,  is  formed  and  finally  the  excavation  : 
refilled  with  earth  from  Gr.  If  the  fall  of  the  water-bearing  seal 
is  insignificant  it  is  necessary  only  to  clear  away  the  portions 
that  have  fallen  on  the  way.  A  new  face  slope  is  formed,  whic 
is  covered  with  12  in.  of  rammed  earth.  The  top  surface  of  tl 
slip  ought  to  be  evenly  dressed  and  all  cracks  stopped  up  to  pn 
vent  entrance  of  rain  water.  In  land  slips  of  considerable  lengt 
parallel  to  the  way,  it  is  advisable  to  form  transverse  cutting 
at  intervals,  connecting  the  low  points  of  the  drain  with  the  sid 
ditch. 


1318 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


It  is  especially  advisable  in  cases  where  the  angle  of  slip  is 
considerable,  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  an  accident  by 
retaining  the  ground  with  a  rammed  earth  bank,  separated  from 
the  slip  by  a  filtering  wall  of  broken  stones,  as  in  Fig.  45. 


Fig.  45. 

Sometimes  the  slip  hollows  out  the  subsoil,  remains  more  or 
less  charged  with  water  and  tends  to  fall  further  upon  the  road- 
bed. It  is  then  preferable  to  excavate  the  upper  portion,  M  N  P  in 
Fig.  46,  and  at  the  same  time  the  face,  N  P,  is  exposed  for  drain- 
age. 


Fig.  46. 


The  Consolidation  of  Embankments.  The  simplest  treatment 
for  yielding  foundations  is  to  add  material  to  the  embankment 
until  subsidence  has  ceased.  This  is  often  too  costly  and  other 
means  of  consolidation  are  required.  The  condition  of  the  sub- 
soil can  sometimes  be  improved  by  driving  a  large  number  of 
short  piles  or  by  excavations  in  the  form  of  truncated  pyramids, 
filled  afterwards  with  compact  clay.  Generally  the  true  solution 
consists  in  draining  the  subsoil. 

Fig.  47  shows  the  method  of  draining  the  foundations  of  an 
embankment  at  Val  Fleury  on  the  Versailles  railway.  Two  large 
parallel  drains  were  formed  on  the  lower  side.  These  drains,  from 
39  to  50  ft.  deep,  were  connected  together  and  led  all  the  water 
away  in  such  a  manner  that  the  foundation  was  dried,  arid  was 
surrounded  and  maintained  as  by  a  protecting  belt. 

Between  Otzaurte  and  Oazurza  in  the  North  of  Spain,  moist 
valleys  are  met  with,  where  the  soil  of  clay  and  marl  slips  on 
schistose  strata.  Several  embankments  on  the  northern  line 
yielded  at  the  base,  and  it  became  necessary  to  surround  the  area 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1319 


on  which  they  stood  by  a  double  network  of  drains;  encircling 
ditches  with  discharge  culverts  for  the  surface  water;  then  for 
the  internal  drainage,  galleries  5  ft.  high  and  39  in.  wide  were 
driven  along  the  schist,  and  cutting  into  it  from  15  to  20  in., 
in  order  to  stop  subsequent  movement  and  to  drain  the  sliding 
surface.  These  galleries  followed  the  irregularities  of  the  rock 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  involve  slopes  of  from  1  in  33  to  1  in  17. 
They  were  then  filled  with  a  mass  of  broken  stone  leaving  a  space 
at  the  top  clear  of  the  fissures  which  admit  the  water. 


Sand, 


Fig.  47. 


_ 

Sliding  Embankments.  Embankments  are  often  built  without 
consolidation  for  the  sake  of  economy.  If  they  are  of  poor  ma- 
terials and  become  saturated  they  are  apt  to  slip.  Where  a 
central  core  is  made  by  end  dump  and  the  embankment  widened 
by  side  dump,  slipping  is  very  likely  to  occur.  Such  an  embank- 


Fig.  48. 


ment  may  be  thoroughly  consolidated  by  the  addition  of  counter- 
forts of  carefully  rammed  earth,  separated  from  the  earthwork 
by  a  filter  of  broken  stone,  about  1  ft.  thick,  or  by  a  wall  of  gravel 
fascines.  See  Fig.  48.  It  is  preferable  to  execute  these  counter- 
forts in  advance  with  earth  taken  from  the  site  as  at  a  b  c  d  e  a. 
By  doing  this  they  can  have  time  to  consolidate.  They  should  be 


1320 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


rammed  in  inclined  layers  in  a  direction  the  reverse  of  the  slope 
of  the  embankment. 

On  side  lying  ground  an  embankment  may  slip  even  if  formed 
of  good  material.  It  is  necessary  in  such  cases  to  trench  out 
the  natural  surface,  as  in  Fig.  49  in  order  to  give  sufficient  hold. 


Repairs  of  Fallen  Embankments.  When  the  slope  of  an  em- 
bankment has  fallen,  it  is  advisable  to  remove  the  foot  by  s'hort 
lengths,  and  to  replace  the  excavation  at  once  with  well  rammed 
earth  in  horizontal  layers,  or  in  beds  inclined  the  reverse  way 
of  the  slope. 

Fig.  50  shows  an  arrangement  adopted  on  the  Vendeuvre  em- 
bankment for  a  length  of  230  ft.  A  portion  of  the  fallen  ma- 
terial was  left,  being  covered  with  a  counterfort  of  rammed  earth 
and  new  ground  above,  while  the  drainage  was  effected  by  means 
of  a  gravel  filter  standing  in  a  brick  channel. 


-  .....  2$'..  .. 


Fig.  .  50. 


Fig.  51. 


On  the  Moncerf  embankment  ( Paris-Coulonmers  railway)  the 
filter  is  of  broken  stone  surrounded  by  matting.  At  some  parts 
it  was  necessary  to  form  two  of  these  filters  within  the  fallen 
portion  of  the  work,  Fig.  51.  They  are  connected  together  and  to 
the  outside  slope  by  transverse  drains.  Two  superimposed  coun- 
terforts retain  the  filters. 

On  the  Main-Weser  railway  some  clay  embankments  slipped  and 
were  restored  with  sand.  Pockets  filled  by  sand  became  sat- 
urated with  water  and  were  drained  by  pipes  covered  with  5  ft. 
of  broken  stone,  A  B  in  Fig.  52. 

On  the  \Yissembourg  railway  the  sides  of  the  fallen  embank- 
ments were  drained  by  means  of  transverse  trenches  in  which 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1321 


were  placed  gravel  fascines,  as  in  Fig.  53.  These  were  afterward 
covered  with  a  facing.  of  good  earth  combined  with  the  fallen  ma- 
terial, and  well  rammed. 


Fig.  52.Ua  i> 

' 


jjstytneo  «  c4ni  j/njjtf  Ji/i//  i;i'<i  ->ff>  lo.'jur  ^rt  I'  .i^i 
Stopping  Slips  on  the  Nottingham  and  Melton  Ry.     This  work 
is  described  by  Edward  Parry,  in  paper  1756,  Proc.  Inst.  C.  E. 

In  the  cuttings  through  the  boulder  clay  where  the  material 
was  homogeneous  no  slipping  to  any  appreciable  extent  took  place, 
but  where  pockets  of  sand  occurred  in  the  shale  and  clay,  the 
slopes  gave  considerable  trouble,  continually  breaking  off  verti- 
cally at  the  back  from  the  top,  after  being  trimmed  to  a  slope  of 
l%  or  2  to  I.  Water  was  generally  found  in  the  sand,  at  the 
base  of  the  slips,  and  was  apparently  the  cause  of  them.  These 
when  small  were  frequently  cleared  away  entirely  down  to  the 
solid,  and  the  line  of  slope  restored  by  filling  in  with  burnt  bal- 
last, broken  boulders,  or  other  convenient  hard  dry  material,  which 
allowed  the  water  at  the  back  to  drain  off  without  doing  further 
injury.  Where,  however,  the  slip  was  very  large,  extending,  as 
in  one  case  at  the  north  end  of  Stanton  tunnel,  6  or  7  chains 
along  the  slope,  and  from  20  to  40  ft.  in  depth,  another  method 
was  pursued :  a  deep  drain  parallel  to  the  line  of  railway  and  4  or 
5  ft.  wide  was  taken  down  at  the  back  of  the  slip  to  the  solid 
ground,  and  filled  with  burnt  ballast;  cross  drains  were  cut  from 
it  to  the  face  of  the  slope  to  bring  out  the  water,  and  the  toe  of 
the  slip  was  secured  by  being  burnt  for  a  width  of  about  20  ft., 
the  whole  being  finally  trimmed  off  to  a  flatter  slope. 

Two  large  slips  occurred  in  cutting  No.  9  in  the  lias  shales, 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  line,  somewhat  similar  in  character  to 


1322  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

those  before  described,  breaking  off  vertically  at  the  back  from 
near  the  top  of  the  slope.  In  this  case  the  bottom  of  the  slips 
extended  underneath  the  formation  of  the  railway,  and  the  toe  of 
the  one  being  pressed  on  to  the  toe  of  the  other,  by  the  weight 
at  the  back,  caused  both  slips  to  turn  and  rise  upwards,  lifting 
the  ground  several  feet.  In  fact,  a  gang  of  men  had  to  be 
continuously  employed  lowering  the  temporary  roads  in  order  to 
keep  the  work  going.  These  were  dealt  with  in  the  following 
manner :  —  In  addition  to  drains  at  the  back  and  a  toe  of  burnt 
ballast  on  each  side,  the  slips  were  cut  down  to  the  solid  ground 
in  the  center  line  of  the  railway,  varying  from  3  to  9  ft.  under 
the  formation  level,  and  cleared  out  for  the  full  width,  the  space 
thus  excavated  being  then  filled  in  with  rough  furnace  slag,  which 
entirely  prevented  any  further  lifting,  and  upon  which,  after 
being  ballasted,  the  permanent  way  was  laid.  The  burnt  ballast 
and  drains  afterwards  kept  up  the  slopes  of  the  cutting,  which 
were  trimmed  to  an  irregular  batter. 

Paper  1760,  Proc.  Inst.  G.  E.,  by  John  William  Drinkwater 
Harrison,  contains  the  following: 

In  treating  slips  on  the  Nottingham  and  Melton  railway  two 
methods  were  mainly  adopted. 

1st.  The  toe  of  the  slip  was  burnt  into  a  compact  mass  of  bal- 
last, the  width  at  the  base  varying  from  8  ft.  to  20  ft.  or  more. 
This  retaining  wall,  for  such  it  virtually  was,  having  been 
formed,  the  foot  of  the  slip  was  weighted  as  far  as  possible,  and 
the  slope  was  left  concave  where  practicable,  having  a  versed  sine 
one-thirtieth  of  its  length.  The  foundation  of  the  ballast  heap 
was  2  ft.  below  the  original  surface.  In  no  case  did  this  wall 
of  ballast  give  way,  though  in  several  instances  the  slip  rolled 
completely  over  it,  and  a  fresh  heap  had  to  be  formed  at  a 
greater  distance  from  the  line.  As  the  circumstances  were  ex- 
ceptional, any  details  as  to  cost  would  be  misleading;  but  it  may 
be  stated  that  1  ton  of  coal  was  sufficient  to  burn  about  10  cu. 
yd.  of  ballast. 

2nd.  Trenches  were  cut  through  the  slips  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  in  which  the  ground  was  moving;  the  width  of  these 
trenches  varied  from  2  to  9  ft.,  and  having  been  carried  18  in. 
or  2  ft.  into  the  solid  ground  below  the  line  of  the  slip,  they 
were  filled  with  stones,  the  whole  of  the  timbering  necessary  for 
their  excavation  being,  generally  speaking,  left  in.  This  is  ob- 
viously a  costly  process,  and  was  only  adopted  in  extreme  cases, 
where  the  slips  were  delaying  the  opening  of  the  line.  In 
excavating  the  trenches  it  was  noticed  that  but  little  water  was 
tapped  at  a  lower  level  than  3  or  4  ft.  below  the  surface.  That 
they  must  be  regarded  as  counterforts  to  strengthen  the  slips 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1323 

more  than  as  means  of  drainage  was  shown  by  the  fact  that 
several  weeks  after  their  construction  the  surface  of  the  bank 
3  ft.  away  from  the  trench  was  in  a  soft,  boggy  condition.  Re- 
garding them,  then,  simply  as  counterforts  intended  to  strengthen 
a  moving  mass  of  weak  material,  it  was  thought  that  to  carry 
them  completely  through  that  mass  would  defeat  the  purpose  for 
which  they  were  formed,  and  allow  the  slip,  or  succession  of  slips, 
to  continue  their  course  between  the  walls.  It  was  found  that 
carrying  them  about  two-thirds  of  the  way  through  the  slip  ef- 
fectually checked  its  progress,  and  it  seems  probable  that  a  less 
distance  than  this  would  have  sufficed. 

In  all  cases,  where  the  trenches  extended  to  the  back  of  the 
slip,  there  was  no  great  quantity  of  water.  The  cause  of  the 
majority  of  the  failures  appeared  to  be  the  inability  of  the  ma- 
terial to  support  its  own  weight,  consequent  on  the  quantity  of 
water  with  which  it  was  charged;  that  this  water  is  held  in  sus- 
pension for  a  great  length  of  time  appears  probable,  and  the  fact 
that  the  heaps  of  ballast  over  which  the  slip  had  rolled  were 
found,  when  opened  out,  to  be  in  a  dry  and  dusty  state,  shows 
that  the  plastic  nature  of  the  clay  prevents  gravitation,  and  the 
process  of  evaporation  in  a  deep  bank  must  be  slow.  More  than 
once  where  the  base  of  the  slip  was  on  the  same  level  as,  and 
extended  to  the  bottom  of,  the  ordinary  open  side  ditch,  a  pipe- 
drain  filled  with  rubble  was  substituted  with  advantage. 

Improving  Sliding  Material  by  Burning.  William  George 
Laws  describes,  in  paper  1810  in  the  Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  a  method 
of  combatting  slides  on  the  North  Eastern  Ry.,  England.  The 
line  runs  through  the  alluvial  clay  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river 


.x. 

Lxazmtcdi  svurlvt* 
Section  of  Brick-fields. 

Fig.  54.     Section  of  Bank  in  Brick  Fields. 

Tyne.  This  is  a  tenacious  flaky  brown  clay;  the  flakes,  which 
vary  from  y$  in.  to  1  in.  in  thickness,  being  separated  by  films 
of  fine  sand,  and  holding  water  obstinately.  The  upper  and 
lighter-colored  bed  varies  from  6  to  12  ft.  in  thickness,  and  be- 


1324  HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 

low  this  lies  a  bluer-colored,  more  unctuous  clay,  similar  in  its 
flakes  and  partings  to  the  browner  clay  above. 

The  lower  bed  is  extensively  worked  for  brick  making.  In 
the  brick  fields,  where  no  attempts  to  hold  up  the  banks  is  made, 
the  nature  of  the  slipping  is  clearly  shown.  The  banks  break  as 
in  Fig.  54,  slopes  of  10  or  12  to  1  being  reached  without  the  ma- 
terial coming  to  rest. 

Fig.  55  shows  how  the  clay  slid  into  the  railway  cuts,  and  the 
method  adopted  for  burning  it. 

On  a  decided  slip  occurring  the  first  thing  done  was  to  clear 
away  a  space  of  15  to  20  ft.  in  the  line  of  the  cutting,  until  the 
solid  clay  was  reached  both  downwards  and  sideways.  A  good 


Fig.  55.     Line  of  Slip  in  Cut  and  Method  of  Burning  Clay. 

fire  was  then  lighted  on  the  solid  ground,  using  plenty  of  broken 
wood  and  coal,  and  allowed  to  burn  up  well;  on  to  this  the  clay 
was  cast  from  both  sides,  in  layers  varying  from  12  to  30  in., 
small  *coal  being  spread  between,  until  the  heap  was  from  8  to  12 
ft.  high.  This  was  allowed  to  burn  out  on  the  one  side  and  con- 
tinually extended  on  the  other,  as  in  firing  a  clamp  of  bricks. 
The  burnt  material  from  the  cool  side  was  then  cast  back  as  soon 
as  possible  into  the  void  in  the  slope,  and  trimmed  to  shape. 

The  plan  adopted  was  generally  successful,  though  in  some  of 
the  earlier  cases,  from  sufficient  care  not  having  been  taken  to 
get  well  down  to  the  solid  clay,  slips  occurred  for  a  second  time, 
when  the  process  had  to  be  repeated  to  a  greater  depth.  It  was 
found  that  a-  bed  of  heavy  slag  and  hard  stones,  roughly  laid  on 
the  solid  ground  as  a  bed  for  the  fire,  very  much  helped  the 
process  by  giving  a  free  draught.  The  general  form  and  position 
of  the  heaps  is  shown  in  Fig.  55.  The  material  when  burnt  oc- 
cupied by  estimation  from  20  to  25%  more  room  than  before,  leav- 
ing a  considerable  surplus  of  burnt  stuff  to  go  to  bank. 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES  1325 

The  Drainage  of  a  German  Railway  Embankment.  Engineer- 
ing Neivs,  May  10,  1890,  gives  the  following:  The  Westerwald 
railway  has  to  pass  over  several  large  clay  beds.  At  one  point 
a  large  embankment  started  to  settle  unevenly,  sinking  in  one 
place  and  rising  in  another.  Attempts  were  made  to  widen  the 
embankment  and  counter  weight  the  section  that  had  a  tendency 
to  rise.  These  operations  being  unsuccessful  an  elaborate  scheme 
of  drainage  was  resorted  to. 

A  large  culvert  was  put  under  the  embankment  in  a  tunnel, 
and  was  located  very  low  (see  e  f  in  Figs.  56  and  57).  The  width 
within  at  the  bottom  was  4.1  ft.,  at  the  top  2.3  ft.,  the  height 
was  5.58  ft.  It  was  planned  so  as  to  tap  the  greatest  possible 
number  of  subterranean  streams  and  also  to  carry  off  the  water 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  broken  drain.  The  culverts,  which 
were  filled  with  broken  stone,  served  also  to  drain  the  subsoil 


Fig.  56.     Section  of  Sliding  Embankment. 

on  which  the  structure  rested.  In  this,  they  are  aided  by  a 
ditch  g  h,  with  a  broad  and  deep  section,  the  bottom  being  below 
the  upper  surface  of  the  clay  bed.  All  water  falling  above  the 
embankments  will  be  collected  in  the  ditch  and  lead  to  the  mouth 
/  of  the  main  drain.  From  there  it  passes  through  a  1.5  ft.  iron 
pipe  laid  in  the  culvert. 

The  nature  of  the  case  made  it  necessary  that  the  side  drains 
should  penetrate  the  mass  of  the  embankment  as  well  as  the  sur- 
faces of  motion.  The  main  conduit,  however,  it  was  necessary 
to  protect  from  all  chances  of  failure;  hence  its  deep  position. 
The  side-channels  were  inclined  as  shown  in  Fig.  57. 

The  drains  could  have  been  dug  without  wooden  linings,  but 
the  clay  of  the  bed  in  which  the  side  drains  terminated  became  so 
soft  on  exposure  to  the  air  that  it  was  necessary  to  put  in  a 
heavy  wooden  casing  throughout  the  entire  system.  After  the 
main  conduit  was  built  and  the  side  culverts  were  being  dug, 
the  pressure  of  the  moist  clay  was  great  enough  to  several  times 
break  the  woodwork.  It  sometimes  became  necessary  to  widen  the 
drains  also  on  account  of  the  diminution  of  the  section  due  to 
the  same  cause,  even  if  the  lining  was  still  intact,  though  bent. 


1326 


HANDBOOK  OF  EARTH  EXCAVATION 


The  side  drains  were  driven  as  far  as  the  ground  remained 
damp.  Then  they  were  filled  with  broken  stone.  The  final  step 
was  to  lay  the  iron  pipe  before  mentioned  in  the  principal  cul- 
vert, and  to  complete  the  filling  of  the  entire  culvert  with  stones. 
The  method  of  joining  the  pipes  is  of  interest.  Each  section 


-If?-.. 


Fig.  57.     Plan  and  Sections  of  Culvert  Used  on  Wester wald  Ry. 

was  about  13.5  ft.  long.  These  had  to  be  connected  in  such  a 
manner  that  any  motion  of  the  drain  would  not  destroy  the 
conductivity  of  the  line.  This  was  accomplished  as  shown  in 
Fig.  58.  Two  pipes  are  connected  to  each  other  by  ties 
running  their  entire  length;  then  these  pairs  are  joined  in  the 
same  way.  The  way  in  which  the  ties  and  the  pipes  are  con- 
nected is  shown  in  Fig.  58.  The  rods  are  bent  at  one  end,  laid 


SLIPS  AND  SLIDES 


1327 


against  the  pipe,  and  a  ring  slipped  over  the  ends.  The  other 
extremities  pass  through  a  flange  of  angle  iron  fixed  on  the  sec- 
ond pipe,  where  they  are  held  in  position  by  nuts.  Two  ties  are 
used  for  each  pair  of  pipes  and  they  are  placed  at  right  angles  on 
the  successive  pairs. 

Since  the  completion  of  the  work,  all  motion  of  the  embankment 
has  stopped. 


Fig.  58.     Method  of  Connecting  Culvert  Pipes. 

Bibliography.  "  Earthwork  Slips  and  Subsidences  Upon  Pub- 
lic Works,"  John  Newman ;  "  Landslide  on  the  Fraser  River, 
British  Columbia,"  Robert  Brewster  Stanton,  in  The  Engineer 
(London),  Dec.  14,  1897;  "Report  on  Slides  at  Panama,"  by 
General  George  W.  Goethals,  Canal  Record  (Panama),  Jan.  5, 
1916;  same  in  Engineering  News,  Nov.  25,  1915;  "Landslides  in 
Quebec."  Engineering  News,  May  27,  1909;  "An  Earth  Slide  at 
Bellevue,  Penn.,"  Engineering  News,  Jan.  1,  1914;  "Earthwork 
Slips  in  *>he  Cuttings  and  Embankments  of  Various  Railways, 
with  Their  Causes  and  Modes  of  Treatment,"  John  Barret  Squire, 
Min.  Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Vol.  62,  1879-1880;  "  Causes  of  Earth  Slips 
in  the  Slopes  of  Cuttings  and  Embankments  of  Railways  and 
How  to  Prevent  or  Remedy  Them,"  Robert  Elliot  Cooper,  Min. 
Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Vol.  138,  1889;  "Landslides,"  David  Molitor, 
Journal  Association  of  Engineering  Societies,  Vol.  13,  Jan.,  1894; 
"  Stopping  a  Troublesome  Slide  at  a  Summit  Tunnel,"  John  D. 
Isaacs,  Journal  Association  of  Engineering  Societies,  Vol.  15, 
Sept.,  1895;  "Geology  in  Relation  to  Engineering,"  Stanley  C. 
Bailey,  The  Engineer,  Vol.  101,  March  30,  1906;  "The  Great 
Land  Slides  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Ry.,"  Robert  Brewster 
Stanton,  Min.  Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Vol.  132,  1897-98. 


INDEX 


Adobe,  definition  of 

Aligning  a  dredge  in  a  canal  .  . 

Alluvial  Soil,  definition  of 

American    railway    ditcher,    co.it 

with    

Analysis  of  hauling  cost 

of  scraper  work 

of  steam  shovel  costs 

Anchorages,  cableway 

Angle  of  repose 

Artificial     lake     excavated     with 

four-wheeled   scrapers    .  .  . 

Auger  borings,  cost  in  Okla.    .  . 

cost  on  Winnipeg  Aqueduct  70 
hook  connections  for  rods   .  .  . 

Augers,  prospecting    Gl 

Austin  backfilling  machine   .... 

template  excavator    

trench   excavator    

at  Alton,   111 

at  Mpundsville.  W.  Va.    .  .  . 

working  in  clay 

working  in  shale 


Backfill,  handling  frozen  ma- 
terial   

puddling 

rolling  

Backfilling,  Austin  machine 
used  for  

Carson  trench  machine  used 
for 

clam  shell  bucket  and  hand 
work  

derrick  and  scraper  used  in 
Chicago  

drifting  scraper  drawn  by  two 
teams  

Keystone  traction  shovel   .... 

methods  and  costs  of 

method  of  payment  for    

Mpnahan  machine  for    

miscellaneous  costs  on  smelter 
construction  

Parsons,  scraper 

ratio  of  time  digging  to  time 
backfilling  

retaining  wall,  cost  of  casting 
clay  

scraper  used  for   

specifications    for    

tamping  and  costs    

trenches   

under  paved  streets 


Backfilling 

wagon  for 802 

1  Waterloo  machine  for    893 

600       Balanced  cable  crane    585 

2  Banks,  breaking  with   dynamite  128 

cost  of  trimming  and   seeding  156 

966       Barges,  cost,  life,  repairs 753 

224  method  of  measuring  material 

300                  on  by  displacement    763 

repairing,    cost 755 

583          treated   and   untreated   timber 

7                 compared     755 

Bates  belt  conveyor    985 

629       Bed  rock  sluices    1004 

75       Belt  conveyors 603 

72           capacity     604 

68          life  of* 604 

65  used  with  scrapers  on  founda- 

893                  tion  excavation 604 

915       Berm  ditches    904 

833  Bibliography,        Properties        of 

838                  Earth     18 

834  .   Measurement         Classification 

and  Cost  Estimating    ....  40 

837           Boring  and  Sounding 84 

Clearing  and   Grubbing 93 

Loosening    and    Shoveling    ...  151 
Spreading,        Trimming       and 

Rolling     164 

887  Hauling    in    Barrows,     Carts, 

896  Wagons,  and  Trucks   ....  229 
901           Elevating  Graders  and  Wagon 

Loaders    249 

893           Scrapers  and  Graders 334 

Cars     386 

830  Costs  with  Steam  and  Electric 

Shovels    557 

879  Dump      Buckets      and      Grab 

Buckets 574 

797           Cableways  and  Conveyors   ...  614 

Dragline   Scrapers    668 

892          Dredging 764 

891  Trenching    902 

Ditches  and  Canals    1003 

886  Hydraulic      Excavation       and 

892  Sluicing     1086 

Road    and   Railroad   Embank- 

223                  ments     1146 

892           Dams     1245 

Dikes  and  Levees 1275 

102           Slips  and  Slides 1327 

Bishop's   derrick  excavator    ....  554 

115       Black-waxy,    definition    2 

885  Blasting,  see  also  explosives 

886  ditches  in  wet  material   .  .  .131,  132 

897  dredge  pit 129 

884  dredgeway  in  channel 130 

885  hardpan,  cost 127 

1329 


1330 


INDEX 


Blasting 
holes   for,    made  by  hydraulic 

giant    1061 

frozen  ground  with  horizontal 

holes    148 

method  of  connecting  wires  for 

in  ditching    135 

mosquito  breeding  pools 129 

pole    holes    136 

Bleeding    quicksand    872,  880 

method   of   unwatering  trench  865 

wet  sand 785 

Bonus  system,   foundation  exca- 
vation with  wheel  scrapers  308 
Boom   method    of   hydraulicking  1004 

Booster  Giant   1010 

Boring  and  Sounding,  Chap.  Ill  41 

Boring,  augers  used  for 64 

cost  with  augers  in  Okla.    ...  75 

cost  with  Empire  drill 76 

cost  on  Winnipeg  Aqueduct    .  70 

hollow  pipe  used  for 75 

post  hole  digger  used  for   ....  81 

simple  device  for    64 

Bottom  dump  buckets 565 

Bottomless  power  scrapers    ....  615 

scraper 619 

Bottomley  trench  brace 860 

Bowman  ditcher    971 

Bracing  and  sheeting  trenches   .  846 

Breaking  high  banks 128 

Brick  clay  excavated  by  revolv- 
ing shovel 523 

Bridge    conveyor    excavator    on 

New  York  Barge  Canal   .  .  988 

Brush  bulkheads 733 

Buck  scraper 250 

on  levee  work 253 

Buck  shot  clay,  definition  of   .  .  2 
Bucket   conveyor   backfilling   re- 
taining wall    613 

elevator  plant 613 

Fogerty  excavating 570 

Buckets,  see  chap.  12   558 

bottom   dump    565 

clam  shell    570 

classification  of 558 

for  dragline   excavator    643 

orange  peel 567 

used  with  locomotive  cranes  in 

trenching     565 

Buckeye     excavator     for     open 

ditches    909 

cost  with  in  Everglades    .  .  .  913 

traction   ditcher    839 

Bulkheads,   brush    733 

of  piles  and  plank 733 

of   turf   to   hold    hydraulic    fill  735 

Bull-liver,  definition  of 2 

Burning     material     to     prevent 

eliding 1323 


Cable  drills    81 

cost  with  on  bridge  founda- 
tion      82 


Cable 

haulage  of  cars    .........  368,  371 

life  on  engine  incline    ......  372 

storage  drum  for  dredge  cable  681 
unloader  plow,  method  of  han- 

dling   .................  375 

Cableway,  see  chap.  13    .......  575 

aerial   dump    ..............  581 

anchorages    ...............  583 

balanced  cable  crane    .......  585 

canal  excavation,  cost  of   ....  600 

canal   excavation  with   in  soft 

material     ..............  596 


carrers 
button  rope 


578 
579 


chain    connected    579 

Lambert-Delaney 579 

coasting    583 

costs     .  . 576 

dragline  bucket  used  with   on 

levee  work 603 

cableway  excavators    588 

derrick   combined   with    586 

trolley     599 

dredging  with  dragline  bucket  602 

duplex    576 

efficiency  on  Gatun  Locks   .  .  .  598 

grab  bucket  used  with 599 

hitches  for,  at  bucket  and  mast  592 

hoisting    and   conveying   ropes  577 

horizontal    576 

incline 580 

levee  work  with    1257 

life  of  main  cable 586 

lubrication     581 

main  cable 582 

scraper  excavator 589 

cost   with    595 

for  side  hill  work    622 

skip  dumping  device    587 

systems    570 

towers    581 

cost  of,  for  scraper,  excavator  594 

trench    807 

trenching  for  sewer 808 

Calaveras    Dam,    hydraulic    con- 
struction of 1070 

slide   on    1244 

Canal,    bank    protection    against 

sliding 1282 

enlargement  by  blasting 130 

Canal  excavation,  see  also  ditch- 
ing 

aligning  a  dredge    690 

bridge    conveyor    excavation 

on  N.  Y.  Barge  canal   ...  988 

cableway,  cost  with 596,  600 

cars  and  carts,  cost  with 


clam  shell  bucket,   cost  with 

classification      of      drainage 

canal    contracts    to   reduce 

costs     ................. 

comparative  costs,  wheel 
scrapers,  elevating  graders. 
dragline  excavators  and 
steam  shovels  on  Colbert 
Shoals  Canal  .  ____ 


941 

949 


905 


1001 


INDEX 


1331 


953 

700 

945 
954 
317 


Canal  Excavation 

cutting    1    to    1    slopes    with 

dipper  dredge  956 

dipper  dredges  .  .696,  697,  699,  959 
dipper  dredges,    10-yd.   capa- 
city Cape  Cod  Canal    ....     699 

15-vd.     capacity,     Panama 

Canal     702 

dragline    machines    used   for 

632,  648,   650,  987,  997 

draglines,     electrically  .  oper- 
ated         659 

on      side      hill      irrigation 

canals     651 

dredge     and     dragline     ma- 
chines,   cost   with 

dredging 69' 

elevating    graders    and    fres 

nos,  cost  with 

floating  dredges,  use  of    ... 

four  wheel  scrapers    

fresno  scrapers    269,  938 

fresno  and  wheel  scrapers   .     940 

hand  work 908 

hydraulic  dredge 735,  738 

hydraulicking     1050 

inclines  and  steam  shovels   .     981 

ladder  dredge 711,  714,  955 

natural  erosion  for 963 

power  scraper 627 

scraper      boat     for      sloping 

canal  banks    

sluicing 

steam  and  electric  draglines 
steam      shovel,      method      of 

using 

work  with 493,  499,  513,  994 

suction  dredge 666 

tower  dragline  excavator    .  .     999 
wagons     loaded     through     a 

trap 202 

wheel   scrapers    282,  944 

various    methods    on    N.    Y. 

Barge  Canal 991 

Canal,    irrigation,   loss  of  water 

in     906 

maintenance    974 

elimination  of  weeds 

hydraulicking  silt    .  . 

slope   trimmer   for    .  .  . 

Canals,    navigable    

Capacity,  belt  conveyors 

wheelbarrows    

Capstan  plows 

horse  operated 

operated  from  barges    .... 


981 
963 
662 

396 


9T8 
978 
907 
980 
604 
169' 
909 
927 
931 


power  operated    929 

Car  side  wagon  loaders 192 

track  throwing 339 

unloaders     372 

Carriers  on  cableways 578 

Carrying  capacity  of  water   .  .  . 

. '.1005,  1006,  1007,  1008 

Cars,  see  chap.  10 335 

cable    haulage    of,    on    curved 

track    371 

capacity  of    375 


Cars 

central   control,    electric   haul- 
age  for 

cost  of  handling  earth  in  flat 

and  dump  cars 

cost   of   hauling  with   gasoline 

mine  motors    

dam  construction  by  cars  and 

hydraulicking     1236, 

dumping  sticky  material  from 

dumping   with  derricks    

filling       low       ground       with 

dredged   material    

flat  and  dump  car  costs  com- 
pared on  embankment   .  .  . 

horse  drawn    345,   346, 

hauled   by  cables    

by  electric  locomotives 

by  motor  truck   

haulage    system    for,    in    shale 

pit    

light  railway  on  highway  work 

358,   359, 

loaded  through  trap  by  dump 

wagons    

moved  by  hand 

mule  and  electric  haulage   .  .  . 

non  dumping 

preventing  freezing  on -. 

recommendations    for    use    on 

steam  shovel  work    

repair  costs,  Panama  Canal    . 
rocker  double  side  dump  .... 

rotary  dumping    

side  dump 

static  dumping 

tractive  resistance  of 

types    of    

use  of    

unloading  by  sluicing    

in  small  space 

on  Panama  Canal 

wheel  scrapers  compared  with 
Carson  trenching  machine    .  .810 

Carts     

capacity    

compared  to  wheelbarrows    .  . 

cost  with 177 

grading  railway 177,  178, 

high  cost  with 

rule  for  cost  with    

table  of  cost  with    

Caterpillar  land  leveler 

tractor 

traction  for  dragline  excavator 

wheels    

Catlinite,    definition  of    

Cellar    excavation,     see    founda- 
tion excavation 

Center  dump  wagon    

Central-control    electric    haulage 

Cess  Pool,  cost  of  digging    .... 

Channel       Clearing,       changing 

channel  of  a  creek  in  hard 


366 
381 
363 

1238 
382 
382 

355 

1138 
356 
368 
364 
348 

369 
360 

240 
344 
364 
335 
434 

376 
413 
338 
335 
337 
335 
342 
335 
341 
384 
382 
374 
347 
,  830 
175 
228 
170 
,  228 
1144 
178 
176 
229 
329 
218 
633 
220 
2 


182 
366 
109 


pan 


dredging     silt     with     ladder 
dredge   


171 

705 


1332 


INDEX 


Chicago  Drainage  Canal 981 

Chisel      excavator      for      frozen 

ground     146 

Chutes  used  on  ladder  dredge   .  .  710 

Clam  shell  buckets    570 

trenching  with    571,  783 

dredge  with  195-ft  boom    .  .  .  678 

dredging    681,  683,  721 

Clamp    for    pulling    sheet    piling  852 

rail  for  steam  shovel  424 

Classification .  25 

Am.  Ry.  Eng.  and  Maint.  Way 

specifications   for    37 

according  to  difficulty  of  pick- 
ing       27 

common  excavation    26,  27 

excavation   under   water    ....  27 

loose  rock    27 

overhaul    27 

specifications  for 26,  29 

solid  rock    26 

Clay    2 

breaking  uy  for  a  dredge    .  .  .  752 

burning  to  prevent  slipping    .  1323 
casting        behind        retaining 

wall     115 

cost  of  cesspool  in    109 

difficulty     of     dredging     with 

ladder  dredge  709 

dredging  with  clam  shell   ....  683 
excavated  by  revolving  shovel 

in  brick  yard 516 

foundation   excavation   in    .118,  258 
handled    in    carts    on    railway 

work    177 

with     elevating     grader     on 

railway  work    241 

with  wheel  scrapers  in  rail- 
way cut 305 

hand    excavated    for   retaining 

wall      116 

loosening  and  shoveling 107 

shrinkage  of    13,  14 

sluicing,    grades    required    for  1008 

steam  shovel  work  in 

366,  451,  455,  457 

test  pits  in    83 

thawing  with  steam  jets    ....  143 
wash    borings    in,    on    Stanley 

Lake  dam    52 

weight   of    4 

Cleaning  filter  plant  with  wheel- 
barrows and  carts    ....  170,  171 
Clearing      and      Grubbing,      see 

chap.  4    85 

cost  estimating 86 

effect   of    method   of   excava- 
tion on  cost 88 

on  cost  of  earthwork   ....  39 

factors  affecting  cost  of    ...  85 

methods    91 

roadwork;    cost    of    clearing 

on    1091 

Climate,  effect  on  cost  of  earth- 
work      38 

Coasting  cableways 583 

Cofferdam,    filled  by  pumping.  .  1215 


Combination  cableway  and  der- 
rick         586 

Common  excavation    26,  27 

Am.    Ry.    Eng.    and    Maint. 

Way  Asso.  classification  .  .       37 
Compacting  embankments,  effect 

on  cost  of  earthwork   ....       40 
Comparison   of  steam   and   elec- 
tric shovel  costs    543 

Compression  of  marsh  soil    ....  1097 

Conduit  Trenches    773 

Conveyor,    see   chap.   13    575 

Bates  belt  conveyor  on  Chicago 

canal 985 

belt    603 

capacity    604 

life  of  .  .  . ; 604,  708 

for  backfilling  trenches 800 

dam  built  with 608 

long  belt  used  at  a  quarry   .  .     607 

iised  on   Lahontan  Dam 611 

Core      Avail,      requirements      for 

earth  dam 1149 

Cost    of   earthwork,    factors    af- 
fecting         37 

Cost  keeping,   method  of,   show- 
ing    unit     cost     for     each 

scraper   gang    310 

Counterforts  of  rammed  earth.  .  1309 
Creek     change,     handling     hard 

pan  with  wheel  barrows   .     171 
Cross      firing      with      elevating 

grader  for  highway 234 

Culverts,    cost  of   excavating  on 

a   canal   project    947 

Curb  and  pavement,   excavation 

for 115 

Curved    trenches,    use    of   steam 

•shovel   on    805 

Cuts,   see  grading 

Cutting  down  railway  grades   .  .     391 


Dam,  see  chap.  20 1147 

belt  conveyor  on  Lahontan 

dam  611 

boulder  filled  wire  baskets 

used  for 1208 

Calaveras,  slide  on 1244 

cinder  built  dam  in  Pa 1159 

Cold  Springs  dam,  Ore 1197 

'  compacted  by  irrigation  flood- 

ing 1172 

constructed  by  cars  and  hy- 

druulicking  1236,  1238 

conveyors  handling  material 

on  608 

earth  embankment  with  gravel 

facing  1213 

electric  shovel  on  545 

elevating  gra-der  work  on  ...  236 
goats  used  for  compacting  .  .  .  1170 

HiU  View  Reservoir 1206 

hydraulic  construction  of  ... 

1058,    1059.    10*50. 

1066,  1070,  1221,  1227,  1249,  1241 


INDEX 


1333 


Dam 

Kachess  lake  dam    1202 

Lahontan     1156 

i-orto    Rico    irrigation    service  1157 
rolling   cost   at    Belle    Fourche    487 

San    Leandro    1152 

scrapers    and    hydraulic    exca- 
vation used  on    1059 

slides  on    1243 

shrinkage  of 14,  1164 

small  dams  for  stock  watering 

reservoirs    1163 

spreading   and   rolling  cost  on    158 
st<am  shovel  work  on  485,  501,  1191 

Tabeaud    Dam     1165 

temporary  hydraulic  fill  across 

Colorado  River 1210 

wagons    loaded    through    trap 

by  fresno  scrapers 204 

watering       costs       at       Belle 

Fourche     487 

Dams,  accidents  to 1243 

at  Ashokan  reservoir 1154 

hydraulic  fill,  design  of 1220 

Miami  Valley  Flood  Protection  1157 
percolation    factor,    determina- 
tion   of    1163 

permeability    of    concrete    and 

puddle  core  walls 1151 

Definitions 1-4 

terms   employed   in   earthwork 

19,  20,  21,  22 

Denny  Hill  Regrade,  Seattle   .  .  .  1081 
Depth  of  cut,   effect  on  cost  of 

earthwork , 39 

of  frost    7 

necessary  in   drainage  ditches    976 
suction  dredge  can  reach  ....     721 
Derrick,    car   bodies    used   with, 

on    foundation    excavation    559 

dumping  wagons    195 

excavator,    portable    620 

orange  peel  bucket  used  with 

on   trench    787 

sling      for      handling      wagon 

bodies  with 184 

shovel  mounted  on  boom  of  .  .     554 

trenching  with    779,  780 

trolley  cableway    599 

Derricks  and  locomotive  cranes 

for  trenching    778 

Diamond   drills    82 

point  scoop 106 

Dikes,   see  also  levees,   chap.   21  1247 
design  of  for  salt  marsh  recla- 
mation    1248 

scraper  work  on 257 

wagon  work  on 199 

Dinkeys,   see  also   locomotive 

capacity  of    353 

hauling  with 349 

Dipper   dredge,    see   also   dredge    686 
cutting  1  to  1  slopes  with   .  .     956 

work  with    688,  698,  699,  702 

steam    shovel,     of     manganese 

steel 421 

trips,  designs  of   ...  % 421 


Dippers,  steam  shovel 420 

Dirt  bucker  for  making  fills  over 

marshy  ground 259 

Disposal    of    material,    effect    on 

cost  of  excavation 40 

Ditch     blasting,      dynamite     re- 
quired      137 

construction  in  Alaska 1017 

excavation,    clam   shell   bucket 

used   for    949 

dragline    950 

floating   dredge,    use   of.  ...  954 

natural  erosion    962 

suitability  of  scrapers  for  .  .  251 

maintenance    974 

Ditcher.    Junkin    917 

Stockton     914 

Straddle     920 

Twentieth  Century 321 

Ditches  and  Canals,  see  chap.  17  903 
Depth  necessary  for  adequate 

drainage    976 

dressing  the  sides  of 906 

gopher 973 

grades  required  for  self  clear- 
ing       975 

highway     972 

railroad    .  ." 965 

types  of 903 

Ditching,    see    also    canal    exca- 
vation 
American     Railway     Ditcher, 

cost  with 966 

Buckeye  ditcher  in  the  Ever- 
glades      913 

cable  operated  plows  used  for  927 
cable     plows     operated     from 

barges    931 

car,    with   plows  and   scrapers  970 

double  ditcher  train   used   for  515 

dragline  costs  on    654,  655 

drag  scraper  costs  on 938 

dynamite  used  for  in  wet  ma- 
terial       131,  132 

electric  dragline  cost  with  ...  951 
electrically     operated     railway 

ditcher     969 

elevating  graders  used  for  ...  947 

explosives   used   for    933,  934 

explosives  used  in  quick  sand 

and  clay 937 

machine,  Austin 915 

method    of    connecting    wires 

for   blasting    135 

scrapers  used  for 937 

spade     105 

special  machines  for 909 

special  plows  for 927 

steam    and    electric    draglines 

on    663 

wheel  excavator,  costs  on    ...  910 

Double  ditcher  train 515 

levee  ditches    903 

Double   trees    306,  307 

Dragline,  see  chap.  14 615 

buckets    643 

buckets  operated  from  a  scow  639 


1334 


INDEX 


Dragline 
bridge     foundation     *xcavated 

with 

cableway  excavator 

work  with    602, 

canal  excavation  with    

632,  648,  650, 

on  side  hill 

difficulty  of  making  a  road  for 
machine  on  irrigation  work 

ditching    654,  655, 

electric     

power  consumption   of    .... 

eliminates    haulage    equipment 

on  railway  embankment  .  . 

grading  railway  with 

gravel  handling  under  water  . 

levee  construction  with    

locomotive  crane  used  for   .  .  . 
planking    for    work    over    soft 

ground 

portable  derrick  excavator   .  .  . 
power    consumption    on    canal 

work    

steam    and    electric    machines 

on  ditch  work 

on  N.  Y.  Barge  canal   .  .  . 

stripping  cost  with 

trenching,   with    647,  778, 

in    quicksand     

walking  attachment  for 

machines  on  levee  work  in 

Texas     

Drag  Scrapers 

compared    to    wheel    scraper 

on  small  levee 

ditching  with 

foundation    excavation    with 

grading  railway 256 

trap  for  loading  wagons  with 

Drainage  ditches 

Drain  spade 

Dredge,  chap.  15,  see  also  Clam- 
shell,     dipper,      hydraulic, 

and  ladder  dredge 

blasting  a  pit  for 

clam    shell    type    with     195-ft. 

boom    

cutter  heads  for 

depth      at      which      hydraulic 

dredge  can  work 

dipper,     cost     of     1^4-yd.     ma- 
chine     

cost  of  2V6-yd.  machine  .... 

work  adapted  to 688 

erection     costs     knock     down 

steel  dredge 

grab  bucket  type,  advantage  of 

gravity  swing  boom  on 

hydraulic,   cost  of  30-inch  ma- 
chine     

pipe  line  for    720 

sea-going  hopper  dredge   .  .  . 

types  of    

knock  down  steel  dredge,  erec- 
tion costs  

ladder,  wear  of  parts  in  sand 


Dredge 

Liverpool  type,  sea-going  hop- 

654  per  dredges 

588  plant  used  with  for  filling 
603  park  land,  Chicago  

spuds,  vertical  and  bank  spuds 

659  compared     

651  storage  drum  for  cable,  on   .  . 

suction,  on  irrigation  canal   .  . 
651       Dredged    material,     increase    in 

950  volume  of    

657        Dredges,  capacities  of  .  .  •. 

660  classification    of    

construction  cost  per  ton    .  .  . 

.115          cost,  life,  repairs 

1115  dipper    

647  drag    type,     sea-going    hopper 

1252  dredge 

638  hydraulic     

adapted  to  filling  low  land   . 

645  ladder    

620          land 

power    

666  relative     values     of     different 

types    

663  smoke  stacks  of    

662  Dredging,  American  and  Euro- 
666  pean  practice  compared  .  . 

786  aligning   a   dredge    in    a   canal 

877  breaking  up  clay  for 

634  canal  excavation  by 

694,   696,   699,  700, 

1254  clam  shell  dredges  used  for  681, 

254  clam      shell      and      hydraulic 

dredges    compared    in    Mo- 

295  bile   Harbor    

938  difficulties  with  ladder  dredge 

258  on  irrigation  canal 

,  259  dipper  dredge  on  river  work, 

199  Fla 

903  disposal  of  material  with  belt 

105  conveyor    

dragline  bucket  used  on  cable- 
way    '. 

669  embankment    built    with    lad- 

701  der  dredge  

floating   plant   used   in    dredg- 

678  ing  operations    747,   753, 

675  frozen  ground 

gold,  bibliography  on 

721           Government  compared  to  con- 
tract work    

688  high   cost   at   Havana,    Cuba.. 

696  hydraulic     720,  721,  73 1, 

,  671  cost  with  12-in.  dredge 

cost  with  20-in.  dredge    .... 
690  cost  with  26-in.  dredge    .... 

673  cost  with  30  in.  dredgo    .... 

678  jet  used  to  level  spoil  banks 

percentage    of    solid    matter 

747 721, 

,  741  ladder     dredge     on     irrigation 

731  canal     

718  in   silt    

material     for     levee     construc- 

690  tion     1262,    1265, 

698          ocean  bars    .  


726 
747 


672 
681 


17 

669 
669 
669 
753 


727 
718 
675 
704 
919 
676 

671 

676 

677 
690 
752 

959 
683 


721 
714 
698 
709 
602 
711 

759 

146 
718 

677 

708 
735 
736 
737 
738 
740 
695 

734 

714 
705 

1267 
685 


INDEX 


1335 


Dredging 
orange   peel   buckets   used   for 

.     . 682,  685 

scraper  for  lowering  crest  of 

sand  bars    752 

sea   going   hopper   dredges,    in 

Ambrose  Channel 726 

steam  shovel  mounted  on  hull 

for 693,  694 

sweeping      and     cleaning     up 

channel    753 

tough  clay 147 

wear  of  parts  of  ladder  dredge 

in  sand 698 

world's  record  at  Culebra    ...     704 

Dredgeway,  blasting  a 130 

Dressing    and    surfacing    earth- 
work         153 

Drifting  scraper  and  tractor    .  .     329 
Dry       foundation       excavation, 

specifications  for 34 

Dump    boxes    182 

Dump     cars     compared    to     flat 

cars    381 

Dumping      table,      for      loading 

wagons  with  bucket 560 

Dumping  wagons  with  derrick  .     195 
Dump  track,   swinging  platform 

for 380 

Dunbar  dragline  bucket 645 

Diiplex  cableway 575 

Dynamite,    amount    for   blasting 

stumps     91 

required  for  ditch  blasting    .  .     137 
Dynamometer  test  on  plows  ...     123 


Economy   of    fresno    and    wheel 

scrapers  compared 304 

of   wagon   train    haulage   with 

motor  trucks 210 

Ejector     used     to     force     sand 

through  a  pipe 1014 

Electric  draglines    657 

ditching    951 

power  consumption  of    ....     952 

haulage,   centrally  controlled..     366 

locomotives,   hauling  cost  with    364 

shovel,    see    also    steam    shovel 

compared  to  steam  shovel  .  .     543 

power  consumption  of 545 

work  with    

..541.  543,  544,  546,  547,  549,  552 
Electrically      operated      railway 

ditcher,  cost  with 

Elevating  grader,  see  chap.  8  .  . 


696 

ig  grader,  see  chap.  8  .  .  230 
dam  built  with  .  .  .236,  1173,  1191 

ditching  947 

grading  railway  in  stiff  clay  241 
hauled  by  traction  engine  231,  243 
loading  wagons  for  railway 

embankment  205 

special  type  of,  with  multiple 

plows 244 


Elevating  Grader 

stripping  coal    239 

gravel  pit    237 

widening  wheels  of,  for  work 

in   soft  material    234 

Embankment    across    lake    built 

from  scow  trestle- 1121 

across      swamp      with      wheel 

scrapers     284 

built  on  ice 1120 

dragline  excavators  used  on   .  1115 
flat  and  dump  car  costs  com- 
pared on 1138 

high  trestle  replaced  by  earth 

embankment    1139 

highway   built    by   sluicing...  1055 
hydraulic    dredging    to    build 

embankment    734,  1116 

hydraulic     dredge     used    with 

sheerboards     1117 

ladder    dredge    and    conveyor 

building  embankment  ....     711 
Lloyd   unloading    machine   for 

use  on 378 

movable  trestles  for  building  .   1105 
•     railway,    building    with   steam 

shovel  and  cars    481 

cost  of  raising 1136 

repairs  to 1320 

shrinkage   of    12 

sliding    prevented    by    drain- 
ing   1325 

repairing  canal  bank  by  sluic- 
ing   1057 

reservoir,  shrinkage  of 16 

rolled,  shrinkage  of 17 

shrinkage 9,  11,  15 

settling  basin,   cost  of    1181 

spreading          with          Jordan 

spreader    385 

subsidence  calculations  on   ...  1088 
suspension      dumping      trestle 

for    1100,  1113 

swinging  platform  dump  track 

for   use   on   embankment..     380 

trestles 1102 

wire  rope  trestles 1106 

Yale  Bowl 1217 

Embankments,    consolidation    of  1318 

over  marshy  ground 1092 

railway    1098 

subsidence  investigations   on 

1099,    1101 

sheerboard    method    of    retain- 
ing wet  earth 1056 

widening  by  various  means  .  .  1123 

Empire  drill,  cost  with 71,  76 

Eveners,  three  horse 307 

Excavation,   classification  of    .  .25,  27 
Explosives,    see    also   blasting 
amount   required   for   military 

mines    126 

ditching  with    933 

loosening  ground  with 126 

used  to  stop  slide 1305 

used     to     throw     material     in 

grading 1145 


1336 


INDEX 


Factors  affecting  cost  of  earth- 
work     

in  clearing  and  grubbing  cost 

Fairbanks  walking  dredge 

Field  tower  scraper 

Filling    behind    bulkheads    with 

hydraulic  dredge    

low  ground,  cars  used  to  han- 
dle   dredged   material    .  . 
hydraulic  dredging  733,  734, 

with  wheel  scrapers 

and  tamping  viaduct  embank- 
ment     

Filter  plant  cleaning  with  wheel- 
barrows  

Flat  cars  compared   with   dump 

cars 

Flexible  rail  joint    

Floating  plant  used  with  dredge 

747,   753, 

Floating  pipe  line 

Flooding    with    check    levees    to 

consolidate  dam   

Flume 

cost  of 

life  of   iron   plates   and   wood 

blocks  in    

lined  with  old  steel  saw  blades 

movable  on  hydraulic  fill  dam 

paving  blocks  to  prevent  wear 

in  wood  stave  pipe  ....'.. 

simple  timber  flume 

sluicing  with,   on   Bear   Creek 

dam 

Flumes,  series  of  tangents  better 

than  curves 

Fogarty  excavating  bucket   .... 
Formula,    cost    of    steam    shovel 

work    

for  transportation    

Foundation,   cost  of  prospecting 

with  cable  drills 

Foundation       excavation,       con- 
veyor belt  and  scrapers  .  . 
derrick  and  car  bodies  .... 

used  with  skips    

used  with  trunnion  buckets 
disposal  of  material  through 

chute 

dragline  on  bridge  work  .  .  . 
drag  scrapers  in  stiff  clay  .  . 
handling  material  with 

trucks    209 

hand  work 

orange  peel  bucket  used   on 

power  scraper 

revolving  shovel   and  wagon 

519,   520, 

shoveling  cost  in  clay   .  .  .116 

Thew  steam  shovel  on 

wagon  work  on 

wheelbarrow  work  on 

wheel  scrapers  worked  under 
bonus   svstem    . 


37 

85 
921 

987 

733 

355 

740 
284 

1129 
170 

381 
426 

759 
720 

1172 

1009 
1077 

1077 
1023 
1022 

1081 
1019 


1064 
570 

405 
226 

82 

604 

559 
558 
560 

1080 
65 1 
258 

539 
220 
567 
631 

526 
118 
524 
198 
116 

308 


Four  wheeled  scrapers 312 

loaded  by  cable 629 

work  with    317,  318,  319 

Freezing  quicksand 869 

weather,    effect  on   swamp   ex- 
cavation      119 

Fresno  scraper 269 

canal  excavation  with   .  .  .  269,  938 
curves  showing  cost  with   .  .     303 

grading   railway    264,  267 

loading    wagons    through    a 

trap 202,  204 

wheels   applied  to 273 

wheel     scraper     costs     com- 
pared to    300,  940 

Frost  penetration 6,  7 

Frozen    ground,    breaking    with 

chisel     146 

breaking    with    gopher    holes    149 
breaking       with       horizontal 

holes  under  crust 148 

cost  of  trimming  and  dress- 
ing          155 

device   for  thawing  for  pole 

holes •. 140 

digging  pole  holes  in 139 

dredging 146 

grading       highway,        wheel 

scrapers  in  winter" 291 

grading  railway  in   freezing 

weather 207 

steam  thawing  of 147 

thawing  gravel 141,  143,  145 

thawing  with  lime 141 

thawing  with  steam  pipes   .  .     140 

treatment  of 139-150 

trenching  machine  in    828 

undercutting    139 

wheel  scraper  work  in    ....     289 
material,  backfilling  with   ....     887 
preventing  freezing  on  dump 

car  bottoms 434 

Fuel     and    water    consumption, 

locomotives    354 


Gang  rooter  plow    121 

Gasoline    mine    motors,    hauling 

cost  with   . ' 363 

Giant  and   incline 1013 

Giants-  hydraulic    1004 

Glacial  soil,   definition  of 2 

Goats     compacting     puddle     on 

dam    1170 

Gold    dredging,    bibliography   on    764 

Gopher  ditches 903,  973 

Gopher      holes.       for      breaking 

frozen    ground    149 

Government    dreadging,    bibliog 

raphy  on 764 

vs.  contract  dredging 677 

Grab  buckets  on  cableway   ....     599 
Grades,    required    for   self-clean- 
ing ditches    975 

Graders,   road 320 


INDEX 


1337 


Grading  across  slough  with  push 

scraper  260 

athletic  field  by  hand  labor  .  .  152 
Grading  highway,  Bagley  power 

scraper  used  for 617 

cars  and  locomotives  haul- 
ing stone 358,  359,  360 

cost  by  various  methods  .  .  .  1090 
cross  firing  with  elevating 

grader 234 

elevating  grader  used  for  .  .  235 
equipment  and  methods  .  .  .  331 
four  wheel  scrapers  on  .  .  318,  319 
hydraulic  excavation  and 

fill  1055 

loosening  with  explosives  .  .  128 
methods  and  costs  with  road 

graders  322 

proper  cross  section  for  ...  294 
road  graders  hauled  by 

tractors  327,  330.  333 

steam  shovel  work  on 

525,  533,  534,  538 

wagons  loaded  through  trap 

by  scrapers 199 

wheel  scraper  work  in  win- 
ter ....!  291 

methods  and  cost  on  earth 

road  construction 322 

railway,  ballast  handling  with 

steam  shovel 1132 

cars  and  wheel  scrapers 

compared  347 

carts  used  on 177,  178 

drag  scrapers  used  on  

256,  259,  1140 

electric  shovel  on  electric  ry.  549 
elevating  graders,  work  with 

231,  236,  241 

f resno  scrapers  on 264,  267 

hand  trimming  cost  156 

high  steam  shovel  output  on  495 
horse  drawn  cars  used  on  .  .  356 
picking  and  shoveling  hard 

pan  109 

revolving  shovel  on  .537,  544,  552 

station  work  on  .  , 173 

steam  shovel  on  grade  re- 
duction   391,  479,  480 

steam  shovel  on  through 

cuts 394,  399 

steam  shovel  widening  cuts  487 
steam  shovel  work  on,  .  .452,  453, 

455,  457,  464,  474,  475,  496.  502,  507 
transporting  men,  tools  and 

supplies  for 1130 

trimming  frozen  ground  .  .  .  155 

wagon  work  on 197,  205,  207 

wheel  scrapers  on 

281,  284,  286,  288,  297,  305 

widening  cut  with  steam 

shovel  389 

river  banks  with  water  jet   .  .  1036 

street    cost   with    Thew    shovel    531 

revolving  shovel  on  .  .523,  52G,  535 

Grid  iron  grader 162 

Ground  sluice  1001 


Ground    water,    effect    on    cost 

of  excavation    39 

Grouting   quicksand    869 

Grubbing,  cost  per  acre  in  sage 

brush     164 

see  also  chap.  4 85 

Gravel     2 

dredging  with  dragline  bucket 

639,  647 

fascines    1316 

handling     plants,     see     under 

mining 

hydraulic  mining,  cost  of  ....  1025 
method  of  placer  mining  ....  1026 

obtained  by  dredging 694 

power  scraper  excavating  un- 
der water 627 

revolving   electric   shovel   han- 
dling      547 

screen  for  use  with  wagons  .  .  192 

thawing   141,   143,  145 

trenching  in 779 

weight   of    4 

Gumbo,  definition  of 2 


H 


Hand  auger  costs 72 

excavation,  in  canal 908 

cost  of    106 

methods  in  trenches 767 

Hard  pan,  definition  of 2 

cost  of  blasting 127 

cost  of  picking  and  shoveling 

hard   pan    109 

handled  with  wheelbarrows  .  .  171 

shrinkage  of 15 

Harrowing,    cost    with    traction 

engine 125 

Haslup  side  scraper    252 

Haul,   definition  of    165 

Hauling,  see  chap.  7 165 

capacity  of  dinkeys    353 

comparative  costs  in   flat  and 

dump   cars    381 

conditions,    effect    on    cost    of 

earthwork 39 

costs   analyzed    22 1 

dinkeys  used  for 349 

gasoline  mine  motors  used  for  363 

methods  and  costs    226 

roadway  for  wagons 189 

snatch  teams,  use  of 188 

table  of  cost  with  carts 229 

table  of  cost  with  wagons    .  .  .  228 

work  of  teams    187 

Hay  knife  excavating  wet  soil  .  908 

Heat  conductivity  of  soils 7 

Heltzel  lightning  loader  skips  .  .  196 
Highway,    see  grading   highway 

ditches 972 

embankments      over      marshy 

ground     1092 

Hints  on  steam  shovel  work  .  .  .  466 

on  wheel  scraper  work    277 

Hoisting  planes 505 


1338 


INDEX 


Hook     connections     for     auger 

rods   68 

Hoppers  for  loading  Avagons  191,  194 

Horizontal  cableways    57b 

crowding   motion    of   small  re- 
volving shovel •     -'23 

Horse  drawn  cars,  cost  with  345,  34b 

Hot  water  thawing 143.  14:> 

Hovland  tile  ditcher JJ 

Hydraulic  dredge    •  •     JJJ 

building  embankments  with  1116 
cost  with  in  Mobile  Harbor  721 
handling  very  soft  material  723 
maximum  depth  reached  by  721 

pipe  line  for    '41 

elevators   .1010,  1013,  1014,  1035.  1036 

excavation,  see  chap.  18 1004 

canal  dug  by l«jjO 

carrying  capacity  of  water  .  1005 
core-wall  tronch  dug  by  ...  845 
dams  built  by  hydraulickmg 

1058, 

1059. -1060,   1061,    1064,   1066,    1070 
dam  •  constructed     of     mine 

tailings    1066 

Denny  Hill  regrade,  Seattle  1081 
ditches  and  flumes  for  1009.  1017 
duty  of  miners  inch  .  .  .  1013,  1027 

filling  trestles 1051 

flumes  for    

1022,   1023,   1044,   1064,   1077 

gravel  mining  cost .  1025 

highway    embankment    built 

by    1055 

hydraulic  elevator  plant  .  .  .  1010 

incline  and  giant 1013 

land  slide  removed  by 1048 

movable  flume  for 1022 

placer  mining    1027 

pressure  boxes 1015 

pumping  sand  throtigh  spiral 

pipe  line    1046 

retaining  hydraulic  fill  with 

sheer  boards 1056 

river     banks     graded     with 

water  jet 1036 

sheerboards,        lumber       re- 
quired for 1079 

simple  timber  flume  for  ...  1044 
stripping  by  means  of  .... 

1038,  1044,  1047 

sluicing    applied    to   a    small 

job 1056 

sluicing  silt  to  reduce  canal 

leakage    1083 

water  requirement  of  giant, 

sluice  and  elevator 1013 

working  placer  gravel 1026 

Hydraulic  fill  dams,  design  of  .  .  1220 
retaining  with  hay  and  dirt 

embankments    1054 

Hydraulic  giants 1004 

grading  of  Westover  Terraces  1075 
hopper  dredge  for  Pacific  coast  731 
jet  for  levelling  spoil  banks  .  .  695 

mining.  p'PP  lines  for    1016 

range  in   cost   of    1032 


Hydraulic  giants 

stripping  of   gravel   pit 
Hydraulicking, 


1038 


Abbot      Brook 

dike 1240 

Bear   Creek  dam    1227 

Concully  dam    •• 1221 

Panama  Canal  work  done  by  .   1049 

Somerset  dam,   Vt 1241 

volume  of  water  required  for  1009 


Importance  of  prospecting   ....       41 
Incline  cableway 580 

tipples       used       with       steam 

shovels     513,  981 

used  with  giant    1013 

Insley  wagon  loader    195 

Irrigation   d'tches    903 

preparing  land  for 164 

Iron     ore     handled     by     steam 

shovel    459,  462 


Jack  blocks,  steam  shovel  .  .  427,  459 
Jacobs  guided  line  excavator  .  .  636 
Jerk-line  for  handling  teams  .  .  208 

Jointed  sounding  rod    42 

Jordan  spreader,  work  with  .  .  .  385 
Junkin  ditcher  917 


K 


Kalamazoo      extensable      trench 

brace 862 

Kaolin,  definition  of    3 

Keystone  traction  excavator   .  .  .  555 
Kind  of  earth,   effect  on  cost  of 

excavation     39 

King  ditcher    921 

L    , 

Ladder  dredge 704 

belt  conveyor  used  with    .709,  711 

filling  trestle    708 

formula   for   power   required  705 

long  chutes  used  on    .  '.  .  .  .  .  710 

record  at  Panama  Canal.  .  .  714 

wear  of  parts  in  sand 698 

Land  dredge    909,  919 

Monighan       walking       exca- 
vator      924 

Large  revolving  shovels    510 

Laterite     3 

Laundering    device    for    gopher 

holes    149 

Lead  and  haul 165 

Lee  wagon  loader 194 

Legality  of  methods  of  calculat- 
ing earthwork 23,  24 

Length  of  haul,  effect  on  cost  of 

excavation     39 

Levee,  see  also  dike,   chap.  21..  1246 

buck  scraper  work  on 253 


INDEX 


1339 


Levee 
cableway  and  dragline  bucket 

used  on    603,  1257 

drag  and   wheel  scraper  costs 

compared    on     295 

dragline   construction   of   1252,    12.14 

enlargement  of    1251 

hydraulic     construction     of,     1262, 

. 1265,  1267 

location   of    1247 

machines  for  building 1255 

sand  core  levees  in  California  1272 
sections  on  Mississippi  and 

Sacramento  Rivers 1249 

swell   of   newly  excavated   ma- 
terial  in    10 

Leveler,   rectangular    160 

Leveling  farm  land  with  tractors    159 
ground  after  gold   dredging.  .     623 
Life    of    barges,    tow   boats    and 

dredges    753 

of  belt  conveyor 604 

of  belt  conveyor  on  dredge.  .  .  708 
of  cable  on  engine  incline.  ...  372 
of  iron  plates  and  wood  blocks 

in   flume    1077 

of  main  cable 586 

of  steel  plates  in  flumes,  1025,  1031 
Light   railways    on   road    work,    358, 

359,  360 

Lime  for  thawing  frozen  ground    141 

Lloyd  unloading  machine 378 

Loader,    power    scraper    wagon 

loader    619 

Loaders,  wagon,  see  chap.  8 ...     230 

for  use  with  cars 192 

Loading  device  for  gopher  holes    149 
hopper  for  use  with  wagons.  .     560 
machine  for  surface  or  under- 
ground  work    247 

through  traps 283 

trailer,   for  dump  wagons.  .  .  .     245 

Loam,  weight  of    3,  4 

Location,  effect  on  cost  of  earth- 
work    38 

Locomotive,   see  also  dinkey 
capacities      of,       on      various 

grades 505 

cranes   used   for   trenching.  .  .     778 
used  as  dragline  excavator.     638 

light,  types  of 352 

Locomotives,    repair   cost  of,    at 

Panama     413 

water    and    fuel    consumption 

of     354 

Loess,  definition  of 3 

Long   handled    shovel    106 

Loosening  and  shoveling.  .  .  .94,     151 

sticky   clay    107 

explosives    used,  for 126,     127 

methods   of    91 

Loose  rock,  Am  Ry.  Eng.  and 
Maint.  W.  Asso.  classifica- 
tion    37 

in     classification     of     earth 

work    27 

specification    of    34 


Macadam   excavated   by   revolv- 
ing shovel 525 

Maintenance      of      ditches      and 

canals    974 

Management     of     steam     shovel 

work    43 1 

Maney    four-wheeled    scraper. . .     312 
Manganese    steel    steam     shovel 

dippers    421 

Marl,  definition  of 3 

device  for  sampling 46 

gouge     10.-, 

Marsh   soil,   compression  of.  ...   1097 
trenching   in,    with    Parsons 

excavator    84"> 

Marshy      ground,       method      of 
building  embankments 

over    

Martin  ditcher  and  grader 

Mattock  compared  with  pick.  .  . 
Mattresses  for  supporting  high- 
way      embankment       over 

marsh   . 1093 

Measurement,    legality    of   meth 

ods  of 22,   23,      24 

Mechanical   flock   of  goats 1171 

Methods  and   cost  of  hauling..     226 

of  loosening    91 

Military    trenches .  .     901 

Mine    haulage    by    electric    loco- 
motives         364 

Miners  inch    1009 

Mine  tailings  used  in  hydraulic 

fill  dam .' 1066 

Mining,     cars     used     to    handle 

special  earth 344 

coal,  systems  of  haulage.  .363.     364 
clay,    steam    shovels    in    brick- 
yards  366,    455,    457,    516,   523 

iron   ore    with   steam  shovel .  .     459 
marl,    use    of    cars    hauled    by 

cables    371 

shale,    tramming    system    used 

in    pit    369 

sand    and    gravel,    with    steam 

shovel 422.    443,    446,    448 

thawing      gravel      for      placer 

mining     141,    143,     145 

Monahan  back-filling  machine.  .     892 

walking  excavator    924 

Moore   trenching   machine 819 

Mosquito    elimination    by    blast- 
ing          129 

Motor  boat,  cost  of  operating.  .     759 
Motor  trucks,    foundation   exca- 

.vation  with 539 

Motor    truck    hauling    industrial 

railway    cars     348 

wagon   trains    210 

Movable    hopper    for    excavated 

material     191 

Moving  steam  shovels    470,    472 

Muck 3 

dredging     cost     with     orange 

peel    685 


1340 


INDEX 


Mud,  weight  of 
Muskeg    


Navigable  canals   980 

New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  .     986 


Oakland  revolving  bucket  scraper  273 
Ocean  bars,  cost  of  dredging ...  724 
Oil-storage  reservoir,  embank 

ment  for 1175 

Orange  Peel    buckets     567 

foundation  excavation  with.     Rfi7 

handling  muck    

trenching  with,  568,  569,  783, 

Ore,  cost  of  shoveling 

steam  shovel  work  in  iron  ore 

O'Rotrke  method  of  excavating 

deep  cuts  to  neat  lines .  .  . 

Overhaul   in   classification    .... 

Overhead  conveyors    


567 

f.sr. 


107 

4,-?.) 


740 
892 
821 
845 

115 

4 

70 


Page  scraper  bucket 642 

Park  in  Chicago  filled  by  dredg- 
ing      

Parson's  back-filling  scraper.  .  . 

trench    excavator    

work  with    

Pavement    and     Curb,     cost    of 
hand  excavation  for,    .... 

Peat 3, 

Peat  bog,  cost  of  borings  in ... 
Percolation     factor,     determina- 
tion of  for  dams    1163 

Permeability    of    concrete     and 
puddle      walls      in      earth 

dams    1151 

Petrolithic  gang  rooter  plow.  .  .     122 

P.  &  H.  tamping  machine 900 

trench  excavators   820,    825 

Pick  and  mattock  compared.  .  .      94 

Picking  and  shoveling    96 

diagram      showing      possible 

yardage    

foundation   excavation    .... 

frozen  ground   

hard  pan    

railway    culvert,    excavation 

for     117 

station     work     on     railway 

grading 173 

table   of   average   excavation 

at  various  depths 113 

table  for  rating 110 

trenching   costs    769,     771 

Pile  driver,  cost  of  operation  of    759 

used  for  sounding 43 

used  for  trench  sheeting.  .  .     850 
Pipe  lines,   hydraulic  dredge.  .  .     720 

hydraulic    mining    1016 

Placer   mining    1020,  1027 


112 
220 
155 
109 


Planking  for  dragline  work  over 

soft  ground 

Platform     for     retaining     earth 

from    trenches     

wheel  of   caterpillar   tractor.  . 

Plow    test 25, 

Plowing,   cost  of    

with  tractor  outfit    124, 

Plows,.    

cable  operated  ditching 

dynamometer  test  on 

light   grading    

rooter     

weight  of    

Pneumatic   tamping    

Pole  holes,  device  for  digging  in 

frozen  ground 139, 

method  of  blasting 

Pontoons    

Portable  derrick  excavator    .  .  . 
Position,  effect  on  cost  of  earth- 
work     

Post  hole  diggers    

Post  spade 

Potter   trenching  machine,    cost 

with 813, 

Power      consumption,       electric 

draglines 660,    666, 

electric   shovels    

required    for   ladder    dredge.. 

ditches 

Power  scrapers 

Bagley   scraper   on   highway 

bottomless     

canal  excavation  with 

excavating  gravel  under  wa- 
ter     

foundation  excavation  with. 

handling  mud    

leveling    ground    after    gold 

dredges    

stripping  with    616, 

tower  dragline  excavator  on 

canal    ,. 

wagon  loader 

Preparing  land  for  irrigation.  . 
Properties  of  earth,  see  chap.  1 

Prospecting,  see  chap.  3 

augers  used  for 61, 

cable  drills  used  for 

importance    of     

Prospecting,  test  pits  for 

test  trenches  for    

Puddle   placed   in   cofferdam  by 


645 

771 

219 
34 
119 
125 
120 
927 
123 
121 
121 
120 
901 

140 
132 
743 
620 

38 

80 

105 

815 

952 
54  5 
705 
904 
615 
617 
619 
627 

627 
631 
618 

62.1 


999 

619 

164 

1 

41 
65 
82 
41 
83 


pumping 
llir 


Puddling  backfill  

Pulsometer  pump  

Pumping  costs  on  a  sewer 

job 862,  863, 

Push  scraper  grading  across 

slough    


1215 
896 
863 

864 

260 


Quantity,    effect   of,    on    cost    of 
earthwork      


INDEX 


1341 


Quicksand    

ditching  with  explosives    ....  937 

drained   by   "bleeding"    880 

excavated  by  freezing    869 

grouting    869 

trenching  in,  820,  865,  868,  869,  877 

R 

Rail  clamp  for  steam  shovel  and 

cars    424 

joints,  flexible 426 

Railroad  ditches    965 

Railway,    see    grading    railway, 

also  embankment 
ditches    and    locomotive    crane 

shovels 515,    965 

embankments    1098 

grading  with  draglines    1115 

piling   a    sliding   cut    1289 

slides,  treatment  of 1288 

specifications  for  classification      29 
Raising  a  railway  embankment, 

cost    1136 

Raking,  cost  of  hand  work   ...     153 

Ramming  and  rolling 157 

Recommended  practice  in  shovel 

operation     430 

Record  for  ladder  dredges   ....     714 

Rectangular,   leveler    160 

Reservoir    cleaning   by    hydraul- 

icking     737.  1051 

Reservoir      embankment,      built 

with  concrete  slope 1161 

cost  for  settling  basin 1181 

cost  of  rolling  at  Forb's  Hill    157 

rolling  slopes  of    1178 

shrinkage     16 

special  wagon  for  use  on .  .  1179 

trimming  at  Forb's  Hill 155 

wheel  scraper  work  on 280 

Reservoir  for  oil  storage 1175 

Resistance  to  rolling  friction .  .  .     352 

Retaining    walls    1307 

Revetment    of    slopes. 1312 

Revolving    bucket    scraper 273 

Rifle    pits     905 

Road      and      railroad     embank- 
ments,  chap.   19    1087 

Roadbed   ditches    903 

Road    graders    320 

used  with  tractor _ 327 

Rocker  double  side  dump  car.  .     3-38 
Rock     foundation     excavations, 

specification     35 

Rolled    embankment,     shrinking 

of 14,      17 

Rolling 157 

backfill     901 

cost  on  Belle  Fourche  dam.  .  .     487 
embankment  at  Yale  Bowl.  .  .  121.8 

friction,   resistance   to    352 

puddle    on    reservoir    embank- 
ment slopes 1178 

shrinkage  produced  by,  in  top 

soil     15 

tamping   roller    ..." 1090 


Rooter  plow 121 

Roots,  types  of    86 

Round  point  shovel 105 

Rule  for  cost  with  carts 176 

drag  scrapers    258 

elevating  grader    231 

fresno  scrapers    .  . 262 

horse-drawn   cars    346 

wagons     186 

wheelbarrows     169 

wheel  scrapers 276 

8 

Sampler  for  marl 46 

Samples,  means  of  obtaining  43,  45 

Sand    4 

Sand  core  levees 1272 

excavated    with    wheelbarrows    116 
excavated   in    trench    with   or- 
ange peel  bucket 569 

steam  shovel  work  in  sand  and 

gravel.  .  .440,   442,   443,   446,  448 
transported  through  pipe  with 

an    ejector    1014 

trenching  in    783 

weight  of    5 

Saps    904 

Screen  for  use  with  wagons.  .  .  192 
Scientific  management  of  trench- 
ing       100 

Scoop  conveyor  for  loading  and 

piling     249 

car      for      handling      railway 

slides      1297 

diamond  point,   shovel 106 

Scow    bridge    used   for   building 

embankment    1121 

Scows,    cost,    life,    repairs, 753 

method  of  measuring  load  by 

displacement 763 

Scraper,  see  buck  scraper,  drag 
scraper,      fresno      scraper, 

etc.,  chap.  9 250 

buck    250 

Scraper,    bucket   cableway 59") 

cableway  excavator 589 

ditching   with    251,  937 

drag .  254 

drag  and  wheel,   grading  rail- 
way      1140 

for  lowering  crest  of  sand  bars  752 
for     pushing     dirt     ahead     of 

team    259 

side 252 

tongue    251 

used    with    belt    conveyor    on 

foundation   work    604 

work,   cost  keeping  for 310 

Sea-going  dredges    721,  731 

Season  of  year,  effect  of,  on  cost 

of   earthwork    38 

Sectional     track     for     dragline 

excavator     646 

Seeding  slopes 156 

Seepage      losses      in      irrigation 

canals    906 


1342 


INDEX 


Sewer,    trenching  for    711, 

Shale     -. 

handled      by      trenching      ma- 
chines     

weight    of    .-  •  • 

Sheerboards,      lumber     required 

for      

used  for  hydraulic  fills  1056, 

Sheeting  and  bracing  trenches. 

and      bracing      under      steam 

shovels     

cost  of  

cutting    with    augers    

driving    S5°> 

horizontal    

machine    for   pulling    

removing 

Shoreing  in  deep  sewer 

Shoveling      

clay 115,  116, 

ore 

rate    of    

table  of  cost    

Shovels,    design   of    

size    of    

types  of    104,  105, 

Shrinkage .  .  8,   11,   12,  14.   16,   17, 
and  subsidence,  method  of  dis- 
tinguishing   .  . 

allowance      for      with      frozen 

backfill     

clay    13, 

Cold  Springs  dam    

conclusions  on    17, 

data    on    weight    of   earth   un- 
der   various    conditions    in 

the  Tabeaud   dam   

due  to  removal   of   stumps.  .  . 

effect  of  water  in  clay 

embankment     

material     handled     in     wheel- 
barrows      

method    of    allowing    for.  .497, 

Side  dump  cars 

Side  scraper  

Silt,       dredging      with      ladder 

dredge     

removed    from    canal    by    hy- 

draulicking    

Single  track  revolving  shovels.  . 

Size  of  hand   shovels    

of  particles  of  earth    

Skip  dumping  device  for  cable- 
way   .  .  .  ._ 

Skips       foundation       excavation 

with     

handled  by  trolley  cableway.. 

Slide,    Calaveras  dam "... 

controlled   by   piling    

clay     held    by    drainage    tun- 
nels     

effect  of  rainfall  on  movement 

of     

electric    shovel    working    on.. 

Hudson,  N.  Y 

Mount  Yernon    

Portland,     Ore. 


780       Slide 

4  reconstruction   of   at  Charmes 

dam      1243 

837  removed    by   hydraulicking.  .  .   1048 

5  Slides    at    Bull's    Bridge    Hydro 

Electric    Plant    .  .' 1280 

1079  cause  and  cure  of .   1277 

1117  European  railway  practice  for 

846  prevention  of    1306 

held  by  piles    1298,  1300 

791  in  N.  P.  Ry.  cuts 1296 

848  Panama   canal    1283 

853  prevention      of      on      Chicago 

851  Canal     1282 

848  railway  practice  for  treatment 

853  of     1288 

852  scoop  car  for  handling 1297 

790  stopped  by  use  of  explosives.   1305 

96  Sling  for  handling  wagon  bodies 

118  with  derricks    184 

107       Slips,   and  Slides,   see  chap.  22.  1276 
106  control  of  on  English  railway  1321 

97  prevention    on    railway    1290 

103  treatment  of  a  wet  cut  for .  .  .   1294 

98  Slipping   prevented    on    Germaii 
106  ry.  embankment  by  drain- 

H64  age     1325 

Slope    drainage    1312 

1088  protection,    earth   dams    1151 

trimmer    for    irrigation   canals    907 

trimming   machine    1178 

14       Slopes  of  1  to  1  cut  with  dipper 

1199  dredge      956 

18       Sloping   canal   banks,    boat   for      991 

Sluicing,    see   chap.   18    1004 

material   from   cars    384 

1169  sand  and  gravel  in  steel  lined 

flumes    1023 

silt  to  reduce  canal  leakage..   1083 

9        Small   revolving   shovels 516 

Smoothing    devices,    for    prepar- 
ing land  for  irrigation...     160 

and  leveling  farm  land 159 

337  machines '.  .' 322 

252        Snatch  teams 188 

Soft  material,   see   also  wet  ma- 

705  terial 119 

canal   excavation    in,    by    ca- 

bleway .  .596.     600 

515  dumping       sticky       material 

from  cars    .' . 382 

handled  with   power  scraper    618 
hydraulic     dredge     in     very 

587  soft    mud     723 

spade  and  hay  knife  in  wet 

558  soil     ' 908 

trenching  in  muck 858 

trenching  in  salt  marsh.  ...     880 
widening  wheels  of  elevating 
grader  on   account  of.  ...     234 

1292       Soil,   kinds  of    1 

sampler    for 45 

1284        Solid  Rock,  specifications  for  in 

o"9  classification 26,  34.      37 

1279        Sounding 42 

1279  rods,    for,    42,      43 

1284       Spades,  types  of 105 


INDEX 


1343 


Specific  gravity 

Specifications       for       classifica- 
tion ...  26,  29,  30,  31,  34,  35, 
for   steam   shovel   construction 
for  trenching  and  backfilling. 
Spoil     banks    leveled    with     hy- 
draulic  jet    

Spreaders     

Spreading  and  rolling,  see  chap. 


Belle  Fourche  dam 

Cold  Springs  dam 

earth     dam     at     Springfield, 

Mass 

Hill  View  Reservoir 

Kachess  Lake  dam 

Tabeaud  dam   158, 

embankment       with       Jordan 

spreader    

Sprinkling,   see  also  watering.  . 
Spuds,    vertical    and    bank   com- 
pared      

Square  point  shovel    

sounding  rod    

Stanley  tamping  machine    .... 
Station   work   on   railway   grad- 


ing 


Steam   jets,    thawing   for   steam 

shovel    

Steam  shovel,   accident  and  cost 

of  repairs   on   railway  job 
analysis  of  cost  of  work.  .  . 

ballast  handling  with    

Belle     Fourche     dam,     work 

on 485, 

Bishop's  derrick  excavator., 
canal  excavation,   method   of 

using  on    

canal    excavation    with,    493, 

994 
discussion  on  cost  of  work.  . 

cost   formula    

cut  of  two  lifts  in  one    .... 
device  for  lifting  jack  blocks 

dippers    420, 

double  ditcher  train    

dismantling    

electrically  operated  .  .  .  .541, 

filling   trestle,    

flexible  rail  joint 

foundation   excavation,    with 

524 
grade    reduction    with, 

480 

grading    highway,    533, 
grading     railway,     452, 

457,   464,    474,    475,    487, 

502,  507,  537 

grading  street 

handling     

high  output  with 

hints    on     

horizontal    crowding    motion 

of  small  shovel 518, 

incline   tipple   used  with   on 

canal    

iron  ore  handled  by 


5       Steam  Shovel 

Keystone  traction   excavator  555 

37              large  revolving    510 

428              loading  motor  trucks    .....  539 

&5o              loading    wagons     509 

macadam  excavated  by   ....  525 

695              management    of     434 

384  method     of     supporting     in 

trenching     793 

mining  clay  with    516 

mining      sand      and      gravel 

1199                  with 442,  443,  446,  448 

mounted  on   hull  for  dredg- 

1188                  ing 693,  694 

1207              moving    470,    472,  474 

120.1  output  on  Hill  View  Reser- 

1168                 voir    501 

output     of     large     stripping 

385  shovel    511 

157              records  on  Panama  Canal.  .  495 

prices  of 418,  507 

672              pyramidal  jack  blocks  for .  .  459 
105              rail    clamp    for    shovel    and 

43                 cars    424 

899              recommended  practice  in  op- 
eration       430 

173              repair  costs,  Panama  Canal.  413 

revolving  shovels,  work  with 
143  515,  516,  520,  523,  526 

specifications     for     construc- 

489                   tion    of    428 

403              specimen   cost  of    400 

1132              standard  classification  of  ex- 
pense     437 

1191               stripping  with 503 

554              Thew  revolving  shovel  .  .522,  531 

throwing  track  for    471 

396              trenching  with,  786,  795,  797,  804 
499              trenching     with     on     curved 

trenches     805 

400              types  of    387 

405              widening  cuts    389 

399              work  in  clay 451 

427       Steam  shovel  work  in  iron  ore.  459 

421              work  in  sand  and  gravel.  .  .  440 

515       Steam  thawing 140,  141,  147 

468       Steam  tractor  plowing 124 

543       Stock     pile     work     with     steam 

477                 shovel 462,  467 

426       Stockton  ditcher    914 

519       Stone    grappl«>rs     678 

Storage  drum   for    dredge   cable  681 

319,    479         tripping,  breaking  frozen  banks  149 

coal   with  elevating  graders.  .  239 

538           dragline  costs   on    coal  beds.  .  666 
455           gravel  pit  with  elevating  grad- 

498                  ers 237 

hydraulic, 103S,  1044,  1046,  1047 

535           output  of  large  shovel 511 

387          possibilities  with  300-ton  shovel  511 
495           power  scraper  used  for   .  .616,  628 
466          steam  shovel  work  in  anthra- 
cite  region    503 

523       Stumps,  amount  of  dynamite  for 

blasting '91 

513  loss   of  material  due   to  grub- 

462                  bing 89 


534, 
453, 
496, 


1344 


INDEX 


Subsidence,    calculating    amount 

of •  •  •  •   1088 

investigations    of    for    railway 

valuation    1099,  1101 

method  of  distinguishing  from 

shrinkage  of  levees    1088 

Sub-soil    4 

Suction  dredges 718 

Supporting    construction     track 

on    ice     1120 

Surface    ditches     904 

Surfacing    and    dressing    earth- 
work         153 

Suspension    bridge    for    making 

fills     1100,  1113 

Swamp,  see  tilling  low  ground 
excavating  in  freezing  weather    119 

Swelling  of  dredged  material.  .  .       17 
of  newly  excavated  material .  .       10 

Switch  for  narrow  gauge  tracks    339 


Tabeaud   dam    1165 

Tamping   clay 897 

P.   &  H.  machine  for    900 

pneumatic    901,  1130 

roller   for    1090 

Stanley   machine   for    899 

Teams,    handling   with   jerk  line  208 

work    of     187 

Telegraph  shovel    106 

Telpher   system    586 

Template   ditch    excavators,    909,  915 

Test  pitting    83 

Test    trenches    83 

Thawing,    frozen    gravel    141 

ground   for  trenching    147 

lime  used  for    141 

steam  pipes  used  for 140 

Thew   revolving  shovel    .  .  .  .522,  531 

Three-horse   eveners    307 

Through   cut  with   steam   shovel  394 

Throwing    track     471 

Tile  drainage,   Buckeye  traction 

ditcher,  cost  with 840 

cost  in  California    777 

Tile  drains,  trenching  for    ....  775 

scoop 775 

Timbering,  in  trenches    .  .  .  .831,  846 

Tongue  scraper    251 

Top  soil    4 

shrinkage  of 15 

stripping          with          power 

scraper    628 

Tow   boats,    cost,   life,   repairs.  .  753 

Tower,  cableway    581 

dragline    excavator     999 

scraper    excavator    594 

Track,   contractors  switch  for..  339 

throwing   car    339 

Tractor  engine  hauling  elevating 

grader     231 

with   4  driving  wheels    ....  215 

plowing  outfits    125 

Tractive  force,    dinkeys    350 

resistance,    mine   cars    342 


Tractive  resistance 

plows    123 

Tractor,    caterpillar    218 

grading    827 

leveling  farm  land    169 

plowing      123 

pulling  elevating  grader    ....  243 

road    work   with    333 

semi  trailer    type    for    hauling  216 

types    of     215 

Trailers,    for    loading    wagons..  245 
for   motor  truck   haulage    ....  215 
Transportation      cost      of      men. 
tools  and  supplies  on  rail- 
way   grading     1130 

formula    for    226 

applied   to  scraper   work.  .  .  301 
Trap     for     loading     cars     with 

dump  wagons 240 

for   loading    wagons,    199,    202,  283 
Tree        planting        in        blasted 

holes     128 

Trench    and    ditch    definitions.  .  766 

Trench    brace,    Bottomley,     ....  860 

Kalamazoo 862 

cableways    807 

excavator,      Buckeye     traction 

ditcher     839 

Hovland    ditcher    841 

Parsons    821 

P.    &    H 825 

sheeting,     handling     under     a 

shovel     466 

Trenches,  backfilling 884 

under  paved  streets    885 

Trenching,   see  chap.  15    766 

as  means  of  prospecting    ....  83 

Austin    excavators    ..833,    834,  835 
837,  838 

backfilling   wagon    for    802 

Buckeye   traction  ditcher,   839,  840 

841 

cableways  on  sewe,r  work.  .  .  .  808 

Carson    machine    for 810,  830 

chisel     excavator     for     frozen 

ground     146 

clam     shell     bucket    used     for  571 

783 

cost  with  orange   peel  bucket  568, 

569,   783 

derrick     used     for,     778,     779,  780 

782,    783 

dragline  bucket  used  for,   647,  778 
786,    869,   877 

driving    sheet    piles    850 

electric   conduit   work    774 

hand  excavation,   117,   221,   767,  769 
771,    772,    773,   776 

in    quicksand    877 

in    successive    steps    760 

hydraulic   excavation    .  .  .  .845,  880 
method     of     supporting     small 

shovels     793 

Moore    machine     819 

muck  soil    858 

orange   peel   bucket   in    quick- 
sand                      .  870 


INDEX 


1345 


Trenching 

overhead   conveyors    807,  820 

Parsons   excavator    824,  845 

P    &  H.  machine 820,  828 

Potter   machine,    813,    815,    816,  817 

pumping    8C2,  86i 

quicksand    865,    868 

rapid   work   with  small   steam 

shovel     804 

revolving  shovel 793 

scientific  management  of   ....  100 
sheeting,  see  also  under  sheet- 
ing   846 

cost  of  Wakefield  piling.  .  .  853 

under  steam  shovel 791 

specifications   for    886 

steam   shovel,   hints   on 790 

work    on    curved   trenches.  .  805 

work  with,  786,  795,  796,  797,  800 
804,  886 

tile  drains 775,  863 

unwatering  by  "bleeding"  865,  872 

with  special  machines    807 

with    three    types    of    buckets 

and  locomotive  crane    565 

Trestle      filling,       hydraulicking 

material    on    railway 1051 

ladder   dredge  used  for.  ...  708 
method    of    filling    a    75-foot 

trestle 1139 

steam  shovel  work  on 477 

Trestles,   carpenter  work  on ...  1105 

dumping    1102,   1103,  1104 

floating,    for   constructing  em- 
bankment      1123 

movable 1105 

temporary    1102 

wire  rope    1106 

Trimming 154 

and  dressing  frozen  ground..  155 

and  seeding  slopes 156 

cost  on  railway  grading   ....  266 

cuts  and  embankments    40 

hand  work  on  athletic  field .  .  152 

machine  for  slopes 1178 

river  banks  with  water  jet.  .  .  1036 

slopes  of  oil   storage  reservoir  1175 

slopes  of  irrigation   canals.  .  .  907 

subgrade      156 

Troughs,    canvas,    for    carrying 

sewer  in  trench    831 

Trucks  handling  excavation   .  .  .  209 
Trunnion  buckets  on  foundation 

excavation     560 

Tugs,  used  with  dredges  .  .  .747,  759 

Tunnel,  cost  of  in  gravel 1077 

driven  to  stop  slide 1285,  1292 

handling  stickey  clay  in 107 

relieving     pressure     on     with 

power   scraper    622 

Turntable,    for    dumping    motor 

trucks    212 

Types   of   contractors'    cars    ....  335 

light  locomotives 352 

roots    86 

steam  shovels    387 

tractors    .                                       .  215 


Types   of 

wagons    179 

wheelbarrows 165 


U 


Undercutting  frozen  ground.  .  .  139 
Unloader,    plow,    cables,    method 

of    handling    375 

Unloaders,    car    372 

Unloading,  cars  by  sluicing.  ...  384 

in  small  space 382 

machine,  Lloyd 378 

Panama  Canal    374 

Unwatering  trench  in  wet  sand  785 


Vacuum  pump,  delivering 

dredged  materials  682 

Vertical  and  bank  spuds,  com- 
pared    672 

Vertical  bank,  greatest  height 

of 8 

Voids  in  dry  earth    6 


W 


Wachusett    dam,     shrinkage    of 

embankment    16 

Wacke ,  4 

Wagon,  bottom  dump 180 

center    dump     182 

end  dump    180 

gravel  screen  for  use  with.  .  .  192 

high  cost  of  work  with 205 

loader,  see  chap.  8 230 

for   use  on   cars    192 

used   with  wheel  scrapers..  283 

power  scraper  type  of 619 

loading  trailer    ,. 245 

sling      for      handling    "wagon 

bodies    184 

special    backfilling    802 

special    dump     181 

train      haulage      with      motor 

trucks    210 

work    184,  187,  197,  198 

Wagons,    building    dike    199 

dump    boxes    handled    by    der- 
ricks     " 182 

dumped  with  derricks    195 

grading     railway    in    freezing 

weather 207 

roadway  for    189 

rule  for  finding  cost  with    ...  186 

snatch  teams  used  with 188 

table  of  cost  of  hauling    ....  228 
trap     for     loading     by     drag 

scrapers .  .  " 197 

types   of    179 

Wakefield  sheet  piling 853 

Walking    dredge    922 

traction      for     dragline     exca- 
vator        633 

Wash  borings,   46,   48,    50,   51,    52,  55 
56,    58,   59. 


1346 


INDEX 


Wash  Borings 

conclusions   from   experience 

at  Ashokan  reservoir   ....       63 
instructions     for     inspectors 

on  Catskill  aqueduct    ....       61 
Water  and  fuel  consumption  of 

locomotives    354 

carrying  capacity   of    1005 

main    and   conduit  trenches..     773 
Watering,   see   also  sprinkling 

cost  at  Belle  Fourche  dam .  .  .     487 
Wave   fence  for  dam   protection  1163 

Waterloo  backfiller    893 

Weeds,  elimination  of  in  irriga- 
tion canals    978 

Weeks  two  line  bucket 641 

Weight  of  earth,  effect  of  depth 

on    5 

under  various  conditions  in 

Tabeaud    dam    1169 

of  soils    4 

Westover     Terraces,      hydraulic 

grading   of    1075 

Wet       foundation       excavation, 

specification    of    35 

Wet  material,   see  also  soft  ma- 
terial 

ditching  with  dynamite.  .131,    132 
loosening        and        shoveling 

stickey    clay    107 

Widening    embankments    by    va- 

r.ious  methods 1123 

railway    cuts     389 

wheels  of  elevating  grader .  .  .     234 
Wiring,    method    of    connecting 

blast  holes  in  ditching 135 

Wheelbarrows,    capacity   of    ...     169 

compared  to  carts 170 

cost  with    168 

end  dumping 167 


Wheelbarrows 

grading    railway    1143 

loading   into   cars    Ifi9 

rule  for  finding  cost  with .  .     169 
station     work     on     railway 

grading    173 

types    of     165 

work   with    116,     170 

W'heel  excavators 909,    910 

scrapers,        canal       excavation 

with    282 

cost    analyzed    300 

costs,  compared  to  costs  with 

cars   .  . .  .     347 

compared  to  costs  with  drag 

scrapers    295 

curves    showing    costs    with .  .     302 
foundation  excavation  with.  .  .     308 

grading  highway 291 

grading,    railway,    281,    284,    286, 
288,    291,   297,    305 

hints  on  handling 277 

loading    wagons    through    a 

trap     283 

reservoir    embankment    built 

with     280 

work       with       in       freezing 

weather 289 

Wheeled    planer    for    smoothing 

land 163 

Wood     and    steel    sheeting    for 

trenches     848 

Work  of  teams 187 

World's    dredging    record,    Pan- 
ama Canal    .     704 


Y 
Yale  Bowl,  embankment  for ...  1217 


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